CHAPTER 4: FLUID KINEMATICS

(Study of motion of liquids without considering any force or energy)

Motion of Liquid Particles

A liquid consists of numerous number of particles whose relative positions are not
fixed. Whenever a liquid is in motion, these particles move along certain lines, depending upon
the conditions of flow (fluid characteristics & shape of passage through (which liquid particles
move). These lines are called as flow lines.
The motion of a fluid can be described completely by an expression describing the
location of a fluid particle in space at different times thus enabling determination of magnitude
and direction of velocity and acceleration in the fluid flow system at any instant of time.
Clearly, for complete analysis of the fluid motion, it is necessary to observe the motion of fluid
particles at various points and times.

Flow Lines
Whenever a fluid is in motion, its countless particles move along certain lines
depending on the conditions of flow. These lines are called as flow lines:

Types of Flow Lines

Path Line
A path line is the path (course) followed by a fluid particles in motion as shown in the
following Figure:

Figure: Showing path lines

A path line shows the direction of particular particle as it moves for a certain period of time or
between two given sections.
Streamline
A stream line may be defined as an imaginary line drawn in the fluid flow in such a
way that it shows the mean direction of a number of particles at the same instant of time as
shown in the following Figure:
 Figure: Showing streamlines

Important Characteristics of Streamlines

- No two streamlines can cross each other.
- There cannot be any movement of fluid mass across the streamlines
- Streamlines spacing varies inversely with velocity; converging of streamlines in any
particular direction shows accelerated flow in that direction.
- Whereas a path line gives the path of one particular particle at successive instants of
time, a streamlines indicates mean direction of a number of particles at the same instant
of time.
- The series of streamlines represent the flow pattern at an instant of time.

Stream Tube
A stream tube is a fluid mass bonded by a group of streamlines. Example of stream
tube: pipes and nozzles

Stream tube
Important Points about Stream Tube
- The stream tube has finite dimensions
- As there is no flow perpendicular to streamlines, therefore, there is no flow across the
surface called stream surface of the stream tube. The stream surface functions as if it
were a solid wall.
- Shape of a stream tube changes from one instant to another because of change in the
position of streamlines.
Types of Flows
When a fluid is flowing in a pipe or channel, the numerous particles of fluid get together and
form a flowing stream. These particles, while moving, group themselves in a variety of ways.
They may move in regular formation (they follow a definite and smooth pattern of movement)
or they may move in irregular formation (they do not follow a definite and smooth pattern of
motion). The type of flow of a liquid depends on the manner in which liquid particles unite and
move. The main types of flows are discussed and below:

Pipe flow: A pipe is a closed conduit, generally of circular cross section, used to carry
water or any other fluid. When the pipe is running full, the flow is under pressure, and is called
as pipe flow. There is no atmospheric pressure as there is no free water surface.

Open Channel Flow: An open channel is a passage through which water flows under the force
of gravity and atmospheric pressure on free water surface. In other words, when the free surface
of the flowing water is in contact with atmosphere as in case of a canal, culvert etc, the flow is
said to be through an open channel. A channel may be covered or open at the top. The flow of
water in an open channel is not due to any pressure as in area of pipe flow. But it is due to the
slope of the bed of the channel. Thus, during the construction of a channels a uniform slope in
its bed is provided to maintain the flow of water.

Laminar Flow: A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the individual particles
do not cross one another and move along well defined path. This type of flow is also called as
stream line flow or viscous flow. Each particle of fluid has a definite path.
Examples:
 Flow through capillary tube
 Flow of blood in veins and arteries
 Groundwater flow

Turbulent Flow: In this flow type, fluid particles

move in zig-zag way. In turbulent flow, there are
continued fluctuations in velocity and pressure at
every point.
Example: High velocity flow in a conduit of large
size. Nearly all fluid flow problems faced in
engineering practice have a turbulent flow
character. Laminar and turbulent flows are
described by Reynolds number.

Compressible flow: Density of fluid changes from point to point (or density is not constant
for this flow) i.e. flow of gases through orifices nozzles etc

Incompressible flow: Density is constant for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally considered
flowing incompressibly. Example: flow of liquids through pipes, etc.
Steady flow: The flow in which fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc at a
point do not change with time is called steady flow. It may be uniform or non-uniform.
dv/dt = 0, dp/dt = 0, dl/dt = 0
Example: flow through a prismatic or non-prismatic channel conduit at a constant flow
rate ‘Q’.
Unsteady flow: The flow in which
velocity, pressure or density or discharge
at a point changes w.r.t time is called as
unsteady flow:
dv/dt ≠ 0, dp/dt ≠ 0, dl/dt ≠ 0
Example:
 flow through a pipe whose valve
is opened or closed gradually.
 Periodic motion of waves on
beach.

Examples of Unsteady Flow: which may in time became either steady flow or zero flow.
Example 1: Refer to adjoining figure
where (a) denotes the surface of a stream that
has just been admitted to the bed of a canal
by the sudden opening of a gate. After a time
water surface will be at (b), later at (c) and
finally reaches equilibrium at (d). The
unsteady flow has then become steady flow.

Example 2: When a valve is closed at the discharge end of a pipe line, thus causing velocity
in the pipe to decrease to zero. In the meantime, there will be fluctuations in both velocity and
pressure within pipe.

Uniform flow: The flow in which the velocity at any given time does not change w.r.t.
space (s) (or velocity of flow at all sections of a pipe or channel is equal) is called as uniform
flow. Mathematically:
(dv/dx) time = constant = 0
dv = change in velocity
 ds = displacement in any direction

The uniform term is generally applied to flow

in channel.
Example:
 Flow through a straight prismatic
channel (which has constant size and
shape throughout its length)
 Flow through a straight pipe of
constant diameter.
Prismatic Channel (PC): A straight channel with no change in slope and no change in
cross section is called as a prismatic channel (PC is a type of channel which has same/constant
x-section throughout the length of channel. PC means channel has constant diameter (including
depth) along its length.
Uniform flow conditions:
Uniform flow occurs when no change in velocity occurs along the channel. (When the size and
shape of x-section are constant along the length of the channel).
- Flow stream lines are straight and parallel
- Velocity does not change, then velocity head is constant
Uniform flow conditions are following;
i. Channel must be straight
ii. No change in slope
iii. No change in x-section
All of above three conditions represent a prismatic channel.

Non-uniform flow: The flow in

which velocity at any given time
changes with respect to space (s). i.e.
(dv/dx)time = constant = 0
Examples:
- Flow around a uniform diameter
pipe bend or a canal bend.
- Flow through a non-prismatic
conduit.

Combinations of Steady, Unsteady, Uniform and Non-Uniform Flows

There may be four possible combinations of steady, unsteady, uniform and non-uniform
flows as given below:
1. Steady uniform flow: The flow of liquid at a constant flow rate in a long straight pipe
of constant diameter.
2. Steady Non-Uniform Flow: The flow of a liquid at a constant flow rate through a
conical pipe.
3. Unsteady Uniform Flow: The flow of liquid at a changing rate of flow in a long straight
pipe of constant diameter.
 4. Unsteady-Non-Uniform Flow: The flow of liquid at a changing flow rate through a
conical pipe.

Continuity Equation:
Q = AV
∂ρ
For steady flow ( ∂t = 0)
For steady and compressible flow
 1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2 = M (mass rate of flow)
 1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2 = G (weight rate of flow)
∂ρ
For incompressible fluid,  = constant, So, 1= 2, and =0
∂t
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q = Volume flow rate
Applicable for both incompressible fluids for both steady and unsteady flow.

Reynold’s Number (Re)

Re = Inertia force/viscous force = FI/FV
FI = ma = (ρ L3. L/T2)
FI = L4/T2 = ρ V2L2
Fv = u (du/dy) A  τ = F𝑉 /A =  . du/dy
FV =  (V/L)L 2
 VL
 Re = FI/FV =  V L / VL = (VL/ = VL/)
2 2

i) for pipe flow L = D (pipe diameter)

Re = VD/
Re important as it provides infrastructure about the type of flow i.e., flow laminar or turbulent
For Re < 2000 flow in pipes is laminar (completely)
For Re > 4000 flow in pipe is turbulent (completely)
For Re = 2000 – 4000 flow in pipes may be laminar or turbulent or in transitions state
(unstable)
For open channel flow; L = RH = hydraulic radius
Re = VRh/
Where
Rh = hydraulic radius
Rh = A/P
A = x-section area of the channel
P = wetted perimeter of the channel that portion of the perimeter of the x-section
where there is contact between fluid and solid boundary
When
Re < 500 flow is laminar
Re > 2000 flow is turbulent
500 < Re < 2000 flow is transitional
Rectangle channel
A = bd
P = 2d + b
 Rh = A/P = bd / (2d + b)

Example Problem:
An oil of specific gravity of 0.85 and kinematic viscosity of 1.8 x 10 -5 m2/s flows in a 10 cm
diameter pipe at 0.50 l/s. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?

Solution
Given:
Oil specific gravity = So = 0.85
Oi kinematic viscosity = o = 1.8 x 10-5 m2/s
Pipe diameter = D = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Oil flow rate = Q = 0.5 l/s = 0.0005 m3/s
(1 m3/s = 1000 l/s)
Find: type of flow: laminar or turbulent
As
Re = VD/ from continuity Eq.
Q = AV
A =  D /4 =  (0.10)2/4
2

A = 0.0079 m2
V = Q/A = 0.0005/0.0079 = 0.0636 m/s
Re = 0.0636 x 0.10/ (1.8 x 10-5) = 353.33
As Re < 2000 So, Flow is laminar

Mean Velocity and Flow Rate

Mean Velocity (V):

Typical velocity profile in a pipe flow case is given below in Figure 1. In case of a real
fluid, the velocity adjacent to the wall of pipe will be zero. It will increase rapidly within a
short distance from the well of pipe and will produce a velocity profile as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Typical velocity profile in a pipe flow

umax = maximum velocity
V = average velocity
u = local velocity at any radius ‘r’ from centerline of pipe.
A typical velocity profile in an open channel flow is given in Figure 2 given below. The
maximum velocity occurs at a little distance below the water surface. The average velocity is
measured by current meter and float method.

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Showing velocity profile in channel flow; (a) for rectangular channel, (b) for
circular channel

For calculating of flow rate (discharge) of a flowing liquid, average velocity is used. For
example, discharge is calculated by the following expression:
Q = AV
Where
Q = flow rate (discharge) in m3/s
A = x-sectional area of the conduit pipe (m2)
V = average velocity of flow (m/s)

Flow Rate or Discharge

Rate of flow (or discharge) is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per unit time
(i.e. per second) through a section of a pipe or a channel. It may be expressed as:
- Volume flow rate (m3/s) - denoted by Q
- Weight flow rate (kN/s) - denoted by G
- Mass flow rate (kg/s) - denoted by M

 Volume flow rate or discharge (Q) is commonly used for incompressible fluids.
 Weight flow rate (G) and mass flow rate (M) are commonly used for compressible
fluids.

Q = AV A = x-sectional area of pipe (m2)

G = AV G = weight flow rate (kN/s)
M = AV  = specific weight of fluid (kN/m3)
 = density of fluid (kg/m3)

Control Volume
Following figure presents a short length of a stream tube as a bundle of streamlines. Since the
stream tube is bounded on all sides by streamlines and since there can be no flow normal to a
streamline, no fluid can leave or enter the stream tube except at the ends. The fixed value
between the two fixed sections of the stream tube is known as the control volume. The concept
of control volume is assumed/used for practical purposes to describe continuity equation:

Figure: Showing length of stream tube as control volume

Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. It states as
“If a fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length then the mass passing across
different sections shall be the same”.
Consider two cross-section of a pipe as shown in the following Figure:
Let
A1 = area of the pipe at section 1
V1 = average velocity of flow at section 1
1 = fluid density at section 1

A2, V2, 2 corresponding values at section 2

Total quantity of fluid passing through section 1

= 1 A1 V1
Total quantity of fluid passing through section 2
= 2 A2 V2 Figure: Fluid flow through a pipe

According to Law of Conservation of mass (theorem of continuity):

1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2
The above equation is called Continuity equation and is applicable to both steady compressible
and incompressible fluids. Also,
1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2
For an incompressible fluids  = constant, hence 1 = 2
So, A1 V1 = A2 V2 = Q Continuity equation applicable to incompressible
fluids for both steady and unsteady flow.
Example Problem 1
The diameters of a pipe at sections 1 and 2 are 200 mm and 300 m respectively. If the
velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 4 m/s,
Find
(i) Discharge through the
pipe
(ii) Velocity of water at section 2.
Solution
(i) Discharge through the pipe = Q = A1V1
A1 =  d1 /4 =
2
 (200/1000) /4
2

A1 = 0.0134 m
V1 = 4 m/s
Q = 0.0134 x 4
Q = 0.1256 m3/s
(ii) Velocity of Water at Section-2
A1V1 = A2 V2
V2 = A1V1/A2 A2 =d2/4 =  (300/1000)2/4 = 0.0707 m
A1 = 0.0134 m2
V1 = 4 m/s
V2 = 0.0134 x 4/0.0707
V2 = 1.77 m/s

Example Problem 2
A pipe (1) 450 mm in diameter branches into two pipes (2 and 3) of diameters 300 and
200 mm respectively shown in the following figure. If the average velocity in pipe (1) is 3 m/s,
find:
i) Discharge through pipe 1
ii) Velocity in pipe (3) if velocity in
pipe (2) is 2.5 m/s

Solution
i) Discharge through pipe (1) , Q1
Q = A1V1
A1 = d12/4 =  (450/1000)2/4
= 0.159 m
A1 = 0.159 x 3 as V1 = 3 m/s
3
Q = 0.477 m /s

ii) Velocity pipe (3); V3

Let Q1 = discharge through pipe 1 = A1 V1
Q2 = discharge through pipe 2 = A2V2
Q3 = discharge through pipe 2 = A3V3
According to continuity equation
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
3
Q1 = 0.477 m /s
Q2 = A2V2
A2 = d2 /4 =  (300/1000)2/4 = 0.0707 m2
2

V2 = 2.5 m/s
Q2 = 0.0707 x 2.5
Q2 = 0.1767 m3/s
Now,
0.477 = 0.1767 + Q3
Q3 = 0.477 – 0.1767
= 0.3 m3/s
Q3 = A3 V3  V3 = Q3/A3
A3 = (3 )/4 =  (200/1000) /4 = 0.0314 m2
2 2

V3 = Q3/A3 = 0.3/0.03114 = 9.55 m/s