Behavioral ADL

Science
100
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Chapter 1 : UNDERSTANDING SELF

"There is only one corner of the universe you can be certain of improving and that's
your own self".

The core of human development is self. The personal effectiveness starts from within. Self
in the power house which facilitates overall development of an individual. It helps you to
know your hidden potentialities which is the true source of energy and motivation. Self-
confidence, self-motivation, positive attitude, taking initiative, perseverance, meaningful
relationships, impact making and belief system are crucial ingredients for achieving
success.

Self is the core of core competencies. Competency means knowledge, skills and
attitude. Being competent means you keep on updating your knowledge, skill and attitude.
This upgradation and enhancement to the greatest extent is only possible if you know your
real self. Self integrates our Thoughts -T, Emotions -E and Actions -A, which is also known
as TEA system of a personality. To know our real self one has to understand, analyze and
evaluate our TEA system. This system emphasizes that people can not change their ways
of acting unless they first change their thinking and feelings about the target behaviours.

The concept of our 'self' underlines the way in which we communicate, through behaviour
with other people. If for example we feel shy, lack of confidence and see ourselves as
fragile and powerless, we are likely to communicate this to others in the way we behave.
Or conversely, we will try to cover up our feelings about ourselves and 'put on a front' of
being macho and aggressive. If we are, by nature, a highly introverted person we learn to
compensate for this in order to cope with our shyness and one finds people whose
behaviour seems 'over the top' who are actually very shy people, whereas they appear to
be very gregarious and extrovert. The understanding of the self enables awareness and
deeper self-acceptance. Our sense of self is lost in all kinds of different things. The
solution is to still the mind, to get in touch with yourself in order to able to be a silent
witness to one's thoughts, attitude, emotions and behaviour.

There are two people within us as real me and role me. That is we all have a 'real self'
somewhere inside. With some people it is locked away and only their nearest and dearest
know that 'self' sometimes not even then other people reveal their 'real self' more readily to
others. The 'role me' self is the person we communicate to the world through our
behaviour. We all have one, but with some people it is a thicker crust than others. At work,
it is likely that people present their role me rather than real me, and as managers it is
important to remember that sometimes we receive communication through behaviour from
the people with whom we work which we find difficult to cope with, but we need to think
why the people are behaving in such a away and what is the real meaning behind their
behaviour?

The behaviour we display to others. Our overt behaviour, be it verbal or non-verbal

conscious or unconscious, is like the tip of an iceberg. It communicates what they cannot
see of us-our covert self, that which is below the tip of the iceberg. Remember that the
largest part of the iceberg is below the surface and can not be seen in our thoughts,
feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values and so on. A successful career may depend more on
how you feel about yourself than your talents. The concept you have of yourself will
also influence your relationship with others. For example, you might see yourself as a
warm, friendly person, yet your staff might see you as loud offensive bore!

To be effective in your personal and professional life you need first to have a realistic
perception of yourself .

NEGATIVE SELF-CONCEPT

If people see themselves as failures and have a negative, pessimistic image of

themselves, they will begin to act the part. Negative feelings feed on themselves and
become a downward spiral, gradually encompassing all the person's thoughts, actions and
relationships. People with negative self-concepts tend to complain constantly and find it
difficult to accept criticism.

POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPT

People who believe in themselves and are confident about their ability to deal with
problems, make decisions and feel equal to others have respect for themselves and
expect it from others. These are people who are realistic in their assessment of
themselves and can admit to a wide range of feelings, behaviours and needs.

Of course, few people have entirely negative or positive self-concepts, but how we see
ourselves does have a bearing on our different roles. So, if the behaviour we use is based
on the concept we have of ourselves, then how we form our self concept? It is formed
through self-awareness and self-acceptance.

IMPORTANCE OF SELF AWARENESS IN BUILDING THE SELF CONCEPT.

Self-Awareness

"You will seek me & find me,

 when you search for me with all your heart."
Jeremaih

Self-awareness is the first and primary step in self-development, a precursor to self-

development. The more you are aware of yourselves, the more is the scope for self-
development. Developing accurate self-awareness of self and reality through honest,
integrated thinking is the prime responsibility for all human beings. Such awareness is a
necessity in both our personal and working lives and is available only to those who exert
constant, rational thinking efforts towards understanding self and reality- and the
relationship between the two. No one can deliver that understanding to another. But by
reflecting personal values, one can enhance person's self-awareness. To know oneself
better we should ask the following questions:

Who am I?
Aspects of one's life which seem very simple yet are very powerful, like knowledge,
skills, health, family and social commitments, responsibilities, opportunities,
interests, hobbies, likes and dislikes.

Where have I come from?

A thorough knowledge of one's background helps us to understand our past. These
factors could be- family, geographical location, and ancestry.

Knowing the formative influences and identifying the accompanying attitudes and
beliefs may help us to discover the real us. Formative influences can have an
empowering or a crippling effect on future life.

Where am I going?
This relates to one's dreams and ambitions, choice of career and vocation.

What is stopping me?

This involves knowing the barriers to one's progress/ development. One needs to be
aware of these blocks so that one can choose a way to deal with them. Some of
these blocks/ barriers are poor problem solving. Skills, lack of motivation, fear,
attitude to be a perfectionist, lack of confidence, resources, opportunities, clarity of
goals, a negative self-concept. If one is aware of such barriers one can try to
overcome them with perseverance and diligence.

How will I get there?

This question relates to planning in order to reach/ achieve one's goals. One might
take a decision which may change one's life but if you do not plan it properly it may
never materialize. Planning for success involves aspects like- discipline, clear cut
 goals, time management, realizing and working towards development of effective
work values and ethics, and getting proper career guidance.

What help do I need?

This involves resources to be made available to achieve success in one's
endeavors- like finances, time, support system, access to the required material
resources and authorities.

What will it be like when I get there?

One must be able to visualize one's ambitions i.e., what will it be like when one gets
what one wanted. Repeating such images will strengthen one's capacity to resolve
problems and initiate your commitment towards the goal.

Developing an accurate understanding of self and reality is a crucial self- responsibility for
personal power. Having a high level of self-awareness is about shedding personal
delusions and/ or limiting beliefs; requiring anticipation based on experience. It is about
overcoming fears and having a powerful sense of purpose. The key to self-awareness is
getting to grips with a more realistic view of ourselves.

ACTIVITY

Try thinking about the following questions:

What do you think about life?

Is the world friendly, unfriendly, threatening, exciting or what is it? The way you
answer this question will depend on whether you have a positive or negative concept
of yourself.

What would you want other people to think about you?

Do you see yourself as a 'born manager' or a 'successful person' and wish to see
that image confirmed others? You will try to live up to that 'label'.

What do you think about others?

We tend to view others in comparison with our values and 'labels'. For example, if we
set store by good time keeping ourselves, we will probably also expect it from others.

How do you interpret messages?

Do you accept messages which confirm your self-image but reject those that don't by
misinterpreting, distorting or ignoring them? Remember that we are likely to see
people around us in terms of how they respond to our image of ourselves.
Any individual or an institute/ organization which has survived through the years and has
grown to the world status is the one that had a clear ethical sense of who and what they
are and where they want to be. And this can be only achieved through better self
awareness.

Success is not determined by how we are doing compared with others, but how we are
doing compared with what we are capable of doing. Self aware individuals compete with
oneself, they better their own records and keep moving constantly for personal and
professional growth.

Self-awareness also means that there is little chance of the individual joining a team where
he/ she could not be his/ her own self. It is possible to be considerate of others and at the
same time not influenced by peer group pressure. The most attractive teams are those
that encourage individuals to be his/ her own self and the part of the team (Scott
Arbuthnot, 1998).

SELF-ACCEPTANCE

Having become aware of who you really are, rather than the person you would wish to be,
the next step on the self-concept journey is to accept yourself. This does not mean being
smug, complacent, and uncritical. But it does mean building on the qualities you are
satisfied with and working to change or improve the ones you are not happy with. It is not
easy, particularly when you are constantly being evaluated by others- parents, children,
partners, colleagues at work and so on. You have to accept and be responsible for your
TEA system i.e., thoughts, emotions and actions.

Once you become aware of yourself and start introspecting and have courage to accept
your 'self' the way you are, that is the high point which gives you the insight of self-
actualization. The term 'self-actualization' was used by Maslow in his motivation theory.
We can also use the term 'Self-realization' which helps us to realize your inner
potentialities. This step on the self-concept route involves growth and development
motivated from within you. It is a willingness to pursue your 'ideal self' on your own, to
grow and to change because you think it is important.

This is where you take steps to make things happen for you. You know your potential and
you actively pursue it. You know what you want to do, what is right for you and
consequently you set and maintain personal standards and are open to new experiences.

Having become aware of who you really are (as you are now, and as you see your 'ideal
self' ), having accepted that person as a perfectly good and capable human being, and
having decided on how you are going to work towards '"actualizing" or developing your
"ideal self", you are now a confident individual. The final stage towards a mature self-
concept is how you are going to reveal your 'self' and this is where importance of self-
awareness comes again. You need to know yourself well before you can disclose or reveal
anything to other about your 'real self'. Before revealing your strength, weakness,
advantages and disadvantages of your personality, it is essential to be aware of yourself
so that you can plan and achieve a realistic goal as per your own strengths and
weaknesses.

Most of us are not aware of our hidden talents. Albert Einstein once said that only one-
tenth of his brain was utilized. If a world famous scientist like Einstein used only 10 percent
of his talents, then we need to question, as to how much of our talents are hidden and
need to be explored. The tragedy is that we are not even aware that major portion of are
talents are hidden. Therefore to create this awareness we need to first and foremost
understand our SELF.
Chapter 2 : SELF ESTEEM

"The essence of Self-esteem is compassion for your self"

Mathew
Mc Kay

All over the world today there is an awakening to the importance of delf-esteem. We recognize that just as human being cannot
hope to realize his or her potential without self esteem, neither can a society whose members do not value themselves can
flourish and grow.

Self-esteem is a way of thinking, feeling, and acting that implies that you accept, respect, trust, and believe in yourself.

When you accept yourself, you can live comfortably with both your personal strengths and weaknesses without undue
self-criticism.
When you respect yourself, you acknowledge your own dignity and value as a unique human being. You treat yourself
well in much the same way you would treat someone else you respect.
Self -trust means that your behaviours and feelings are consistent enough to give you an inner sense of continuity and
coherence despite changes and challenges in your external circumstances.
To believe in yourself means that you feel you deserve to have the good things in life. It also means that you have
confidence that you can fulfill your deepest personal needs, aspirations, and goals.

To get a sense about your own level of self-esteem, think of someone (or imagine what it would be like to know someone) whom
you fully accept, respect, trust, and believe in. Now ask yourself to what extent you hold these attitudes torward yourself. Where
would you place yourself on the following scale:

Very Low Very High

Self-Esteem_________________________________________________________Self-Esteem

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A fundamental truth about self-esteem is that it needs to come from within. When self-esteem is low, the deficiency creates a
feeling of emptiness which you may try to fill by latching on-often compulsively- to something external that provides a temporary
sense of satisfaction and fulfillment. When the quest to fill your inner emptiness by appropriating something from outside becomes
desperate, repetitive, or automatic, you have what is called an addiction. Broadly defined, addiction is an attachment to something
or someone outside yourself that you feel you need to provide a sense of inner satisfaction or relief. Frequently this attachment
substitutes preoccupation with a substance or activity for healthy human relationships. It may also substitute a temporary feeling of
control or power for a more lasting sense of inner confidence and strength.

A healthy alternative to addiction is to work on building your self-esteem. Growing in self-esteem means developing confidence
and strength from within. While still enjoying life fully, you no longer need to appropriate or identify with something or someone
outside yourself to feel O.K. The basis for your self- worth is internal. As such, it is much more lasting and stable.
While we sometimes speak of self-esteem as a conviction about oneself, it is more accurate to speak of disposition to experience
oneself a particular way.

To Recapitulate

1. As fundamentally competent to cope with the challenges of life; thus, trust in one's mind and its processes; self-efficacy.

2. A worthy of success and happiness; thus, the perception of oneself as someone to whose achievement, success, respect,
friendship and love, are appropriate; self-respect.

3. Self esteem means accepting, respecting, loving and trusting one-self.

Self-esteem means truly loving valuing yourself. This is quite different from being an obnoxious, overblown egomaniac. Self-
esteem means you have accepted yourself as you are but continue to work on improving yourself. While that process is taking
place, you have a healthy appreciation for yourself - your best qualities and your finest achievements.

To determine whether your self-esteem is healthy and in good working order, consider the following :

1. Do you accept yourself for what you are?

This includes your looks and feelings, your strengths and weaknesses.

2. Do you accept credit for what you do?

When people ask, "What do you do?" Do you sound apologetic or unworthy?

3. Do you take time out to recognize your hard work?

Or do you still feel you don't quite measure up? If you live only to meet others' expectations, you'll never meet your own.

4. Can you turn setbacks into victories?

Successful people see problems as opportunities. Look at what you learned from your latest setback. Perhaps you now know how
to better manage your- self coworkers; perhaps you understand a technical function of your job you never knew before.

SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-RESPECT

Self-esteem has two interrelated aspects:

1. A sense of personal efficacy (self-efficacy).

2. A sense of personal worth (self-respect).

As a fully realized psychological experience, it is the integrated sum of these two aspects.

Self-efficacy means confidence in the functioning of our mind, in our ability to think, in the processes by which you judge, choose,
decide; confidence in your ability to understand the facts of reality that fall within the sphere of your interests and needs; cognitive
self-trust; cognitive self-reliance.

Self-respect means assurance of your value; an affirmative attitude toward your right to live and to be happy; comfort in
appropriately asserting your thoughts, wants, and needs; the feeling that job is your natural birth-right.

Consider that if an individual felt inadequate to face the challenges of life, if an individual lacked fundamental self-trust, confidence
in his or her mind, we would recognize the presence of a self-esteemed deficiency, no matter what other assets he or she
possessed. Or if an individual lacked a basic sense of self-respect of others, un-entitled to happiness, fearful of asserting
thoughts, wants, or needs-again we would recognize a self-esteem deficiency, no matter what other positive attributes he or she
exhibited.

THE DUAL PILLARS OF SELF-ESTEEM

Self-efficacy and Self-respect are the dual pillars of healthy self-esteem. Lacking either one, self-esteem is impaired. They are
the defining characteristics of term because of their fundamentality. They represent not derivative or secondary meanings of self-
esteem but its essence.

The experience of self-efficacy generates the sense of control over one's life that we associate with psychological well-being the
sense of being at the vital center of one's existence as contrasted with being a passive spectator and victim of events.

The experience of self-respect makes possible a benevolent, non-neurotic sense of community with other individuals, the
fellowship of independence and mutual regard as contracted with either alienated estrangement from the human race, on the one
hand, or mindless submergence into the tribe, on the other.

With a given person, there will be inevitable fluctuations in self-esteem levels, much as there are fluctuations in all psychological
states. We need to think in terms of a person's average level of self-esteem.

BUILDING POSITIVE SELF-ESTEEM

a) Value Yourself

Learn to make most of your immediate situation by learning to value your- self as you are at this moment. Avoid perfectionism.
Instead, strive to improve. As part of this process, become aware of your nonverbal communication, for example, the way you
stand or the level of energy you project.

Excessive concerns about aspects of your personal and professional lives that result in perfectionism- being intolerant of one's
own and other's mistakes can mean your self-image is dependent on other's opinions of you rather than being grounded within.

b) When Your Worst Enemy Is You

If you think your self-image could use some improvement, realize that you're not alone. We're constantly bombarded by messages
from the media, as well as from real life, telling us it's easy to be richer, thinner, younger, more successful, more socially accepted,
etc. As a result, some of us are convinced that others will find us fascinating if we use expensive moisturizers, drive certain cars,
wear the right clothes or perfume, or workout at celebrity- packed health clubs.

When our criticism turns inward for whatever reason, we pronounce harsh judgements on ourselves and engage in self defeating,
often self-fulfilling behaviours. If we're lucky, our friends may offer us some perspective with the following advice:

"You know, you're your own worst enemy".

"You're harder on yourself than you are on others".
"You expect too much from yourself. Learn to take one day at a time".

If everyone is telling you to give yourself a break, do it ! For two or three days, ignore that inner voice that says you're a bad
housekeeper, an indifferent parent, an uncaring spouse. Don't be surprised if you feel guilty, scared, or sad. Changing your
behaviour can feel threatening, especially at first.

c) Why Goal Setting Builds Self-Esteem

Perhaps the trickiest part of getting what we want out of life is deciding what it is we want. One major misconception goal setting is
that you must know exactly what you want before you set goals. Actually, one of the best ways to clarify what you want is to set
goals. While achieving them, you can constantly re-evaluate whether or not your choosen path is the one you want to pursue.

When it works properly, goal setting raises your self-esteem, because it :

Challenges you to overcome patterns of failure or limitation.

Allows you to be more tolerant of failure in other areas of your daily life.
Gives you the confidence to set increasingly adventure some goals, to explore areas you've neglected
Makes you see life as part of a process. That is, achieving a goal won't make your life perfect, but it will improve it.
Allows you to get on with your personal development. Achieving a goal can bring new awareness of what you ultimately
want.

d) Giving up the Past

Remember how great it felt last spring when you finally got around to cleaning out your closures? You were amazed at the clothes
you hauled out of the dark recesses. Some you had outgrown, some were hopelessly out of style, some you had been hanging on
to for sentimental reasons. Then you had the garage sale and nearly all the stuff sold. The rest you trucked down to the nearest
Goodwill store.

e) Clearing Old Beliefs

Goal-setting is a form of starting over, but it requires a kind of spring cleaning before you begin. It's called clearing. For the
clearing process to work on a certain belief, you must learn to do two rather dissimilar things simultaneously:

1. Accept yourself compassionately for having this belief.

2. See clearly that you're ready to let go of it, because it's limiting, self- destructive, and untrue.

For instance, as individual might have been raised by an alcoholic parent. As a child, he learned that displaying his true emotions
invited an unpleasant, even violent, response. Now that he is an adult, it's still difficult for him to open up to others-particularly to
partners. Most likely, as a result, him storing a lot of anger, grief, and resentment against the parent whose love he so badly
needed and never received.

f) Letting go of Past Criticisms

Take a deep breath and see if the area around your heart seems constricted. The heart represents the center of love and security
for many. Therefore, when love and security are denied in some way, the loss is stored around the heart.

Or perhaps you stored your fear of criticism in your stomach. If so, you might have chronic digestive problems, such as colitis,
ulcers, and abdominal crams.

Repeat these affirmations, or revise them to fit your needs:

"I love and approve of myself. I create my own way."

"I choose to be a winner in life".
 "I trust the process of life. I am safe."

g) Offering Forgiveness

Nothing keeps us so totally wrapped up in past problems as unexpressed feelings of anger, resentment, and desire for revenge.
Forgiveness allows us to get on with our lives.

Forgiveness should be forgotten, along with the wrong that is forgiven. Forgiveness that is remembered and dwelt upon re-infects.
Thus, forgiveness that is partial, or half-hearted, works no better than a partially completed surgical operation Instead, it ought to
be like a canceled check, torn in two and burned up so that it never can be held again and again.

h) Achieving Freedom From the Four Killers of Self-Esteem

All our experiences, from early childhood till date, which have caused us to feel guilt, fear, resentment and critical towards
ourselves destroys our self-esteem. We need to free our SELF, from these dangerous enemies of Self- esteem because it often
promotes less self-worth.

Ten Attitudes for building Self-Esteem:

There are many steps we can take to build our self-esteem. The 10 attitude basics that can help are as follows:

1. Be your own best friend:

Encourage and love yourself. Don't except yourself to be perfect. Give yourself a break !

2. Take time to enjoy your life:

Choose something that you enjoy and schedule it into your life, just as you would schedule an important doctor's
appointment. Make it apriority.

3. Let go of the past:

Let go of the hurt, the anger, the dis-illusionments, and the guilt. If they creep back into your life, let go of them again and
again.

4. Set goals for your life:

On a regular basis, review your short and long-term goals. Don't be afraid to reach high.

5. Talk positively to yourself:

Use affirmations to give your subconscious a powerful positive message. Harness the energy that lies within you to move
you toward your chosen goal.

6. Visualize your successful behaviour:

In every aspect of your life, visualize yourself achieving your goal. Experience the emotions and enjoyment of
accomplishing what you have set out to do. Become what you think.

7. Make choices for your life:

You are free to change, free to grow, free to choose how you will live the rest of your life.

8. Network with others:

Learn to rely on others for information, support, and role behaviours. You don't have to do it alone.

9. Write your own family script:

Decide role that you wish to play in your family movie. Follow the script that you have written rather than the script that
 has been written for you by the expectations and decisions of others.

10. Accept yourself as you are:

Love yourself- physically, mentally, and emotionally - as you would love a dear friend. Gently encourage this friend to
grow, not by criticizing, but by loving acceptance.

So what have you got to lose? Make that investment in yourself. It's one investment you'll never regret.
Behavioural Science

Chapter 3 : ATTITUDE

" To gain control of your life you must learn to gain control over your
attitude".
WHAT IS ATTITUDE?
Attitudes constitute an important psychological attribute of individuals which
shape their behaviour. Schemerhorn, et. al, have defined attitude as a
"predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or
something in one's environment".
An attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about something, a
person, a place, a commodity, a situation or an idea. It expresses an
individual's positive or negative feelings about some object. It describes an
individual's feelings, thoughts and predisposition to act towards some object
in the environment.

An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some

object in a favourable or an unfavourable manner.

The most pervasive phenomenon is "attitude" people at work place

have attitudes about lots of topics that are related to them. These
attitudes are firmly embedded in a complex psychological structure of
beliefs and other attitudes and values.

Attitudes are different from values. Values are the ideals- abstract
ideals, positive or negative, not tied to any specific object or situation
that represents our beliefs about ideal conduct. Whereas, attitudes are
narrower, they are our feelings, thoughts and behavioural tendencies
toward a specific subject or situation.
 Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts.
Attitudes are evaluative statements- either favourable or unfavourable,
concerning the objects, people or events.
Attitudes may be regarded as varying in several ways:
o Direction - for or against something.
o Degree - favourableness. To be neutral in attitude is to be
indifferent to the object.
o Intensity - degree of confidence.

Attitude may also vary in the degree in which attitude is common to a

number of people or unique to a particular individual.

An attitude may be unconsciously held. Most of our attitudes may be those

about which we are not clearly aware. Prejudice furnishes a good example.
A person can simultaneously hold inconsistent attitudes towards the same
object or at least towards aspects which are not clearly discriminated from
one another.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes can be distinguished in terms of (characterized by) their valence,

multiplexity, relation to needs, and centrality.
Valence
It refers to the magnitude or degree of favourableness or unfavourableness
toward the object/ event. While measuring the attitudes we are basically
concerned with the valence. If a person is relatively indifferent toward an
object then this attitude has low valence. On the other hand, if a person is
extremely favourable or unfavourable toward an attitude object, then his
attitude will have high valence.
Multiplexity
It refers to the number of elements constituting the attitude. For example,
one student may show interest in studies, but another shows interest in extra
curricular activities and works hard, sincerely, and seriously. Similarly, an
employee may feel simply loyal to an organization, but another may feel
loyal, respectful, fearful and dependent.
Relation to needs

Attitudes can also vary in relation to the needs they serve. For instance,
attitudes of an individual towards the picture may serve only entertainment
needs. On the other hand, attitudes of an individual toward task may serve
strong needs for security, achievement, recognition, and satisfaction.
Centrality

One salient characteristic of the attitude refers to the importance of the

object to the individual. The centrality indicates the importance of the object.
The attitudes which have high centrality for an individual will be less
susceptible to change.
COMPONENTS OF AN ATTITUDE

The structure of a person's attitude comprises of three vital components-

affective, cognitive and overt.

Affective Component: The affective or feeling component refers to the

emotions associated with an attitude object. It basically consists of the
"feeling" a person has toward an attitude object. According to McGinnies, "it
is an emotional component that develops as a conditioned response by
association with stimuli that have either punishing or rewarding effects". This
component is concerned with the evaluation and emotion and is often
expressed as like or dislike, good or bad, pleasing of displeasing, favourable
or unfavourable. The expression of warmth, love, hate and other emotional
expressions are also belonging to the affective component. It is this affective
feature that is most commonly associated with the idea of attitude.

Cognitive Component: Cognitive component represents the beliefs of a

person about an attitude object. The beliefs may be based on a variety of
learning experiences, rumors, misunderstandings, or any other information.
You may believe that the manager is intelligent or stupid, ethical or unethical,
good or bad, or autocrat or democrat. Therefore, cognitive component is very
important and consists of the individual, perceptions, beliefs, and ideas about
an object. According to Krech, Crutchield, Ballachery the most critical
cognitions incorporated into the system of attitudes are the "evaluating
beliefs" that take account of good/ bad, desirable/ undesirable, favourable/
unfavourable qualities referred to as "option".

It is important to note that there may be incongruency between the affective

and cognitive components. The affective component (feeling) may be
positive and the cognitive component (beliefs) may be negative. For
instance, you may have a positive feeling toward a person but still believe
that he has negative characteristics.

The Overt Component: It is also known as "behavioural" component or

"cognitive" component. This overt component is concerned with the way one
intends to behave towards a particular attitude object. Both the affective and
cognitive components (feelings and beliefs) influence the way a person
intends to behave toward an attitude object. For instance, if a person has a
negative feeling or belief toward an object, he will be likely to behave
negatively toward the object. In other words, the behavioural component of
attitude consist of the tendency to act or react toward an attitude object in
certain specified ways.
Attitudes and Behaviour
The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is highly controversial. On
the one side, cognitive theorists believe that changes in attitudes affect the
behaviour of individuals. That is to say, to change behaviour of an individual
the attitudes he possess must be subject to change initially. In other words,
change in behaviour calls for a change in attitudes of individuals.
Attitudes and Beliefs

Belief reveals what one supposes to be true. It may be about anything. A

subordinate may believe his superior to be honest. But, in fact, the superior
may or may not be honest. The positive attitude, and the consequent liking,
may rather make the subordinate ignore all the bad qualities in the superior
and consider him honest.
Attitudes and Values

The values of a person reveal his ideas about what is good or bad, what is
right or wrong, or what is desirable or undesirable. They reflect a moral tone.
Workers should be honest to their work is statement of value. The honest
workers are good is an evaluative statement and reveals the attitude of the
person towards the honest workers. A person holds an honest worker to be
good because of his values that workers should be honest towards their
work.
FEATURES OF ATTITUDES
The important characteristics of attitudes are as follows:
(a) Attitudes Affect Behaviour: People have the natural tendency to
maintain consistency between two attitudes and behaviour. Attitudes can
lead to intended behaviour if there is no external intervention.

(b) Attitudes are Invisible: Attitudes constitute a psychological

phenomenon which can not be directly observed. However, we may observe
an attitude indirectly through observing its consequences. For example, if a
person is highly productive. We may infer that he has a positive attitude
towards his work.
(c) Attitudes are Acquired: Attitudes are gradually learnt over a period of
time. The process of learning attitudes starts right from childhood and
continues throughout the life of a person. However, in the beginning, the
family members have a greater impact on the attitude of a child. For example
if the family members have a positive attitude towards business and negative
similar attitudes towards these objects.

(d) Attitudes are Pervasive: Attitudes are formed in the process of

socialization and may relate to anything in the world. For example, a person
may have positive or negative attitude towards religion, politics, politicians,
countries and so on. At our place of work, we have attitudes towards work,
and so on. Thus, there is an endless list of attitudes objects.
ATTITUDES FORMATION

The question often arises "Where do attitudes come from?". Attitudes are
basically learned. People are not born with specific attitudes, rather
they acquire them through the” process of learning". Attitudes reflect a
person’s previous reinforcement history. The determinants of person's
attitudes are personal.
How to Understand Your Attitude
They've been with you since you were born, and they promise to be with you
wherever you go- at work, at home, at school, and even on the streets.
Some days, you're glad to have them around, but on other days, you may
wish , that they had stayed in bed! We all have them. Some are good, and
some are not so good. In fact, you've been around them so much, you can
probably easily detect them in others.
A Good Attitude Leads to Success
A recent study by Telemetrics International surveyed 16,000 people. This
study linked common characteristics and actions to successful people. One
of the most significant differences between high and low achievers was their
attitude.
Those defined as high achievers tended to:
Care about people, as well as the bottom line.
Respect the value of other people's abilities.
Seek advice from others.
Be good listeners.
Have a positive attitude about life in general.
You Control Your Attitude

There are so many things in life you have little or no control over, such as the
weather, the job marketer, and the economy. But there's one aspect of your
life that you do have the power to control, and that's your attitude. Each
and every moment of every day, you decide what your attitude will be about
yourself, your job, your customers, your family and friends, change,
responsibility, and so on.

Certainly there are other factors that influence your attitude, such as your
past experiences and the experiences of those around you. But no one can
make you feel anything without your permission. You hold the remote control
to the channels of energy that create both your attitude and your results in
life.

So, to gain control of your life, you must learn to gain control over your
attitude. Having a positive attitude can bring about positive results at home
and at work- results that will bring you happiness and success.
Attitudes Fuels Thoughts, Feeling & Actions

An attitude is the energy that fuels your thoughts, feelings, and actions
based on the difference between your expectations and your perception (our
definition of reality) of that situation. To better understand your attitudes, let's
break apart the major components that make up an attitude.
Expectations
In any given situation, you have consciously or unconsciously formulated a
set of expectations, or desired results, for yourself, for other people, and for
situations. Sometimes referred to as your standards, these expectations
determine your level of satisfaction. The higher your expectations, the more
challenging it will be to feel satisfied with any given situation.
Perception

Your five senses and past experiences create your perception, or

interpretation, of a current situation. Based on what you see, hear, smell,
touch, and taste, you develop your definition of what happened. Your
perception mayor may not be an acute account of what actually happened;
however, perception is what you use to formulate your thoughts and feelings
about the situation.
Thoughts

Your thoughts define your state of mind. Happy people are most likely
thinking happy thoughts. Conversely sad or angry people are probably
having negative thoughts.

Thoughts spark the formation of an attitude. Once the mind is stimulated,

you consciously or unconsciously think about the situation. While they're in
progress, thoughts sound like, "I think...". Thoughts- like feelings and
attitudes- may be expressed out loud or silently to yourself.
Feelings

Your feelings keep your thoughts alive. It's virtually impossible to have an
attitude without thoughts or feelings. Feelings encourage more thoughts and
keep the mind active. While they're in progress, feelings sound like, "I
feel....".
Energy
The amount of energy you exert in a relationship or a situation depends upon
how important the issue is to you. The greater the importance, the more
energy you'll use to display your attitude through words, tone of voice, facial
expressions, body language, and behaviour. Like attitudes themselves, this
energy can be positive, negative, or neutral in nature.
Action

An action is your physical response to a situation. Once again, you have the
choice of taking a positive, negative, or neutral approach to each situation.
Your action will be a reflection of your attitude. A positive action in progress
sounds like, "I can...." or "I will....". On the other hand, a negative action in
progress sounds like, "I can't...." or "I won't....". A neutral action in progress
sounds like, "I don't want to...." or "I don't care....".
ATTITUDE APPLICATION

The following situation uses the major components to further define how an
attitude is created and demonstrated.

Mr. and Mrs. Davis are celebrating their 15th wedding anniversary at their
favourite restaurant. After taking the first bite of his meal, Mr. Davis is very
disappointed. He calls the waiter to their table, pushes his plate of food
aside, and states in a firm and deliberate tone. "This food is cold and looks
like it's been sitting out all day. I refuse to touch it ! ".

Based on past experiences from eating at their favorite restaurant, Mr. Davis
had high-expectations that the food would look appealing and taste good.
However, after meeting this particular meal, his perception of the food was
just the opposite. He thought that the food tasted cold and looked stale. He
told that the quality of the meal was important to the celebration of the
occasion, so he exerted energy by requesting that the waiter come to their
table (action), and he communicated his attitudes.
1. Pushing aside his plate of food.
2. Talking in a firm and deliberate tone of voice.
3. Complaining about the food.
WHERE DO ATTITUDES COME FROM?

Child-behaviour specialists generally agree that we develop our attitudes in

our formative years- from birth to age seven. The good news is that we all
start out with a good attitude; the bad news is that we later learn how to sour
our attitudes.

Consider a baby- full of happiness, curiosity, and acceptance. Babies very

seldom reject people based on age, race, sex, color, or ethnic background.
They're like sponges- hungry to learn, grow, and experience the many facets
of life. Unconsciously, babies recognize that they need other people in order
to survive.

So, what happens? We become influenced by our environment. Significant

people around us- our parents, guardians, family members, teachers, and
friends- pass on their attitudes through their words and actions. Studies
show that by the time we are two years old, we observe more than 8,000
hours of life- the good, the bad, and the ugly- plus whatever is on TV.
The Past is History
Even though the attitudes we learned at an early age are the most difficult
ones to change, they aren’t etched in stone. We can unlearn them and
relearn new ones. Since we live in a world of constant change, we must
learn to embrace change and recognize that what worked yesterday may not
work tomorrow. And that goes for our attitudes too! Remember, you can
control your attitude and your life!
Three Types of People, Three Types of Attitudes
There are as many types of attitudes as people in our world. However, for
our understanding, we will simplify things a bit and focus on three broad
categories of people and their attitudes.
Spectator

Some people go through life watching it happen around them. They're called
the spectators of life. Their life experiences are limited because they "play it
safe" and avoid risk. They would much rather observe or support others than
risk failure or make a mistake. Spectators usually have a neutral attitude
about life.
Critics

Another group of people stays on the sidelines of life. We call them the
critics. They perceive themselves as experts in the game of life and pride
themselves on finding fault in others. They want their complaints to be heard
and understood. They often associate with fellow "critics" because they feel
comfortable in numbers. Critics usually have a negative attitude about life.
Players

The third type of people are the players in the game of life. They eagerly
await opportunities to learn something new and to grow, both personally and
professionally. They take risks and are not afraid to make mistakes. Players
usually have a positive attitude about life. People and their attitudes can be
temperamental. Just as no one is completely positive or negative all the time,
our attitudes can be situation-specific, lasting only temporarily. For instance,
a positive person is capable of demonstrating a negative attitude towards a
person or situation. Likewise, a negative person can demonstrate a positive
attitude from time to time.
A TYPICAL SITUATION
You're likely to find all three types of people on every "team", whether it's on
the job, at home, or in the community. Let's say you've just been put on a
project team at work to plan this year's company picnic. The "spectators" on
the team will attend every meeting but won't take an active part in the
discussion or volunteer to accept any responsibility. They may even attend
the meetings to get out of work.

"Critics" will spend most of their time complaining about last year's picnic and
criticizing the parameters of this year's event. In addition, they'll probably be
the first to shoot down other people's ideas for improving the picnic. And
finally, the "players" will engage themselves in the planning and execution of
the project. They'll follow through them, make sure good ideas get
implemented and tasks get completed. In other words, the players will, "take
the ball and run with it"!

Check Your Attitude

How would you describe your actions lately at home with your family? At work with co-workers and
customers? In your personal life? What kind of person have you been? How might the people
around you describe your attitude? Place a check mark under the personality type that best
describes your attitude in the following environments.

Spectator Critic Player

At home

At Work

In Life

Are you pleased with the results you've been getting at home, at work, and in your personal life?
You may need to make some adjustments to become a better "player" at home, at work or in life.

WHAT CAN YOU EXPECT FROM YOUR ATTITUDES?

As previously described, your thoughts and feelings create your attitude. And
your attitude determines your actions, which leads to the results you get in
life. Here are several examples of what the three types of attitudes may lead
to in your life.
Benefits of a Positive Attitude
Although it's not a guarantee, a positive attitude can help:
Get a better job or a promotion.
Successfully complete a project.
Achieve a personal or professional goal.
Satisfy and retain a customer.
Maintain the relationship of a friend, employee, or spouse.
Consequences of a Negative Attitude
It would be interesting to know how may times a negative attitude caused
someone to :

Be passed over for a promotion.

Loose his or her job.
Fail to achieve a personal or professional goal.
Loose a customer.
Ruin a relationship.
Consequences of a Neutral Attitude
The apathy expressed by someone with a neutral attitude many cause the
person to:

Miss out on an opportunity.

Fail to learn new skills, gain needed knowledge.
Become stagnant at a job or career.
Fail to develop new relationships.
Be excluded from an activity.
TYPES OF ATTITUDES
The "Players" with Positive Attitude
The following list describes some of the thoughts and feelings of a "Player"
with a positive attitude:
THOUGHTS
FEELINGS

There is something in every situation.

Happy
A problem is an opportunity to do something
different Confident
Change is a sign of
growth. Satisfied
A mistake is a valuable step toward success.
Optimistic
I have control over my
life. Loving
The "Critics" with Negative Attitudes

The following list describes some of the thoughts and feelings of a "critic"
with a negative attitude:
THOUGHTS
FEELINGS
There is always something wrong.
Anger
Other people cause problems.
Doubt
Change is a thorn in my
side. Frustration
A mistake is a failure.
Pessimism
 I have little or no control over my
life. Hate
The "Spectators" with Neutral Attitudes
The following list describes some of the thoughts and feelings of a
"spectator" with a neutral attitude:

THOUGHTS
FEELINGS
There situation or the other person is unimportant.
Unemotional
Someone else will solve the
problem. Tired
Change is
unnecessary. Content
The future will come and go with or without
me. Indifferent
I won't even try to control my
life. Detached
CONCLUSION
In the end we would like to conclude there are three types of attitudes:

Positive attitude (Player)

Negative attitude (Critic)
Neutral attitude (Spectator)

And we choose our attitude through our thoughts, feelings and actions.
These thoughts, feelings and actions lead to the results that we get in our
life.
Behavioural Science

Chapter 4 : EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

"Emotional awareness is the crucial step in developing effectiveness

generally as a person".
WHAT IS EMOTION?
In its most literal sense, the Oxford English dictionary defines emotions as
"any agitation or disturbance of mind, feeling, passion; any vehement or
excited mental state." The three terms-emotions, feelings and perception are
closely linked with each other.

Emotions: Strong feelings of any kind-love, joy, hate, fear and jealousy are
all emotions.

Feelings: Aware of experience, sensation, impression -"a feeling of hunger,

well being, discontent."

Perception: Ability to see, hear or understand, quality of understanding and

way of seeing things.
With perception and feelings there are hundreds of emotions, alongwith their
blends, variations, mutations, and nuances. Researchers continue to argue
over precisely which emotions can be considered primary - the blue, red, and
yellow of feeling from which all blends come - or even if there are primary
emotions at all.
The main categories are:
Anger: fury, outrage, resentment, wrath, animosity, annoyance,
 irritability and hostility.

Sadness: grief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, self-pity,

loneliness, dejection, and despair.

Fear: anxiety, apprehension, nervousness, concern, consternation,

misgiving, wariness, qualm, edginess, dread, fright, terror, phobia and
panic.

Enjoyment: happiness, joy, relief, contentment, bliss, delight,

amusement, pride, pleasure, thrill rapture, satisfaction, euphoria,
whimsy, and ecstasy.

Love: acceptance, friendliness, trust, kindness, affinity, devotion,

adoration, and infatuation.

Surprise: shock, astonishment, amazement, and wonder.

Disgust: contempt, disdain, scorn, abhorrence, aversion, distaste, and

revulsion.

Shame: guilt, embarrassment, chagrin, remorse, humiliation, and

regret.
All emotions are, in essence, impulses to act, the instant plans for handling
life that evolution has installed in us. The very root of the word emotion is
motere, the Latin verb "to move", plus the prefix “ e” to connote "move
away", suggesting that a tendency to act is implicit in every emotion. That
emotions lead to actions is most obvious in watching animals or children; it is
only in "civilized" adults we so often find the great anomaly in the animal
kingdom, emotions - root impulses to act - divorced from obvious reaction.
With anger blood flows to the hands, making it easier to grasp a
weapon or strike at a foe; heart rate increases, and a rush of hormones
such as adrenaline generates a pulse of energy strong enough for
 vigorous action.

With fear blood goes to the large skeletal muscles, such as in the legs,
making it easier to flee - and making the face blanch as blood is
shunted away from it (creating the felling that the blood "runs cold"). At
the same time, the body freezes, if only for a moment, perhaps allowing
time to gauge centers trigger a flood of hormones that put the body on
general alert, making it edgy and ready for action, and attention fixates
on the threat at hand, the better to evaluate what response to make.

Among the main biological changes in happiness is increased activity

in a brain center that inhibits negative feelings and fosters an increase
in available energy, and a quieting of those that generate worrisome
thought. But there is no particular shift in physiology save a quiescence,
which makes the body recover more quickly from the biological arousal
of upsetting emotions. This configuration offers the body a general rest,
as well as readiness and enthusiasm for whatever task is at hand and
for striving toward a great variety of goals and so on. There are different
physiological state for different emotions.

What do happiness, fear, anger, affection, shame, disgust, surprise, lust,

sadness, elation and love have in common? These are emotions which
directly affect your day to day life. For long, it has been believed that success
at the workplace depends on your level of intelligence or intelligence quotient
(IQ) as reflected in your academic achievements, exams passed, marks
obtained, etc. In other words, your intellectual credentials: doing well in
school, holding an engineering degree or even an advanced computer
degree, obtaining high scores on an IQ test. All these are instances of
intelligence of the academic variety. But how bright are you outside the
classroom, faced with life's difficult moments? Here, you need a different
kind of resourcefulness, termed as emotional intelligence (EI), which is a
different way of being smart.
You may have wondered many a time how seemingly ordinary people build
their way to success. Or, how a college drop-out like Bill Gates (of Microsoft
fame) managed to build such a vast empire for which he is envied by the
entire world. There are many others like him who have made the difference,
and this could be attributed to their EQ. For instance, Mother Teresa who
devote her life as a nun to social service with no resources of her own, could
successfully arouse world conscience to help the needy and the poor.
Similarly, people like T.N. Seshan and Kiran Bedi tried to be different from
their bureaucratic colleagues and succeeded. M.S. Oberoi rose from the
position of a clerk to build a vast empire of luxury hotels all over the world.
Have you ever paused to think how a low scoring classmate of yours
managed to move higher than you on the corporate ladder? Are you aware
that there are many people who could not complete their education and
dropped out, but went on to be extremely 'successful in business and in life?

Emotional Intelligence is what gives a person a competitive edge. Even in

certain renowned business establishments, where everyone is trained to be
smart, the most valued and productive managers are those who have strong
traits of emotional intelligence and are not necessarily those with the highest
IQ. Being endowed with great intellectual abilities, you may become a
brilliant fiscal analyst or a legal scholar, but a highly developed emotional
intelligence is what will make you a candidate for a CEO or a brilliant trial
lawyer. Emotional traits are factors that are most likely to ensure success in
your marriage or your love affair, or ensure that you attain dizzy heights in
your business. The lack of emotional intelligence explains why people who,
despite having a high IQ, have been such utter failures and disastrous in
their personal and professional lives. An analysis of the traits of persons high
on IQ but low on EQ yields the stereotyped of a person who is critical,
condescending, inhibited and uncomfortable with others. In contrast, persons
high on emotional intelligence are poised, outgoing, committed to other
people and worthy causes, sympathetic and caring, with a rich and fulfilling
emotional life; they are comfortable with themselves, others and the social
universe they inhabit. It is often said that a high IQ may assure you a top
position, but it may not make you a top person.
WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?
Emotional Intelligence is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability
to monitor one's own and others emotions to discriminate among them and
to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions. (Mayor &
Sarovey).

'Emotional Quotient' (or EQ) is used interchangeably with 'Emotional

Intelligence'. In simple terms, this can be defined as knowing what feels
good, what feels bad, and how to get from bad to good. A more formal
academic definition refers to emotional awareness and emotional
management skills which provide the ability to balance emotion and reason
so as to maximise long-term happiness. Components of Emotional
Intelligence are divided into intra-personal and interpersonal categories
Interpersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what
motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with them.
Successful salespeople, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious
leaders are all likely to be individuals with high degrees of interpersonal
intelligence.

Intra-personal Intelligence is a correlative ability, turned inward. It is a

capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to use
that model to operate effectively in life.
COMPONENTS OF INTRAPERSONAL CATEGORIES
A. Knowing One's Emotions

This is the ability to recognize feelings when they happen and not put off
feelings if they are inconvenient. It is important to be able to say 'I'm feeling
envy' even though it may be uncomfortable to admit it. It may not fit my view
of myself to be envious. And even when we can't put a practise label
immediately on an emotion, we need to know that we are in an emotional
state and can make allowances for our decisions and may act with a degree
of extra caution. For example if a person is angry, it is important that she can
learn to say to herself 'I'm angry' rather than suppressing it and taking a
painkiller for a headache that's mysteriously appeared.
Emotional Awareness

The recognition of how our emotions affect our performance, and the ability
to use our values to guide decision making

Know which emotions they are feeling and why.

Realize the links between their feelings and what they think, do and say.
Recognize how their feelings affect their performance.
Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals.
Accurate Self Assessment

A candid sense of our personal strengths and limits, a clear vision of where
we need to improve, and the ability to learn from experience
Aware of their strengths and weaknesses.
Reflective, learning from experience.
Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning and
self development.
Able to show a sense of humour and perspective about themselves.
Self Confidence
The courage that comes from certainty about our capabilities, values and
goals.
Present themselves with self assurance; have "presence"
Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is
right
Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and
pressures.
B. Motivating Oneself
The word emotional and the word motivation come from the same Latin root
movere, to move. It's no surprise, therefore, to find these two concepts
linked. Emotions motivate us but they can also dis-empower us if they are
too strong and we allow them to overwhelm us. If you want to get what you
decide you want out of life, you will have to develop some emotional self-
control. It may require your delaying gratification or stifling your
impulsiveness. You can develop ways of monitoring yourself which means
that you can put your immediate emotional needs to one side for a time,
confident in the knowledge that you will deal with them later. If you can do
this you may be able to get into the 'flow' state or zone which enables
outstanding performance.
Achievement Drive
Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence
Are result oriented, with a high drive to meet their objectives and
standards.
Set challenging goals and take calculated risks.
Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better.
Learn how to improve their performance.
Commitment
Embracing the organization's or group's vision and goals

Readily make sacrifices to meet a larger organizational goal.

Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission.
Use the group's core values in making decisions and clarifying choices.
Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group's mission.
Initiative and Optimism
Twin competencies that mobilize people to seize opportunities and allow
them to take setbacks and obstacles in stride.
Initiative
Are ready to seize opportunities.
Pursue goals beyond what's required or expected of them.
Cut through red tape and blend the rules when necessary to get the job
done.
Mobilize others through unusual, enterprising efforts.
Optimism

Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks

Operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure
See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a
personaI flaw
C. Managing Emotions
This relates to the ability to handle uncomfortable emotions once we've
accepted we're feeling them. A lot of this work is about developing an 'inner
mothering' mode and learning to soothe ourselves when things seem
difficult. A good manager knows when to push her team on to greater heights
and when to congratulate them on what they have achieved. For example,
when you are depressed, you manage it by not beating yourself up about it
but by switching to a caring mode. You might give yourself a hot bath, a
good book, a nice meal, or arrange a message or decide to give yourself the
pleasure of planning your next holiday. Whatever it takes to make you feel
you care and value yourself.
Self Control
Managing disruptive emotions and impulses effectively

Manage their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well.

Stay composed, positive and unflappable even in trying moments.
 Think clearly and stay focussed under pressure.
Trustworthiness
Displaying honesty and integrity
Act ethically and are above reproach.
Build trust through their reliability and authenticity.
Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others.
Take tough, principled stand even if they are unpopular.
Conscientiousness
Dependability and responsibility in fulfilling obligations

Meet commitments and keep promises.

Hold themselves accountable for meeting their objectives.
Are organized and careful in their work.
Adaptability
Flexibility in handling change and challenges

Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities and rapid change.

Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid circumstances.
Are flexible in how they see events.
Innovation
Being open to novel ideas, approaches and new information

Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources.

Entertain original solutions to problems.
Generate new ideas.
Take fresh perspective and risks in their thinking.
COMPONENTS OF INTERPERSONAL CATEGORIES :
A. Empathy - Recognizing Emotions in Others
As you begin to recognise emotions in yourself and realise your own
emotional weather system, so you will be able to sense them in others more
accurately. This means you can feel with someone rather than just feel
about them. It's different from sympathy and when people know that
someone is listening from heart is genuinely empathising with them, they
don't feel patronised.
Understanding Others

Sensing other's feelings and perspectives, and taking an active interest in

their concerns

Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well.

Show sensitivity and understand other's perspective.
Help out based on understanding other peoples' needs and feelings.
Service orientation
Anticipating, recognizing and meeting customers' needs

Understand customers' needs and match them to services or products.

Seek ways to increase customers satisfaction and loyalty.
Gladly offer appropriate assistance.
Grasp a customer's perspective, acting as a trusted advisor.
Developing Others
Sensing others' development needs and bolstering their abilities

Acknowledge and reward people's strengths and accomplishments.

Offer useful feedback and identify people's needs for further growth.
Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that challenge and
 foster a person's skills.
Leveraging Diversity
Cultivating opportunities through diverse people
Respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds.
Understand diverse world views and are sensitive to group differences.
See diversity as opportunity, creating an environment where diverse
people can thrive.
Challenge bias and intolerance.
Political Awareness
Reading the political and social currents in an organization

Accurately read key power relationships.

Detect crucial social networks.
Understand the forces that shape views and actions of clients,
customers or competitors.
Accurately read organizational and external realities.
B. Handling Relationships

Relationship which don't merely depend on power and predefined roles,

require emotional intelligence. Understanding other people's emotions gives
us the ability to motivate them, be effective leaders and to work in successful
teams. We can give and take and be spontaneous as the moment requires.
Our old rigidities, which were born of fear and anxiety, can dissolve into
acceptance of ourselves and others. In family life, emotional literacy is
paramount for raising happy and cohesive families. One-to-one relationships,
whatever their format, benefit too. Emotional intelligence gives us the ability
to have 'grace under fire' and to act with integrity and courage.
Influence
Wielding effective tactics of persuasion
Are skilled at winning people over.
Fine tune presentations to appeal to the listener.
Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and
support.
Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point.
Communication
Sending clear and convincing messages

Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning

their message.
Deal with difficult issues straight forwardly.
Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of in
formation fully.
Foster open communication and stay open to bad news as well as
good.
Conflict Management
Negotiating and resolving disagreements

Handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy and tact.
Spot potential conflict, bring disagreements into the open, and help de-
escalate.
Encourage debate and open discussion.
Orchestrate win-win solutions.
Leadership
Inspiring and guiding
Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission.
Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position.
 Guide the performance of others while holding them accountable.
Lead by example.
Change Catalyst
Initiating, promoting, or managing change
Recognize the need for change and remove barriers.
Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for change.
Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit.
Model the change expected of others.
TRANSFORMING EMOTIONS
Emotional competence is a learned capability that leads to outstanding
performance at work. Your emotional inntelligence is what determines your
potential for learning practical skills which are based on the above
categories. For instance, providing good customer service is an emotional
competence based on empathy. Similarly, trust worthiness is a competence
based on self-regulation, or handling impulses and emotions well. Both
customer service and trustworthiness are competencies which can lead to
outstanding performance at work. However, merely being high on emotional
intelligence does not necessarily guarantee that a person would have
learned the relevant emotional competencies; it only means that he or she
has excellent potential to learn these competencies. For example, a person
may be highly empathic, yet may not have acquired the skills based on
empathy that translate themselves into superior customer service, or the
ability to coach or monitor staff, or the ability too bring together a diverse
work team. There are many pragmatic reasons for learning to be emotionally
literate but perhaps one stands out more than the others. That is the
personal and life-changing transformation that understanding our emotions
can bring us. Transforming depression into useful anger, despair into
attitudinal hope, or loneliness into connection with other living beings,
dramatically alters the quality of our lives. The effects are potentially far-
reaching, as we realize that everything in life is potentially transformative if
we can find the key.
SELF KNOWLEDGE AND FAMILY PATTERNS
There are two further ingredients in emotional intelligence: self knowledge
and an awareness of family patterns. Self-knowledge includes an
understanding of how you function emotionally. Do you go through many
emotions in the space of a few hours, swinging from despair to hope and
back again like a yo-yo? Or do you hunker down into depression or guilt and
stay there for days? Do you tend to project your emotions on to other people
and try to fix their lives instead of your own? At times we all do all these
things but most of us have a basic emotional pattern.

Just as we can have financial capital or intellectual capital, so we can have

emotional capital. It constitutes the emotional reverses we have to draw on.
We may lock it away in a long yield deposit account or we may spend out
emotional capacity to the limit and end up exhausted and overdrawn. Some
of us are more naturally volatile and extravagant than others. What is
important is that we find the right mode of expression for ourselves. As we
become emotionally literate, we can learn to spend our emotional capital
more wisely.

People tend to fall into three distinctive style for attending to and dealing
with their emotions:

Self aware: Aware of their moods as they are having them, these people
understandably have some sophistication about their emotional lives. Their
clarity about emotions may under grid other personality traits: they are
autonomous and sure of their own boundaries, are in good psychological
health, and tend to have a positive outlook on life. When they get into a bad
mood, they don't ruminate and obsess about it, and are able to get out of it
sooner. In short, their mindfulness helps them manage their emotions.

Engulfed: These are people who often swamped by their emotions and
helpless to escape them, as thought their moods have taken charge. They
are mercurial and not very aware of their feelings, so that they are lost in
them rather than having some perspective. As a result, they do little to try to
escape bad moods, felling that they have no control over their emotionally
out of control.

Accepting: While these people are often clear about what they are feeling,
they also tend to be accepting of their moods, and so don't try to change
them. There seem to be two branches of the accepting type: those who are
usually in good moods and so have little motivation to change them, and
people who, despite their clarity about their moods, are susceptible to bad
ones but accept them with a laissez-faire attitude, doing nothing, change
them despite their distress - a-pattern found among, say, depressed people
who are resigned to their despair.

So, to achieve high EI and emotionally literate, you tend to fall in the
category of Self Aware.

"Emotionally mature people realize that others do not exist to meet

their needs."
Behavioural Science

Chapter 5 : EFFECTIVE LISTENING

"Listen and act according to the words because they are worthy and
capable of giving you strength and prosperity".
EFFECTIVE LISTENING
Effective communication skills form the nucleus around which all successful
human relationships resolve. Human behaviour and social relationships are
in fact, an outcome of the process of communication, which take place
almost all the time. In fact whether we are sitting, walking, talking, listening or
thinking, we are engaged in some form of communication. This could be
verbal or non-verbal.
"I told him we were meeting this Tuesday, not next Tuesday. Now we have
to reschedule the meeting. It'll cost us a week's time, and we may not make
the deadline."
"He said he was listening, but he'd obviously made up his mind before I
started. He didn't give me a minute to talk before he started interrupting. That
is the last time I'll try to present a better way to do any thing around here!"
"Something went wrong down the line. I warned those people to watch the
temperature carefully, but they don't listen. Now a whole batch is spoiled.
What does it take to get them to understand?"
Situations like these are disturbingly common in business. They show how
frequent listening failures are and how costly they can be. You may not be
able to make others listen better, but you can boost your own ability to
listen carefully to the scores of important messages you are likely to hear
every business day.
As you will learn in the following pages, listening effectively is hard work. It
involves far more than sitting passively and absorbing other's words. It
occurs far more frequently than speaking, reading, or writing and is just as
demanding and important.
THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING

Business experts agree that listening is a vitally important skill. In his best
selling book, Stephen Covey identifies it as one of the "seven habits of highly
effective people". Tom Peters, business consultant and co-author of 'In
Search of Excellence' and 'A Passion for Excellence', is sometimes called
the "guru of excellence". He emphasizes that one key to business success is
careful listening: "find out what the customers really care about, and then act
Listening- that's the key". Betty Harragan, a business consultant and job
counselor who has written two career strategy books states, "Good
managers have always sought, or listened to the opinions of their staff and
key subordinates". Business writer Kevin Murphy sums up the opinion of
most business professionals when he says, "the better you listen, the luckier
you will get".

Why is listening so important? One major reason is time that we spent on

listening. Listening is the most frequent - and, arguably, the most important -
type of on-the-job communication. Studies conducted over sixty years ago
indicated that adults spent an average of 29.5 percent of their waking hours
listening. This is almost a third more time than they spent talking and virtually
twice as much time as they spent reading. A more recent study focused on
listening in business settings. Personnel at all levels - including top-middle-
and lower level managers as well as workers with no managerial
responsibilities - were asked to note the time they spent engaged in various
types of communication during a typical week. The results were impressive.
Listening 32.7% Writing 22.6%
 Speaking 25.8% Reading 18.8%

Top executives spend even more time listening than other employees.
Researchers have found that executives spend between 65 and 90 percent
of the working day listening to someone. Another piece of research revealed
that effective managers almost constantly ask questions of their
subordinates; in a half-hour conversation, some ask literally hundreds.

Listening on the job is not only frequent; it is important as well. When 282
members of the Academy of Certified Administrative Managers were asked
to list the skills most crucial for managerial ability, "active listening was rated
number one and was placed in the 'supercritical' category". In another
survey, 170 business people were asked to describe the communication
skills that they considered most important and that they wished had been
taught in college; in each category, listening was the number one response.
Listening is vital to organizations. It can improve quality, boost productivity,
and save money. Poor listening can have the opposite effect.
Most people make numerous listening mistakes every week. Because of
listening mistakes, letters have to be retyped, appointments rescheduled,
shipments rerouted. Productivity is affected and profits suffer.
Listening skills can play a major role in career success. Job hunters can
often find leads and succeed in employment interviews by keeping their ears
open. Listening is just as important once you are on the job. A study of
employees in the insurance industry revealed that better listeners occupied
higher levels in their company and were more upwardly mobile. The ability to
listen well was highly related to the ability to argue persuasively, which helps
explain the success of good listeners. Supervisors who were rated as "open"
communicators displayed a surprising number of behaviours that indicate
good listening. They were likely to ask for suggestions, listen to complaints,
and invite personal opinions of both their superiors and subordinates.
Listening skills are important in a variety of careers. Sales people who listen
to their customers can discover their needs and build rapport. As one
consulting team says, "showing a real interest in what prospective customers
are saying is one of the simplest ways of getting them to listen to you."
Health care providers are more effective at gathering accurate information
from patients and creating positive climates when using "patient-centered"
listening instead of "caregiver-centered" listening. From hotels to high-tech
computer services, from auto repair to financial institutions, service industries
are the fastest growing segment of the global economy. "Good service, in
many respects, is good listening". According to Judi Brownell of Cornell
University, "In order to thrive in highly competitive, rapidly changing
environments, service employees must learn to listen well".
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LISTENING AND HEARING

Listening is much more than trying to hear and decipher the phonetic sounds
being produced by the sender. It is a matching of the mental faculties of the
sender and the receiver. Moving on the presumption that words or sounds
can convey meanings is like treading on thin ice. Words in themselves are
not sufficient to connote meanings or superimpose intentions or ideas. The
total meaning of the message sent and received is a cumulative whole of the
words in particular contexts.

The vital ingredient of good communication, i.e., listening seems to have

become a part of the process of hearing. We are often confronted during the
transmission of any message with queries of the following nature: "Do you
hear?", "Do you understand?". The response to this is more in the nature of
a nod or a reply in the affirmative, and most of the time there is no
endeavour on the part of the receiver to catch the unspoken beneath the
spoken words. Can we conclude that listening and comprehension have
really taken place?

To answer the above queries let us study the vital difference between
hearing and listening. Hearing is perception of all that is being stated in
accordance with one's own frame of reference. The interactant in this case,
though physically present on the sense is merely responding to the spoken
words without really absorbing the contents of the message. Listening, on
the other hand, is an accurate perception of all that is being stated.
This difference between listening and hearing is one of the main reasons
why we often fail to listen and then effectively communicate. While an
average speaking rate is 100 to 200 words per minute, an average listener's
ability to process message is approximately 400 words per minute. This
substantial difference between the spoken and the assimilated words often
leads to distraction with the mind swinging between listening and
assimilating while also wandering towards distracting elements.
When the average individual mind is trying to concentrate on the spoken
word, there might be instances when the mind gets distracted and then finds
it difficult to get back to the position from where it left off. Instead of getting
back to the original locale in the middle of the semi-circle, it might just stray
further down the arch. In such instances, we have what is known as a
"listening error", in which, for some time the listener is oblivious of what is
being said or spoken as he is lost in his own reverie. After some time when
he actually focuses, he realises that he has missed out on, if not a
substantial portion, quite a lot of the spoken matter which could have been
most crucial to further development of ideas and concepts.

For successful communication it is imperative to exercise or utilise our

listening capabilities. By being a passive listener, busy with our own
thoughts, we often miss out the important components of the message being
communicated. This deficiency can, in the corporate world, lead to a
tremendous loss in the company output. Statistics prove that in a million
workers if there is a listening loss of ten minutes it can make the company
incur a heavy loss. Therefore, in order to be successful both in life and
business effective listening is absolutely imperative.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING
Despite the importance of understanding others, the quality of listening is
generally poor in most organizations. Research suggests that
misunderstandings are the rule, rather than the exception. Conversational
partners typically achieve no more than 25 to 50 percent accuracy in
interpreting each other's remarks. Listening expert Ralph Nichols echoes this
dismal assessment. He estimates that the average white collar worker listens
at about a 25 percent efficiency level. This dismal figure is supported by
research showing that immediately after a ten minute presentation, a normal
listener can recall only 50 percent of the information presented. After 48
hours, the recall level drops to 25 percent.

Despite the widespread problem of poor listening, most business

communicators don't see themselves as lacking in this skill. (You can begin
to evaluate your own listening skill by completing the questionnaire in Table
1). In one study, subordinates were asked to rate the listening ability of their
bosses. More than half put their managers in the "poor" category. When the
same managers were asked to rate themselves, 94 percent described
themselves as "good" or "very good" listeners! A number of studies have
revealed reasons why people listen poorly despite the advantages of doing
just the opposite.
Listening-Skill Questionnaire
How well do you listen on the job? How do others rate you? You can
compare your answers to these questions to the way others view you by first
completing the questionnaire yourself and then having others use the same
questions to rate you. Low answers (UF, AAF) can indicate problem areas,
as can instances in which your response differs significantly from others
ratings.
KEY:

AAT - The statement is almost always true.

UT - The statement is usually true.

UF - The statement is usually false.

 AAF -
The statement is almost always false.

AAT UT UF AAF 1. I consider all evidence carefully before coming to a conclusion.

AAT UT UF AAF 2. I am sensitive to the speaker's unstated feelings as well as to what he

or she says explicitly.

AAT UT UF AAF 3. I take notes when listening in order to remember information or better
understand a complex idea.

AAT UT UF AAF 4. I concentrate on what the speaker is saying instead of dwelling on

unrelated thoughts.

AAT UT UF AAF 5. I listen openly when others disagree with me. I may not accept what
they say, but I'm willing to consider their opinions.

AAT UT UF AAF 6. I encourage others to express their ideas instead of hogging the stage
myself.

AAT UT UF AAF 7. I am able to extract key ideas from others' comments, even when their
remarks are disorganized.

AAT UT UF AAF 8. I am curious about people and ideas. Nobody could accuse me of
valuing only my own ideas.

AAT UT UF AAF 9. I let others speak instead of interrupting them or changing the topic of
conversation to suit my agenda.

AAT UT UF AAF 10. I make other speakers feel comfortable and at ease when they are
talking.

AAT UT UF AAF 11. I remember important ideas others have told me, even when I'm busy.

AAT UT UF AAF 12. I let others know when I'm confused about what they are saying instead
of pretending that I understand when I really don't.

AAT UT UF AAF 13. I recognize that people change over time, and I accept new information
 instead of judging others only by their past beliefs and actions.

AAT UT UF AAF 14. I help others find solutions to their problems by being a good listener.

AAT UT UF AAF 15. I can cut through overly emotional appeals and judge the soundness of
a speaker's thoughts

AAT UT UF AAF 16. I am good at knowing when to speak and when to listen.

Dripping sweat from a day in court spent mostly listening Sperry executive
Del Kennedy, commenting on his company's well-known listening training
program, says, "Most people don't know how exhausting listening can be".

Assuming that Talking has More Advantages than Listening: At first

glance, it seems that speakers control things while listeners are the
followers. We correlate listening with weakness, passivity, and lack of
authority or power. The people who do the talking are the ones who capture
everyone's attention, so it is easy to understand how talking can be viewed
as the pathway to success. Despite the value of talking, savvy business
people understand that listening is equally important, especially in a fast-
moving, high-tech age. Communication expert Susan Peterson explains:

Back to basics. Actually, the best basic of all; the ability to listen is a vital
communication tool that's endangered, in my humble opinion, by all this
technology. Too many times, whether it's with e-mail, voice mail or Internet,
we are concentrating on the art of telling, not listening. Yet good listening, in
our opinion, is 80 to 90 percent of being a good manager and an effective
leader. One CEO who has 54000 employees says he concentrates on what
he calls organizational listening. Listening is one of the best ways to
keep high touch in your organization. In your day-to-day meetings with
customers, clients, or employees, if you listen - really listen with full eye
contact and attention, you can own the keys to the communication kingdom.
Writer and management professor David J. Schwartz makes the point more
succinctly:
It is rightly said, "To sell John Brown what John Brown buys, you have got to
see things through John Brown's eyes. And the way to get John Brown's
vision is to listen to what John Brown has to say".
Schwartz goes on to stress the value of listening:

In hundreds of interviews with people at all levels we have found that

the bigger the person, the more apt he is to encourage you to talk; the
smaller the person, the more apt he is to preach to you.

As it is known fact, some of the most intelligent individuals who found difficult
to influence their surroundings, their companies, and to gain influence in
proportion to their abilities reason was they could not listen.

They were articulate. They were eloquent. They were brilliant. They were
knowledgeable, but they talked and talked. And they never listened. As a
result they found it difficult to get across to management.
THE LISTENING PROCESS
There are three phases within the listening process:
1. Levelling
2. Sharpening
3. Assimilation
Successful progression and completion of these three stages determine the
accuracy of the listening process.

To elaborate, let us take the example of a gardener, the process then could
well be simplified and understood. The first stage in gardening is that of
levelling the ground and shifting the soil. This is followed by marking of the
spots where the saplings are to be planted. The final stage is the planting of
the saplings, watering them and then waiting for them to catch root. This
process is somewhat similar to the one observed in listening. At the time of
listening the mind is left open for any inflow of information. The brain then
automatically shifts and separates the "sensical" from the "nonsensical"
according to its priorities.
As a result, the desired material is retained while the rest is dumped to be
discarded at a later stage. This involuntary strategy is dependent on the
mental filter of the individual and the element of physical and psychological
noise which is present. Only those spoken words which are considered
important by the listener are absorbed or assimilated. In other words,
sharpening of verbal inputs by the mental filter comprises the second phase
of the listening process. However, in the minds of the sender and the
receiver there could be a discrepancy in the degree of importance assigned
to various issues or topics which might give rise to errors in listening. In order
to minimise the same it is imperative that the receiver check and recheck
with the speaker the intention of the utterances.

This brings us to a very important aspect of listening - types of listening - that

are to a great extent, dependent upon the mental make up of the receiver.
This can lead to either effective communication or miscommunication, both
of which are the resultant factors of different attitudes.
TYPES OF LISTENING

Do we really comprehend the nature of the spoken words? The solution to

this question comes to light on observing the aftermath of a typical
presentation. If the recipients got together and compared notes they would
realise that most of them have received a different message. The basic
cause for this is the fact that there are different types of listening - passive,
marginal, projective, sensitive and active to which an individual indulges
according to his own particular needs.

Types of Listening

1. Passive Hearing and not listening takes place.

2. Marginal Superficial listening takes place.

 Message sent is received within the receiver's own frame of
3. Projective
reference.

An attempt is made to match the perception of the receiver with that

4. Sensitive/ Empathetic
of the sender.

5. Active Levelling and assimilation take place.

PASSIVE LISTENING

The physical presence but mental absence of the listener can be defined as
passive listening or hearing. All that is being said is being heard but not
really absorbed. Absorption of the spoken words comes only when there is
"sharpening" and "assimilation". In the absence of these two processes, real
or meaningful listening cannot take place. Utterances sink in the mind of the
individual in the form of a heap of "verbal garbage" without any actual
processing being done to it. In passive listening there is no invasion on the
thought process or an onslaught of ideas which could probably change the
trend of thinking or strengthen the pre-conceived ideas of the receiver. This
kind of listening is commonly found in classroom situations when the teacher
is seen to reprimand the students for their physical presence but mental
absence in the class.

In passive listening the sender should be held primarily responsible for the
lapse listening on the part of the receiver. It is only when the speaker and the
presentation are boring and monotonous that the listeners switch off their
mental faculties and dabble in their personal skills of hearing in a manner
which indicates that, yes, they are actually listening.
MARGINAL LISTENING

Provision of too much information can lead to an information load. As a result

of this, listening again tends to get hampered. One listens to the entire
presentation merely because one is expected to do so. We have instances
when the individual listens only at the superficial level and does not try to go
beyond a brief understanding of the topics discussed.
The most common factor which can be attributed to this kind of listening is
fatigue or boredom. The respondent erects a barrier through which he allows
information to seep only in bits and pieces. As a result, partial or marginal
information can be retrieved if the situation demands or the need so arises.

Marginal listening is to a great extent, a better form of listening than passive

listening. While in the former, small chunks are listened to and assimilated, in
the latter, little or nothing registers in the mind of the receiver and the entire
process of communication is a waste of time and energy.
PROJECTIVE LISTENING

In projective listening the response of the receiver are in a state of 'restful

alertness'. Each individual has within him a frame of reference in which he
tries to adopt the perspective of the co-interactant. While listening, the
receiver tries to view and absorb the contents of the presentation within his
own frame of reference. The image of a camera can be used to understand
the concept. The receiver's frame of reference is like the pin-hole in the
camera through which he views the outside world/ perspective of the
speaker and tries to bring about an amalgamation of the two.
Projective listening is an attempt by the receiver at viewing the world or the
view point of the interactant from limited personal perspective. Projective
Listening - a combination of the micro and the macro. The receiver in this
case tries to bring about a union between the experiences of the sender and
his own in such a manner as if it were just a combination of the micro and
the macro. Micro, in this case, would be the narrow perspective of the
receiver, while the macro is the broader perspective presented by the
sender.
SENSITIVE LISTENING
This can also be referred to as empathetic listening as the receiver is able to
understand the view point of the speaker in exactly similar terms as were
intended by him.
Part of the emphasis in sensitive listening lies on the ability of the receiver to
match his perceptions with those of the sender. It is a myth to presume that
words always mean the same to everyone. If two people have learnt to
speak a common language it does not mean that all utterances will be
understood by the receiver in total or as were intended. Contrary to this,
meanings assigned to this, meanings assigned to spoken words lie in our
perceptions, and not in words - perception of words and their associations
with our personal experiences. For instance, if an analogy was used in a
presentation it would definitely arouse different sentiments in different
people. An interactant who agreed with the analogy would find it appropriate;
one who disagreed would find it inappropriate and one who was neutral
towards it would be quite indifferent. Hence, it is not the utterance of words
but the meaning associated with the intention by the listener which
contributes to the total communicative impact.
In sensitive or empathetic listening an attempt is made to decipher the
meaning of the statement in relation to the perceptions and experiences of
the sender. It is not an easy task especially if the sender is a new person
about whom little or nothing is known. To understand the message in a more
meaningful manner it is necessary for the receiver to raise queries. This
helps in understanding the view point of the sender and therefore presents a
correct perspective of the message sent.

Sensitive listening in itself is not a very useful tool of communication. If taken

in isolation it results in observance of a one-sided sympathetic stand.
Sensitive listening plus active listening taken in combination with active
listening where sensitivities match, it proves to be an excellent form of
listening. However, if there is to be a dichotomy between the utterances and
the understood intention of the same, we are confronted with a typical case
of miscommunication. Much is lost in the course of the interaction due to
misplaced empathy or incorrect interpretation of the message.
ACTIVE LISTENING
This is the most important type of listening. The receiver absorbs all that is
being said and also makes an attempt to verify all that he has been listening
to. When combined with sensitive listening it can result in the best kind of
listening with the receiver moving in accordance with the intent of the
speaker. Despite the fact that listening can never take place totally in
accordance with the communicative intent of the speaker, we can move on
the assumption that listening which takes place in such circumstances is of
the ideal kind.
In listening as long as there is some kind of activity in the form of
participative contribution from the receiver, there can rarely be any kind of
miscommunication. This state can be achieved when questions are asked in
response to the statements made by the sender.
Merely relying upon the hearing faculties for a comprehension of the lecture/
presentation is not sufficient. As stated earlier, since words have different
meanings for different people clarifications and checks regarding words,
ideas and issues should be sought at every stage.

Active listening is not solely a product of the capabilities of the listener. Parts
of the onus for making the receiver respond actively to the proceedings lies
on the shoulders of the speaker. How well he manages to coordinate the
receiver into responding and participating in the interaction depends on his
communicative ability and motivation. A boring speaker with a monotonous
voice would not be able to secure the attention of the audience for a long
time, no matter how enlightening his discussion might be. This brings us to
the point that together with the content, an impressive style of
communication also needs to be adopted.
STRATEGIC MANOEUVRES

Verbal or non-verbal communication can be used to strategically manoeuvre

the receiver or co-interactant into making a move that is in accordance with
the communicative intent of the speaker. The idea undergoes three stages
prior to being encoded in the form of a message. The first is the cognitive
stage which is a stage of thoughts and beliefs. The sender or receiver before
commencing communication has a set of pre-conceived ideas or notions on
the basis of which he begins the interaction.

The second of this is the affective stage or one of emotions. Will the framed
message be acceptable to the recipient? Will it fit in with his frame of
reference? How will he respond to the intent of the message? It is only after
queries of a similar nature are answered that an idea should start getting
encoded.
Third or the last of these is the conative stage - a stage of intention or
motivation. Subsequent to interaction what would be the receiver's intentions
and how would he be motivated to act or speak? Would his feedback be in
accordance with the communicative intent of the sender?

Strategic Manoeuvres

Stages Speaker-oriented Receiver-oriented

1. Cognitive - stage of Getting ready with a set of pre- Creating an awareness with the self for
thoughts and beliefs conceived ideas and notions prior to the acceptance of the communication.
communication.

2. Affective - state of Planning communication in Getting involved/ making evalutions and

emotions accordance with the ideas of the bringing about a change in attitude and
recipient. feelings.

3. Conative - state of Guaging the intentions of the receiver, Moving from the domain of the subjective
intention and so as to motivate him to speak. to the objective/ getting involved into
motivation taking action.

Corresponding to the above three stages there are, within a receiver, three
similar stages. In the first stage, the listener has certain pre-conceived ideas
and notions. The speaker creates an awareness within the encoder by
clearly differentiating between beliefs and interests. The strategy there by
adopted is provision of details by which the attention of the listener is
secured. As the speaker proceeds to the second stage of emotions, the
receiver gets involved - makes correct evaluations and attempts a change in
his own attitude and feelings. In this second stage, the receiver switches his
strategy and moves from the objective domain of language to the subjective.
He verifies his position by creating beliefs, improvising on the existing image
of the situation and thereafter succeeds in stirring emotions.

Now the move is to the third stage. By this time language has become more
subjective. It now lies within the domain of the sender to stimulate his co-
participant, direct his move and finally make the receiver adopt his point of
view. If there is some difference of opinion in the objective appraisal of the
communicative intent, strategies are applied. There are then changes in the
subjective understanding of the message.
POSITIVE CONNOTATIONS OF GOOD LISTENING

The art of good listening, if acquired, can have positive connotations. The
individual who has successfully mastered this art will possess a wider
perspective and will be able to view the world in a more comprehensive
manner. Listening accurately or as was intended by the speaker will develop
within the listener an increased sense of competence. He will now rise from
the level of apprenticeship and gain mastery over the subject or the
discipline to which he was a patient recipient. This would normally lead to a
sense of accomplishment within the individual, even if his level does not
match that of the sender.
Attitudes will undergo a change and there will be an increased sense of self
confidence within the individual. His point of view can be better presented as
he is better armed with intellectual capabilities. In cases such as these,
where confidence emanates from the individual, an assertive stream is to be
evidenced, which reveals him in a positive light.
 Positve Connotations of Good Listening

Good Listening Positive Connotations

1. Wider perspective. Comprehensive approach.

2. Increased sense of competence. Sense of accomplishment.

3. Increased sense of mastery. Sense of self-confidence.

Greater objectivity and open

4. Objective viewing of facts.
mindedness.

Opening up to new ideas and newer

5. Decreased defensiveness.
avenues.

An individual well-endowed with knowledge has at his disposal greater

objectivity and is more open-minded during interactions. He would not be
rigid in his approach when presented with opposing points of view. He would
be able to view them objectively and take a decision. Neither the issues
close to the sender, nor the ones close to the receiver would be hampered.
The level of knowledge is inversely proportional to defensive behavior.
Whenever there is an increase in knowledge, defenses are automatically
lowered. An individual is normally on the offensive when he is not sure of
himself and is afraid that the co-participant might force him into accepting a
point of view which would prove contrary to his own interests/ likes and
dislikes. This definitely is an immature stand which needs further probing. As
stated earlier, to reach the state where defenses are automatically lowered,
one needs to be a good listener. Then only can he be receptive to new ideas
and fresh avenues.
ESSENTIALS FOR GOOD LISTENING

Listening to be effective and good, necessitates that certain behavioural

patterns be observed. Foremost in the list is developing a positive attitude
towards the other individual or the situation. Starting on a negative basis or a
bias can be counter-productive to the listening process. It closes the mind of
the individual to the ongoing proceedings and he practises only marginal or
passive listening. This, in almost all the cases, proves to be detrimental to
the issues under consideration.

Essentials for Good Listening

Essentials Resultant Features

1. Positive attitude. Acceptance of the speaker.

Careful listening and subsequent examination of the speaker's

2. Concentration.
view-point.

3. Interaction. Greater participation and hence more effective listening.

4. Question answer sequences. Clarification of ideas and thoughts.

Concentration at the hard core level is the only solution to this problem.
Even trying to anticipate the utterances of the speaker can keep our attention
glued to the topic at hand. In the initial phases, if the speaker is boring or
monotonous, it gets difficult for the listener to remain alert and to
concentrate. Concentration can only be achieved by a conscious desire on
the part of the respondent not to miss out on any of the vital issues under
discussion or consideration.

A strategy to countermand the loss in concentration is one of increased

interaction through question-answer techniques. With an increase in
interaction the listening routine also undergoes a sudden change. In the
process, there is greater exchange of ideas in which some are renewed,
some activated while others continue to rest in a dormant state. Raising
queries, not merely for the sake of gaining attention, is again a very good
strategy of breaking the monotony of an interaction.
As has been revealed by studies the listener is able to concentrate only 7%
of the time on what the speaker is saying. 93% of the time his concentration
wanders between giving attention to the body sport and the voice inflections
of the speaker. Induction of question-answer sequence in the course of
presentation can break the monotony of listening and increase the level of
concentration.
DETERRENTS TO THE LISTENING PROCESS

Despite the fact that an individual is physically present, there could still be
instances when he is unable to grasp a great deal of what is being said.
There are a number of causative factors for the same.

Deterrents to the Listening Process

Deterrents Behavioural Patterns

1. Lack of interest. Unable to concentrate.

Unable to accept the speaker or his

2. The ego-basic communication block.
viewpoint.

3. Involved with the self. Unable to listen.

Inperfect past/ present tense/ uncertain

4. Wallow in self-sympathy.
future

5. Fear. Unable to concentrate.

6. Preconceived ideas and notions. Closed mind.

7. The familiarity trap. Assured of self.

8. Stress-negative impact. Hypertense.

1. Lack of interest
The first in the list of deterrents is lack of interest. If an individual is not
interested in the topic discussed, no matter how hard he tries he would not
be able to concentrate on the issue. Lack of interest thus hampers the
listening process.
2. The Ego-Basic Communication Block

Superiority complex within an individual will also prevent him from listening to
what the other individual is saying. Ego - the basic communication block. It
becomes more or less a case of ego hang-ups. It is, in fact, the biggest
communication block which the individual erects as he is not willing to accept
the view point of the other person. The reason for it could be simple. The
sender could be a subordinate or in a position which does not satisfy or
match the ego of the receiver.
3. Self Involvement

If the listener is too busy with his own thoughts or is involved with himself
there are bound to be discripancies in the understanding of the intention of
the spoken word. In this two-tier process, either the receiver is listening to his
own self, or is trying to decipher the intention of the sender. In this swing
between listening and hearing it is always the latter which gains ground and
the recipient, in almost all the cases misses the importance of the message
being sent.
4. Lack of Self Confidence

A behavioural aspect hampering the listening processes is the lack of self-

confidence that may occur due to some uncontrolled factors in the present
environment of the listener or, because of some past event. A lot of time is
wasted on thinking about the past which may have been problematic or
imperfect. The present too becomes rather uncertain for the individual as he
makes futile attempts to break loose of the past. Little does he realise that he
is tampering with the present and as a result of this, the future too is in the
doldrums. In this cycle, a wrong step at an inappropriate moment can create
tension and lead to problems which would be difficult to rectify at a later
stage. However, it does have a strong hearing on the individual as it creates
a defect in the listening process primarily because of lack of concentration
and indulgences in time-rectifying strategies.
5. Fear

Developing fear or being scared of an individual/ situation can also mind to

whatever is forthcoming. The interactant is so deeply involved in his thoughts
that he is unable to listen accurately to what is going on. The element of fear
blocks the mind of the participant to the ongoing activities. He is unable to
comprehend the true importance of the proceedings or the intentions of the
other participants. The first step is to do away with this fear psychosis if one
wants to listen to what is being said in an accurate manner.
6. Preconceived Ideas

To enter in to any kind of interaction with preconceived ideas, notions and

thoughts can again have a negative impact on the listening process. If an
individual starts an interaction thoroughly convinced with the idea that
whatever he is trying to say or listen to is what he had in mind or with which
he is very much familiar his mind will automatically shut down the interaction.
He will try to superimpose his existing knowledge which will definitely have a
negative impact on the speaker's intentions and will lead to mis-
communication.
7. Familarity Trap
Quite often our previous knowledge of a particular topic can close our mind
to the ongoing communication. This is what is normally referred to as the
familiarity trap. Despite the fact that the topic is one with which the
interactant is thoroughly familiar, yet the style and the manner in which it is
presented is always different and one does stand to gain substantially much
from concentrating or listening to the spoken words. Even if it is a repeat by
the same communicator it will be seen that there is a variance or
discrepancy between the spoken word and the understood intention.
8. Stress
Working under stress can again lead to barriers in the listening process. As
mentioned in the above instances, in this case also, the mind is absolutely
blocked to the proceedings and it becomes difficult.

So, these deterrents of the listening process leads to specific

behaviouralpatterns which hampers listening, if considered prior and taken
care of would lead to effective listening. In communication, effective
listening is road to excellence in personal and professional life.
Behavioural Science

Chapter 6 : BEHAVIOURAL ADJUSTMENTS

The concept of adjustment is as old as human race on earth. Systematic

emergence of this concept starts from Darwin. In those days the concept
was purely bio-logical and he used the term adaptation. The adaptability to
environmental hazards goes on increasing as we proceed on the
phylogenetic scale from the lower extreme to the higher extreme of life.
Insects and germs, in comparison to human beings, can not withstand the
hazards of changing conditions in the environment and as the season
changes, they die. Hundreds of species of insects and germs perish as soon
as the winter begins.
Man, among the living beings, has the highest capacities to adapt to new
situations. Man as a social animal not only adapts to physical demands but
the also adjusts to social pressures in the society.

Biologists used the term adaptation strictly for physical demands of the
environment but psychologists use the term adjustment for varying
conditions of social or inter-personal relations in the society. Thus, we see
that adjustment means reaction to the demands and pressures of social
environment imposed upon the individual. The demand may be external or
internal to whom the individual has to react. Observe the life of a child, he is
asked to do this and not to do others things. He has to follow certain beliefs
and set of values which the family follows. His personality develops in the
continuous process of interaction with his family environment.

Psychologists have interpreted adjustment from two important points of

views. One, adjustment as an achievement and another, adjustment as a
process. The first point of view emphasize the quality or efficiency of
adjustment and the second lays emphasis on the process by which an
individual adjusts in his extemal environment. The various activities of an
individual's life involves adjustment to vocational, social and economical
problems. If an individual is unable to adjust to his/her internal and external
environment he/she shows a symptom of maladjustment.
SYMPTOMS OF MALADJUSTMENT
a) Physical symptoms

Stuttering, stammering, scratching head, facial twitching, biting nails, rocking

feet, restlessness, drumming with fingers and vomiting.
b) Behavior deviations
Aggression, lying, bullying, poor achievement, hyperactivity, negativism.
c) Emotional symptoms

Excessive worry, fear, inferiority, hatred, extreme timidity, temper-tantrum,

persistent anxiety, conflicts and tension.

Adjustment means how efficiently an individual can perform his duties in

different circumstances. When the sun is shining, everyone is contented and
all relationships are working smoothly who needs advice and how to deal
with people? But how do you read when people-

criticize you,
shout at you,
blame you for something you have done,
keep you waiting,
interrupt you,
or exploit you?
Frequently, people react by either going on defensive and by attacking
back. These two reactions are process of adjustment which culminate into
four types of unhealthy behaviors, which is also known as four killers of an
organization.
Four Killers of Organisation- 'Unhealthy Behaviour':
1. Submissive Behaviour: involves yielding to someone else's preferences
while discounting your own rights and needs. You don't express your
feelings to others know what you want. The result is that they remain
ignorant of your feelings or wants (and thus can't be blamed for not
responding to them). Submissive behaviour includes feeling guilty - or as if
you are imposing - when you do attempt to express what you want. If you
give others the message that you're not sure you have the ways to express
your needs, they will tend to discount them. Phobic and anxiety prone
behaviour after often submissive because, as previously mentioned, they are
overly invested in being "nice" or "pleasing" to everybody. Or they may be
afraid that the open expression of their needs will alienate a spouse or
partner on whom they feel dependant.

2. Aggessive Behaviour: on the other hand, may involve communicating in

a demanding, abrasive, or even hostile way with others. Aggressive people
typically are insensitive to others' rights and feelings and will attempt to
obtain what they want through coercion or intimidation. Aggressiveness
succeeds by sheer force, creating enemies and conflict along the way. It
often puts others on the defensive; leading them to withdraw or fight back
rather than cooperate. For example, an aggressive way of telling someone
you want a particular assignment at work, would be to say: "That assignment
has my name written on it. If you so much as look at the boss when she
brings it up during the staff meeting, you're going to regret it.".
3. Passive - Aggressive: as an alternative to being openly aggressive,
many people are passive - aggressive. If this is your style, instead of openly
confronting an issue, you express angry, aggressive feelings in a covert
fashion through passive resistance. You're angry at your boss, so you're
perpectually late to work. You don't want to comply with your spouse's
request, so you procrastinate or "forget" about the request altogether.
Instead of asking for or doing something about what you really want, you
perpectually complain or moan about what is lacking. Passive-aggressive
people seldom get what they want because they never get it across. Their
behavior tends to leave other people angry, confused, and resentful. A
passive-aggressive way of asking for a particular assignment at work might
be to point out how inappropriate someone else is for the job, or to say to a
co-worker, "If I got more interesting assignments, I might be able to get
somewhere in this organization.".

4. Manipulative Behaviour: Manipulative people attempt to get what they

want by making others feel sorry for or guilty towards them. Instead of taking
responsibility for meeting their own needs, they play the role of victim or
martyr in an effort to get others to take care of them. When this doesn't work,
they may become openly angry or feign indifference. Manipulation only
works as long as those at whom it is targeted fail to recognize what is
happening. The person being manipulated may feel confused or "crazy" up
to this point; afterward they become angry and resentful toward the
manipulator.

A manipulative way of asking for a particular assignment at work would be to

tell your boss, "Gee, if I get that assignment, I think my boyfriend will finally
have some respect for me": or to tell a co-worker, "Don't breathe a word
about this - but if I don't get that assignment, I'm going to finally use those
sleeping pills I've been saving up."
Healty Behaviour
Assertive Behavior is when we:

Stand up for our own rights in a way that does not violate another person's
rights. It leads to an honest open and direct expression of our point of view
which, at the same time, shows that we understand the other person's
position.
Assertiveness is an attitude and a way of acting in any situation where you
need to
Express your feelings
Ask for what you want, or
Say no to something you don't want

Becoming assertive involves self-awareness and knowing what you want.

Behind the knowledge is the belief that you have the right to ask for what you
want. When you are assertive, you are conscious of your basic rights as a
human being. You give yourself and your particular needs the same respect
and dignity you'd 'give anyone else's. Acting assertively is a way of
developing self-respect and self-worth.

If you are phobic or anxiety-prone, you may act assertively in some

situations but have difficulty making requests or saying no to family members
or close friends. Having perhaps grown up in a family where you felt the
need to be perfect and please your parents, you've remained a "people
pleaser" as an adult. With your spouse or parents you often end up doing
many things you don't really want to do. This creates resentment, which in
turn produces tension and sometimes open conflict in your relations helps.
By learning to be assertive, you can begin to express your true feelings and
needs more easily. You may be surprised when you begin to get more of
what you want as a result of your assertiveness. You may also be surprised
to learn that assertive behaviour brings you increased respect from others.

Assertive behaviour, in contrast to the above-described styles, involves

asking for what you want (or saying no) in a simple, direct fashion that does
not negate, attack, or manipulate anyone else. You communicate your
feelings and needs honestly and directly while maintaining respect and
consideration for others. You stand up for yourself and your rights without
apologizing or feeling guilty. In essence, assertiveness involves taking
responsibility for getting your own needs met in a way that preserves the
dignity of other people. Others feel comfortable when you're assertive
because they know there you stand. They respect you for your honesty and
forthrightness. Instead of demanding or commanding, an assertive statement
makes a simple, direct request, such as, "I would really like that assignment",
or" "I hope the boss decides to give that particular assignment to me". Which
of the above five descriptions fits you most closely? Perhaps more than one
behavior style applies, depending on the situation.
ASSERTIVENESS RIGHTS

You have probably heard of the slogan "Stand up for yourself" or "Stand up
for your rights". You may have viewed these statements in a negative way,
saying. "Don't be pushy" or "Don't take advantage of others". This way of
thinking may have kept you from becoming aware of your rights and standing
up for them.

The central theme of assertive behavior is that you know your rights and feel
good about expressing them by using the techniques in this book. The list
below suggests rights for you to consider in developing your assertive
behavior.
I HAVE THE RIGHT TO........

1. Be treated with respect.

2. Be appreciated.
3. Express my feelings (in an honest, direct, and appropriate manner, not as
a device for attack).
4. Disagree and to express my opinions (in a way that will lead to resolution
of conflict).
5. Set my own priorities.
6. Say no without feeling guilty.
7. Express my needs and wants.
8. Make mistakes (and be responsible for them).
9. Choose not to assert myself in any situation. (In some cases, it may be
better to choose to be non-assertive).
10. Make my own decisions.
Non-verbal aspects of submissive, assertive and aggressive behaviour:
The following exercise will assist you in identifying your preferred behavior
mode when you want something. Think about each of the following situations
one at a time. How would you typically handle it? Would your approach be
non-assertive (in other words, you wouldn't do anything about it), aggressive,
passive- aggressive, manipulative- or would you respond assertively? Note
the style you'd use after each situation. If you have fewer than 25 out of 30
"assertive" responses, it would be useful for you to work on your
assertiveness:

1. You're being kept on the phone by a salesperson who is trying to sell you
something you don't want.
2. You would like to break off a relationship that is no longer working for you.
3. You're sitting in a movie and the people behind you are talking.
4. Your doctor keeps you waiting more than 20 minutes.
5. Your any family member has the stereo on too loud.
6. Your neighbour next door has the stereo on too loud.
7. You would like to return something to the store and get a refund.
8. You're standing in a line and someone moves in front of you.
9. Your friend has owed you money for a long time - money you could use.
10. You receive a bill that seems unusually high for the service you received.

11. Your home repair person is demanding payment but has done
unsatisfactory work.
12. You receive food at a restaurant that is over - or undercooked.
13. You would like to ask a major favor of your partner or spouse.
14. You would like to ask a major favor of your friend.
15. Your friend asks you a favor which you don't feel like doing.

16. Your son/ daughter/ spouse/ roommate is not doing their fair share of the
work around the house.

17. You would like to ask a question, but are concerned that someone else
might think it's silly.

18. You're in a group and would like to speak up, but you don't know how
your opinion will be received.

19. You would like to strike up a conversation at a gathering, but you don't
know anyone.

20. You're sitting/ standing next to someone smoking, and the smoke is
beginning to bother you.
21. You find your partner/ spouse's behavior unacceptable.
22. You find your friend's behavior unacceptable.
23. Your friend drops by unexpectedly just before you were about to leave to
run some errands.
24. You're talking to someone about something important, but they don't
seem to be listening.
25. Your friend stands you up for a lunch meeting.

26. You return an item you don't want from the department store and request
a refund. The clerk diverts your request and offers to exchange the item for
another.
27. You're speaking and someone interrupts you.
28. Your phone rings but you don't feel like getting it.
29. Your partner or spouse "talks down" to you as if you were a child.
30. You receive an unjust criticism from someone.
THREE OBSTACLES TO ASSERTIVENESS
Obstacle # 1: Low Self-Esteem

Self-concept (your mental image of yourself) builds self-esteem (self-

respect), which determines your behavior. Negative thinking and actions may
limit your opportunities.
Obstacle # 2: Inability to Handle Conflict

People who fear conflict avoid asserting themselves in stressful situations.

Do not mistake aggressive behavior for assertive behavior- aggressive
behavior causes conflict.
Obstacle # 3: Poor Communication Skills
Your inability to respond in various situations leads to negative emotions,
thoughts, and anxiety.
By understanding these "traps" to being assertive, you can avoid them, thus
setting an environment which is condusive to assertiveness.
DIFFERENT BEHAVIOR STYLES FOR HANDLING CONFLICT
If you are not using assertive behavior in situations where you have to deal
with confrontation or disagreement, you may be choosing another behaviour,
aggressive or nonassertive. How do these behaviors address conflict?
Assertive Behavior

Brings Conflict into the open where the communication process can
continue.
Is interested in a "win-win" situation: understands that it's okay to get
angry but in a way that expresses feeling.
Tries to negotiate to solve problems in an environment of mutual
respect.
Recognizes personal rights while respecting the rights of others.
Uses statements such as "This is how I see it," "This is how I feel," or
"This is what I think." ,
Aggressive Behaviour

Becomes defensive.
Discounts feelings of others; assumes an "I'am right" position.
Is interested in a "win" situation at the expense of the relationship.
Uses anger to control.
Tries to manipulate.
Uses statements such as "The meeting is at 2 p.m.; I don't care what
you have on your schedule; just be here".
Submissive Behaviour
Gives in to others' expectations and viewpoints to avoid conflict.
 Assumes a "You're right" position; doesn't see personal feelings as
important.
Will end up a "lose" situation.
Is easily manipulated by an aggressive person.
Does not openly show anger.
Uses statements such as "How can I possibly know the answer to that?"
For most people, the three behavior types are seen in the following
terms:
1. Assertive
Direct, firm, honest, tactful; makes things happen, maintains self-respect and
gains respect from others; confident, positive.
2. Aggressive

Domineering, forceful, bold; makes things happen regardless of how others

feel or think; mean, uncaring, forward, pushy, belligerent.
3. Submissive

Soft-hearted, modest, hesitant, insecure, withdrawn; waits to make things

happen; loses self-respect because things never quite happen according to
plan.
Advantages of Assertive Behaviour
Close working relationships

Assertion tends to breed assertion, so people work more happily with us than
against us. We are then, with their help, more likely to achieve our objectives
in a conflict situation.
Greater confidence in yourself
We develop a strong regard for ourselves and a high level of self-esteem,
reducing the chance of boastfulness (aggression) and hopelessness
(submission).
Greater confidence in others
We have a healthy recognition of the capabilities and limitations of others as
opposed to seeing them as inferior (aggression) or superior (submission).
Increased self responsibility

We take responsibility for ourselves, our wants, opinions, needs, etc., rather
than blaming others (aggression) or excusing ourselves (submission).
Increased self control

We can channel our thoughts and feelings to produce the behaviour we

want, rather than being controlled by outside events or people, or inner
emotions.
Savings in time and energy

We can take decisions more swiftly based on their individual merit and save
time when handling disputes. A lot of time and energy is wasted on worrying
and scheming. If we are not worried about upsetting people (submission) or
scheming how not to miss out (aggression) then we can save ourselves a lot
of stress.
An increased chance of everyone winning

Assertiveness increases the likelihood that all parties will see their needs
met, their ideas and opinions heard and considered and their abilities put to
good use.
Assertive Behavior is only healthy behavior to make adjustments in our
personal, social and professional lives. It helps an individual to achieve
personal and professional effectiveness.
Behavioural Science

Chapter 7 : STRESS MANAGEMENT

The word "stress" is derived from the Latin word stringer which means "to
draw tight" (Cox 1978). It is such an overused and elusive term that many
have agreed it should be completely abandoned. Many definitions exist:
some believe stress can and should be subjectively defined; others feel one
needs an objective definition. Some researchers believe a global definition is
appropriate; others emphasize stress is multidimensional.

In the nineteenth century the pursuit and maintenance of a constant internal

state was seen as the essence of "free and independent life". Research
sought to identify those adaptive changes responsible for steady state
maintenance. This motivation towards equilibrium was called "homeostasis",
from the Greek words homoios meaning similar, and stasis meaning state.
Stress was considered to be a threat to homeostasis ("a rocking of the
boat"), but this usage of the term was subject to change and imprecision.

The vacillation between trying to understand stress as a stimulus and/ or as

a response laid the foundations for subsequent models of stress, which are
broadly conceived as environmental, medical and personal. Cox (1978)
identified three distinctive models, namely, response-based, stimulus-
based, and interactive. Response-based models conceived of stress as a
dependent variable, that is, a response or reaction to a stressor such as
danger or over-work. Stimulus-based models considered stress as an
environmental variable (such as excessive noise, cold, or tasks to be
completed in a short period of time), whereas, interactive models attempted
to incorporate both response and stimulus elements, as well as possible
intervening factors such as personality differences.
Among the first to promote the interactionist perspective was Lazarus(1966).
Central to his stress model was the concept of threat, which was regarded as
an imagined or anticipated future deprivation of something one values.
Furthermore, threat usually relates to "self"; and the maintenance and
enhancement of the self is believed to be fundamental human motive. He
refers to cognitive processes as "appraisal" processes and they include
attention, perception, evaluation, and so on. Primary appraisal, which
consists of processes involved in threat perception, is distinguished from
secondary appraisal, which is related to coping with and reducing threat.

Factors in both the environment and the person interact to determine both
primary and secondary appraisal, physical elements such as objective
danger imminence and ambiguity of cues, increase the potential for primary
threat perception, as do motivational characteristics and belief systems
within the individual. Secondary appraisal is governed by the interaction
between situational constraints and coping dispositions, and general beliefs
about the environment and one's resources. Lazarus's (1996) theoretical
formulation, with its emphasis on individual differences in threat appraisal,
has proved to he highly durable. It is, quite clearly, a psychological model of
stress.
A variation of the interactive model was described by Cox & Mackay (1979).
The central element concerned the dynamic relationship between four
aspects of the individual and the environment. The environment imposes
demands and constraints on the one hand, yet provides supports on
the other.

The individual possesses both values and needs (demands) as well as

coping resources. Cognitive appraisal of demands and resources is
continuous, and a perceived imbalance between the two leads to the
subjective experience of stress as well as to coping attempts aimed at
restoring homeostasis. Such coping attempts may become manifest through
a variety of different outlets such as cognitive reappraisal, physiological
responsively and/ or behavioural activity. What is not made clear, however,
is the point at which responsibility should be labeled "stressful", a criticism
that may be leveled at interactive models generally.
Another variation of the interactive model was proposed by Cooper &
Marshall (1976) to describe workplace stress. Six potential sources of work
stress were identified, including factors intrinsic to the job, role-related
factors, and interpersonal relationships at work. These impinged upon each
individual to some extent and could hypothetically lead to any of a variety of
symptoms of occupational ill health (e.g., job dissatisfaction, depressive
moods or cardiovascular disease).
Some features are common to each interactive model. Whether explicit or
implicitly, the context in which each model is presented concerns
adaptiveness and homeost. Furthter more, each model fundamentally
suggests that environmental stimuli (external, stressors), individual
differences (particularly with respect to cognitive appraisal thereof), and
various outcome measures (stress reactions) must all be considered
simultaneously. As such, these models attempt to isolate the parameters
associated with stress research. However, what they gain in breadth they
tend to lose in depth. In other words, the focus on "what" variables need to
be included takes place at the expense of "how" (i.e., the mechanisms)
stress actually occurs.

Figure on this page presents an interactive model which suggests that stress
arises only when certain individual factors (age and stage, personality, even
mood) lead the person to see certain circumstances (workload, change in
boss) to be threatening. Thus, neurotics, who are prone to anxiety, nearly
always report having more qualitative and quantitative stress than stable
individuals. Once threatened, every person has coping mechanisms, some
adaptive and successful, others less so. The application of a healthy coping
mechanism to the perception and reality of stress leads to its reduction, but
having unsuccessful coping mechanisms can actually exacerbate the
problem, turning an acute problem into a chronic one.
This notion of a mismatch between demands and resources is central to the
majority of stress conceptualizations. McGrath's (1976-1332) much quoted
definition, like that of Lazarus (1966), focuses on perceptual factors in the
individual.
A potential for stress exists when an environmental situation is perceived as
presenting a demand which threatens to exceed the person's capabilities
and resources for meeting it, under conditions where she/ he expects a
substantial differential in the rewards and costs for meeting the demand
versus not meeting it.

In many ways, this definition incorporates what most theorists see as the
main ingredients in stress, namely, subjective appraisal of a demanding
environment, a realization that demands may outstrip resources, and that the
consequences of not coping are important. In the absence of a universally
agreed definition of stress, the widely accepted protocol of describing
environmental factors as "stressors", individual responses as "strains", and
the vast gamut of mediating activity in the form of cognitive processing and
personality dispositions as "intervening variables" can usefully be adopted.
COMMON SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
Physiological symptoms

A noticeable decline in physical appearance.

Chronic fatigue and tiredness.
Frequent infections, especially respiratory infections.
Health complaints, such as headaches, backaches, stomach and skin
problems.
Signs of depression, change in weight or eating habits.
Emotional symptoms

Boredom or apathy: lack of affect and hopelessness.

Cynicism and resentfulness.
Depressed appearance, sad expressions, slumped posture.
Expressions of anxiety, frustration, tearfulness.
Behavioural symptoms

Absenteeism, accidents.
Increase in alcohol or caffeine consumption; increased smoking.
Obsessive exercising.
Irrational: quick to fly off the handle.
Reduced productivity; inability to concentrate or complete a task.
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

The job of managers becomes ever more complicated as the nature of work
and society in general becomes more complicated and sophisticated. Many
people look at the salaries and benefits of middle, and particularly senior,
managers with envy. But the rewards are high often because the costs are
high.
There are inevitably "downsides" difficulties or drawbacks of business
leadership and management, specifically chronic (over long periods of time)
or acute (extreme amounts) occupational stress.

In most management jobs, leaders are both supported and challenged. They
are supported by peers, subordinates and superiors, who also challenge
them to work harder and "smarter". Thus, it is possible to think of the
average manager in terms of support and challenge thus:
Much support and little challenge

Managers in this role are in the fortunate position of good technical

and social support, but the fact they are underchallenged probably
means that they underperform. They may be stressed by boredom and
monotony.
Much support, much challenge

This combination tends to get the most out of managers as they are
challenged by superiors, subordinates, shareholders and customers
to "work smarter" but are given the appropriate support to succeed.
Little support, much challenge
This unfortunate, but very common, situation is a major cause of
stress for any manager because he or she is challenged to work
consistently hard but only offered minimal emotional, informational
(feedback) and physical (equipment) support.
Little support, little challenge

Managers in some bureaucracies lead a quiet and unstressed life

because they are neither challenged nor supported, which usually
means neither they nor their organization benefits. They belong to the
"psychologically quite but physically stay" employee.
Most research has concentrated specifically on the stressed
manager whose work and home life provide an excess of challenge
over support. But, as we see, stress is multidimensional, having
different, clearly definable and unique factors.
THE CAUSES OF STRESS

We have noted that there are both internal-to-the-person and external-in-the-

environment causes of stress. These will be considered separately. Three
points need to be made about these causes. The stresses are not usually
rank-ordered, because the importance of each stressor differs from job to job
and time to time. However, for most individuals these stressors are not
always equal; in fact, it may be that they do not exist at all for some
managers. Secondly, many of these stressors are related, so that although
they are listed independently of one another it is likely that they are fairly
closely interrelated. Thirdly, it is likely that stresses are not fully
comprehensive in that there are probably factors unique to certain jobs.
Nevertheless, they provide a beginning to understanding the problem.
WORK RELATED CAUSES OF STRESS
a) Occupational demands intrinsic to the job
Some jobs are quite simply more stressful than others. Various studies have
shown that certain features associated with particular jobs are stressful. For
example, the greater the extent to which the job requires (a) making
decisions, (b) constant monitoring of machines or materials, (c) repeated
exchange of information with others, (d) unpleasant physical conditions, and
(e) performing unstructured, tasks the more stressful the job tends to be.
Cooper et al (1988) have mentioned other stressful features intrinsic of a job.
Again we have a series of lists with all the drawbacks that implies.
b) Role Conflict: stress resulting from conflicting demands
For many executives it is important they engage in role juggling - rapidly
switching from one role and one type of activity to another (from boss to
friend, teacher to partner, law enforcer to father confessor). The adverse
effect of role conflict are less pronounced in work settings characterized by
friendliness and social support than in work settings where such conditions
are lacking.
c) Role ambiguity: stress resulting from uncertainty

This can occur when managers are uncertain about several matters relating
to their jobs, such as the scope of their responsibilities, what is expected of
them, how to divide their time between various duties. Sometimes, ambiguity
results from not having clear job descriptions, goals or specified
responsibilities, but often it is attributable to changes occurring in the
organization or the market place at large. It is thus fairly common.
d) Over and underload stress from having too little or too much to do
Work overload can be both quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative work
stress is the situation where managers are asked to do more work, in a
limited period, than they are able to do. Qualitative overload occurs when
managers believe they lack the required skills, ability or resources to perform
a given job. Equally, one can find the stress of both of these types of
underload. Quantitative underload leads to boredom that occurs when
employees have too little actual work to do, whereas, qualitative underload
stress occurs when boring, routine, repetitive jobs are associated with
chronic lack of mental stimulation.
e) Responsibility for other: stress resulting from a heavy burden
Most managers are (or should be) responsible for their subordinates: they
have to motivate them, reward and punish them, communicate and listen to
them, and so on. There is often considerable stress for managers in
confronting the human costs of organizational policies and decisions:
listening to endless complaints, mediating disputes, promoting cooperation
and exercising leadership.
f) Lack of social support: stress from being socially isolated or ignored
Having friends and supports in times of difficulty helps managers see
stressful events as less threatening and more controllable than if they had
little or support at different times. Friends and supporters can also often
suggest useful strategies for dealing with the sources of stress. In addition,
also they can help reduce the negative feelings that often accompany
exposure to stressful events. Social support is of course also quantitative
and qualitative. Usually it is better to sacrifice quantity for quality, although
ideally one would have both in liberal amounts to prevent stress.
g) Lack of participation in decisions: stress from helplessness and
alienation
Many middle mangers are or feel the victims of decisions made at a higher
level, over which they have no control. The major cause is that managers are
neither allowed to witness nor to contribute to important business decisions
that affect their actual jobs.
The above three points all concern relationships at work, which may include
problems with superiors, colleague and subordinates as well as customers
and shareholders.
h) Poor performance appraisal: stress from little, none or obviously
biased feedback
At least two types of stress result from problems with performance
appraisals. The first is not getting any appraisals and hence not knowing how
one is (or should be) doing (above, below, or average). Secondly, being
given negative feedback without being told how to improve one's
performance is often highly stressful. Unless an organization has a good,
well thought performance appraisal system, employees can suffer great
stress.
i) Working conditions: stress from poor working conditions

Some jobs have, inevitably, to be done in difficult and unpleasant working

conditions such as extremes of temperature (heat or cold), loud noise,
crowing, poor lighting, or with old and inefficient machinery. These
unpleasant features, such as noise, are at the most stressful when they are
unpredictable, uncontrollable and excessive. The best example is road
construction engineers with drills digging up the road. Very stressful for
them, it is equally unpleasant for those in near proximity who cannot control,
reduce or predict when the noise occurs. Managers in manufacturing,
engineering or building trades often suffer from this source of stress.
j) Organizational change: stress that comes from adaptation

As the speed, type and amount of organizational change occurs, so does the
stress, particularly on middle managers. Shifts in company policy,
recognizations, mergers and acquisitions, and delaying - all lead to
uncertainty and with it stress. In addition to this, the structure and climate of
a changed organization, or an organization that requires change, may itself
be a major cause of stress.

k) Career development: stress from being stuck at the same level or

beneath the "glass ceiling"
Most organizations at least hold out the carrot of career development based
on a mixture of performance and seniority. As a result, managers build up
expectations about their career development. Having these realistic (or
unrealistic) expectations thwarted is indeed a source of stress and
frustration.
l) Home/ work interface: stress that results from having two jobs
Although probably more common among females than males, stress often
arises from the conflict over time and loyalties between the many demands
of the home and the job. Since managers experience several conflict
between home and work demands, with neither being tolerant of the other or
supportive, the obvious result is stress.
Indicative Behaviour
 Indicative Behaviour of Stressful Relationships at Work

Superiors Colleagues Subordinates

Lack of consideration Isolation Requirements for participation

Job pressure Rivalry Mismatch of formal/ actual powers

Political pressure Conflict of participation versus higher

Lack of support in difficult production
situations Resentment of loss of status
Refusal of subordinates to cooperate.

Source Courtesy Cooper et al (1988)

Behavioural Science

Chapter 8 : COPING STYLES OR STRATEGIES

COPING STRATEGIES: CONCEPT

Individuals and organisations cannot remain in a continuous state of tension.
Even if a deliberate and conscious strategy is not adopted to deal with
stress, we still do something to protect ourselves from stress, for example
leave the conflict and stressful situations. This is also a strategy, although
the individual or the organisation may not be aware of this. This is called
avoidance coping strategy.
The word coping has two connotations in literature. The term has been used
to denote the way of dealing with stress, or the effort to 'master' conditions of
harm, threat, or challenge when a routine or automatic response is not
readily available (Lazarus, 1974).

Two different approaches to the study of coping have been pursued by

various investigators. On the one hand some researchers (e.g., Byrne, 1964;
Goldstein, 1973) have emphasised general coping traits, styles or
dispositions, while on the other (e.g., Cohen and Lazarus, 1973; Katz,
Weiner, Gallagher and Hellman, 1970; Wolf and Goodell, 1968) some
investigators have preferred to study the active ongoing strategies in a
particular stress situation.
Coping traits refer to a disposition to respond in a specific way in situations
that are stressful. Coping traits are thus stable characteristics of persons that
transcend classes of situation. Coping style implies a broader, more
encompassing disposition. Trait and style are fundamentally similar ideas.
Trait and style refer to a characteristic way of handling situations, they are
stable tendencies on the basis of which inferences are drawn about how an
individual will cope in some or all types of stressful situations. A person's
coping style or disposition is typically assessed by personality tests, not by
actual observation of what the person says or does in a particular stress
situation.

The emphasis on process distinguishes this approach from others which are
trait-oriented. Psychologists have identified two major ways in which people
cope with stress. In the first approach, a person may decide to suffer or
denny the experience of stress, this is the passive approach. Or a person
may decide to face the realities of experiencing stress and clarify the
problem through negotiations with other members. This is the active
approach.
Coping can have an effect on three kinds of outcome -psychological, social
and physiological. From a psychological perspective, coping can have an
effect on the psychological morale (that is the way one feels about oneself
and one's life), emotional reaction, e.g., level of depression or anxiety, or the
balance between positive trend and negative toned feeling (Bradburn, 1969),
the incidence of psychiatric disorders and even performance. From a social
perspective, one can measure its impact on functioning effectiveness, such
as employability, community involvement, and sociability (Renne, 1974) the
effectiveness of interpersonal relationships, or the degree to which useful
social roles are filled (and acting out anti-social behaviour etc., are avoided).
From a physiological perspective, outcome includes short-term
consequences, such as the development and progression of a particular
disease.

Coping Measurement: Coping refers to efforts to master conditions that tax

or exceed adaptive resources (Monat and Lazarus, 1977). As mentioned
earlier the term coping has been used to denote the way of dealing with
stress, or the effort to master conditions of harm, threat or challenge when a
routine or automatic response is not readily available. Lazarus (1974b) has
emphasised the key role of cognitive process in coping activity and the
importance of coping in determining the quality and intensity of emotional
reactions to stress.
Although there are many ways to classify coping responses (Moos and
Billings, 1982) most approaches distinguish between strategies that are
active in nature and oriented toward confronting the problem, and strategies
that entail an effort to reduce tension by avoiding dealing with the problem.

Pareek (1983) has proposed two types of coping strategies which people
generally use in order to handle stress, i.e., dysfunctional and functional
coping styles. Lazarus (1975) has suggested a classification of coping
process which emphasis two major categories, namely direct actions and
palliative modes. Direct action includes behaviours or actions which when
performed by the organism in the face of a stressful situation in expected to
bring about a change in stress causing environment. The palliative mode of
coping refers to those thoughts or actions whose purpose is to relieve the
organism of any emotional impact of stress. There is no clear consensus as
to which coping strategies or modes of coping are most effective. Coping
may either take the form of avoiding the situation (reactive strategy), i.e.,
dysfunctional style, or confronting and approaching the problem (proactive
strategy), i.e., functional style. Combining the two aspects of each of the
three dimensions yields eight possible strategies to cope with stress. The
dysfunctional styles are Impunitive (M), Intropunitive (I), Extrapunitive (E)
and Defensive (D). The four functional styles are Impersistive (M),
Intropersistive (I), Extrapersistive (E) and Interpersistive (N). thus, broadly
speaking, there are two coping strategies - avoidance and approach.
The three dimensions are as follows:

1. Externality: The feeling that external factors are responsible for role
stress, resulting in aggression and blame on the external factor.
2. Internality: The feeling that the respondent himself is responsible for
stress and, therefore, may express aggression towards himself.
3. Mode of coping: Coping may take the form of either avoiding the
situation (reactive strategy) or confronting and approaching the problem
(proactive strategy).
Externality and internality may be low or high. Combining the two aspects of
each of the three dimensions yields eight possible strategies to cope with
stress. Briefly, these are as follows:

1. Impunitive: Statements indicating either the simple admission of stress or

that stress is unavoidable and nothing can be done about it.

2. Intropunitive: Statements indicating self-blame or aggression towards

one's self for causing stress.

3. Extrapunitive: Statements expressing aggression towards or putting

blame on others for a particular stress situation.
4. Defensiveness: Statements expressing either denial or stress or
rationalisation of stress by giving reasons for it.
5. Impersistive: Statements indicating that the respondent is optimistic and
hopes that time would solve the problem and things would work out well in
the future.
6. Intropersistive: Statements indicating that the role occupant himself
should take action to deal with the stress.
7. Extrapersistive: Statements indicating that the person expects someone
else would contribute to the solution of the problem or deal with stress.

8. Interpersistive: Statements indicating that a solution of the problem can

be obtained by joint efforts in which the role occupant and others would be
involved.

Of these eight dimensions, the first four imply avoidance oriented behaviour.
They are perceived as dysfunctional styles of coping with stress situations.
The remaining four dimensions are approach-oriented and are regarded as
functional.
Consequences of Coping strategies
Whether people suffer from stress or not is largely dependent on their coping
strategies. Hence, psychologists have spent considerable effort in describing
and categorizing different strategies, some of which are thought to be
"successful" and adaptive, and others not. These strategies are stress-
specific concepts, hence they tend to be better predictors of occupational
stress.

One distinction made by Folkman & Lazarus (1980) has been between
problem-focused coping (aimed at problem-solving or doing something to
alter the source of stress) and emotion-focused coping (aimed at reducing
or managing the emotional distress that is associated with, or cued by, a
particular situation). Others have pointed out that this discussion is too
simple. Thus, Carver et al. (1989) have distinguished between both types of
coping: some emotion-focused responses involve denial, other involve
positive reinter- pretation of events, and still others involve the seeking out of
social support. Similarly, problem-focused coping can potentially involve
several distinct activities, such as planning, taking direct action, seeking
assistance, screening out particular activities, such as planning, taking direct
action, seeking assistance, screening out particular activities, and sometimes
topping acting for an extended period. This list details both adaptive and
non-adaptive coping strategies mentioned by Carver et al. Hence,
researchers have concentrated on multidimensional instruments to measure
coping (Endler & Parker 1990).

Many studies have shown how coping styles and behaviours mediate
between various variables.
The 15 strategies outlined by Carver et al. (1989) were:
1. Positive reinterpretation and growth
2. Active coping
3. Planning
4. Seeking social support for emotional problems
5. Seeking social support for instrumental problems
6. Suppression of competing activities
7. Religion
8. Acceptance
9. Mental disengagement.
10. Focus on venting emotion
11. Behavioural disengagement
12. Denial
13. Restraint coping
14. Alcohol use
15. Humor

It is argued that, for various reasons, individuals tend to adopt and habitually
use a few of these coping patterns, which may or may not be successful.
However, it does seem that people can be taught or trained to relinquish less
successful coping strategies and adopt others.
Optimism: A Buffer Against Stress

One personal factor that seems to play an important role in determining

resistance to stress is the familiar dimension of optimism/ pessimism.
Optimists are hopeful in their outlook on life, interpret a wide range of
situations in a positive light, and tend to expect favourable outcomes and
results. Pessimists, by contrast, interpret many situations negatively, and
expect unfavourable outcomes and results. Recent studies indicate that
optimists are much more stress resistant than pessimists. For example,
optimists are much less likely than pessimists to report physical illness and
symptoms during highly stressful periods such as final exams (Seligman &
Schulman 1988, see Ch.5).

Optimists and pessimists seem to adopt sharply contrasting tactics for

coping with stress. Optimists concentrate on problem-focused coping -
making and enacting specific plans for dealing with sources of stress. In
addition, they seek social support - the advice and help of friends and others
- and refrain from engaging in other activities until current problems are
solved and stress is reduced. Pessimists tend to adopt rather different
strategies, such as giving up in their efforts to reach goals with which stress
is interfering, and denying that the stressful events have even occurred.
Further, they have different attritional styles the optimist attributes success
internally and failure externally, and vice versa. Indeed, that is how optimism
and pessimism are both measured and maintained.
Hardiness Viewing Stress as Challenge

Another individual difference factor that seems to distinguish stress resistant

people from those who are more susceptible to its harmful effects is known
as hardiness (Kobasa 1989). This term refers to a cluster of characteristics
rather than just one. Hardy people seem to differ from others in three
respects.

They show higher levels of commitment - deeper involvement in their jobs

and other life activities; control - the belief that they can, in fact, influence
important events in their lives and the outcomes they experience; and
challenge - they perceive change as a challenge and an opportunity to grow
rather than a threat to their security.
Together, these characteristics tend to arm persons with high resistance to
stress. People classified as high in hardiness report better health than those
low in hardiness, even when they encounter major stressful life changes.
Hardiness is a useful concept for understanding the impact of stress.
However, recent evidence suggests that commitment and a sense of control
are the most important components of hardiness. Thus, further research
concerned with this personal dimension and its role in resistance to stress
should focus primarily on these aspects.

There may well be other individual differences which are highly predictive of
stress, but the ones mentioned above have attracted most research attention
(Greenberg & Baron, 1994). Further, these different dimensions are, no
doubt, interco-related.
The Consequences of Stress

The consequences of work stress are felt by individuals, their families, the
organizations they work for, and the economy as a whole. Indeed, it is even
possible through absenteeism and performance - related measures to
calculate the effects of stress. It runs into many hundreds of billions of
dollars, points and marks.
For the individual, the effects of work stress classically occur in three areas,
although there may be strong individual differences.
Attempts to "manage" (control and reduce) stress essentially happen at two
levels. Firstly, some organizations focus on individual employees, trying to
help them learn better techniques to prevent or reduce their personal stress
levels. Secondly, others focus on the job or the organization as a whole in
attempting to reduce stress.
Two approaches commonly used to cope stress are personal and
organizational approaches.
A. PERSONALAPPROACHES
The most commonly used techniques include the following:
Life-style (diet and exercise) change
A healthy mind (psyche) is supposedly found in a healthy body. Hence,
organizations attempt to help people through better living. This includes a
better diet (less salt, fat, sugar) and the reduction or elimination of alcohol.
Relaxation and meditation

A rather more Eastern or mental approach to stress is to teach potentially

stressed workers how to meditate and relax. The former involves clearing
one's head of external thoughts and concentrating on inner stillness.
Relaxation techniques can be physical, involving such things as stretching,
deep breathing, and even laughing. People tend to select techniques they
feel most suitable to them, although indeed they may not be.
Cognitive self-therapy

Sports psychologists as well as clinicians have shown how effective certain

cognitive or thinking strategies are. Most emphasize the way we conceive a
stressor can be very maladaptive but can be changed. Thus, people are
often asked to describe stressors and think about them in different terms.
Thus, stressful becomes challenging, impossible becomes possible. Often,
emphasis is placed on making people feel that stressors are temporary and
controllable, not stable and eternal. People who have tendencies to
perfectionism often need this type of therapy.
Behavior therapy

This approach attempts to overcome stress by focusing on behaviours that

reduce it. Just as people who are socially phobic or have panic attacks can
be taught ways to overcome that very specific type of stress, so all people
can be taught "little tricks" that help them overcome the stress. Certainly, one
focus is on out-of-work activities such as leisure and vacations. The impact
of the personal life on the working life should not be underestimated.
B. ORGAN IZATIONAL APPROACHES
The most commonly used strategies are as follows:
Changes in Organization Structure/ Function
The way the organization is structured may be a cause of stress, but indeed
changing it can cause stress. Right-sizing, re-engineering, and reprocessing
has changed many organizations for the better, because they are flatter and
more decentralized. Learning new procedures and indeed worrying about
security, may increase stress, but the hope for many managers is that
productivity, may increase stress, but the hope for many managers is that
productivity will increase and stress will decrease as function of the changes.
Job Redesign

Jobs can be enlarged, enriched, divided, shared and redefined. Some are
too large for one person, others too small. As processes and technology
have changed, some jobs have not, and current holders are often under
various stresses. Few organizations consider carefully the issue of job
redesign enough as a major stress reducer.

Reviews of the stress management or alleviation literature appear to

indicate the following:

Stress management at work is usually narrowly defined to focus on the

individual worker as the target for change. Interventions aimed at
modifying stress aspects of the work environments, especially
organizational structure and job redesign are rare.

Programmes are mostly preventive and they seek to improve worker

awareness and recognition of stress. The label stress management is
thus misleading, because neither workers nor organizations with
apparent stress problems are singled out.

Programmes are usually offered to workers in white-collar occupations,

 although this may be changing. Training typically includes education
and some type of relaxation exercise, and may additionally include
meditation, biofeedback, or a cognition-focused technique.

Programmes have been generic in nature, not targeting specific work

stressors or stress symptoms.

Few studies compared the relative effectiveness of different training

techniques. Thus, although doing something appears to be better than
doing nothing, the specific techniques used may not matter much.

Evaluations have been based on individual-oriented measures (e.g.,

anxiety) that have been assessed over short post-training periods. In
other words, the effects may not be very general and may not last long.

Stress management has been associated with significant reductions in

anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, sleep disturbances, muscle
tension levels, blood pressure and urinary balance.

The changes observed immediately after training have not always been
maintained in follow-up evaluations.
Essentially the "cost" of stress for the individual is usually in terms of health,
whereas for the organization it is usually in terms of performance. Hence,
one finds the phenomenon of job burnout, which is characterized by a state
of emotional exhaustion, a depersonalization of others in the workplace, and
feelings (with evidence for) low personal accomplishment.

Coping with the stress also occurs at the level of the individual and the
organization. Individuals may elect to use behaviour modification, career
counseling, relaxation training or attending fitness or "wellness" programmes
to relieve their stress. Also, organizations sometimes attempt to diagnose
and then cure some of the major structural or process causes of stress by
improving the physical work environment, job redesign, structural
recoganization, introducing management by objectives and ensuring greater
levels of employee participation, particularly in planning changes that affect
them most.
Do organizational stress-reducing techniques work? Cooper & Sadri (1991)
compared a group receiving stress counseling and a matched group who did
not. Whereas they found no change in job satisfaction or organizational
commitment, they did find the counselled group showed a decline in
absenteeism, anxiety and depression, and an increase in self-esteem.

Organizations often believe the cost of stress to them is such that it is worth
investing in both preventive and interventionist policies. They may provide
sport facilities, employ dieticians to advise over canteen meals, organize
support groups, provide counselling services and courses in behavioural
science.