Comparing Quranic Suras With Pre-800 Do PDF

Kaplony, Andreas, Comparing Qurʾānic suras with pre-800 documents (with an appendix
on subtypes of pre-800 kitāb documents), Der Islam 95 (2018) 312-366

Der Islam 2018; 95 (2): 312–366
Andreas Kaplony*
Comparing Qurʾānic Suras with Pre-800
Documents
(with an Appendix on Subtypes of Pre-800 Kitāb Documents)
https://doi.org/10.1515/islam-2018-0026
ʾillā man ʾatà llāha bi-qalbin salīm Q 26: 89;

slightly adapted in a 2nd/8th century graffito:
ʾillā man ʾatà l-raḥmāna bi-qalbin salīm¹
Abstract: The dominant formal document type of preserved Arabic pre-800 doc-
uments shows a characteristic tripartite structure: in between the invocation and
the long main part, there is a self-referring title hādhā kitāb min fulān ʾilà fulān,
“The following is a writ from so-and-so to so-and-so.” The Suras of the Qurʾān
have the same tripartite structure, but instead of the title can have one of six other
options: an oath, a hymn, a reference to an eschatological event, an admonish-
ment, a question, or a threat (or curse). We conclude that the Umayyad officials
compiling the Qurʾān wrote the Qurʾān down as a collection of autonomous Suras.
A close look at the major Qurʾānic terms used for God (allāh, rabb al-ʿālamīn,
and al-raḥmān) and for Heaven and Hell shows a hegemonic terminology to be
found in most Suras, and two minority terminologies – with which the Mysterious
Letters are correlated – found in two groups of Suras only. We conclude that prior
to the compilation of the Qurʾān, the mostly oral transmission of its texts allowed,
if not encouraged, their wording to grow apart.
Keywords: Koran, Arabic documents, Arabic papyri, official letters, Umayyads,

Early Abbasids, diplomacy.
1 allāhumma ghfir (2) li-l-ḥakīmi bni ʿalīyin (3) yawma lā yanfaʿu m{B}ālun wa-lā (4) banūn <ʾi>llā
man ʾatā l-raḥmāna (5) bi-qalbin salīm ghafara (6) llāhu li-man qāla ʾāmīn rabb (7) al-ʿālamīn
muḥammadun ra(8)sūlu llāhi ghafara llāhu (9) li-masʿūd al-Ḥisān 2006, 29 no. 5; see also Imbert
2013, 118.
*Corresponding author: Andreas Kaplony, Ludwig-Maximilians-University München, Germany,

andreas.kaplony@lmu.de
Angemeldet | andreas.kaplony@lmu.de Autorenexemplar

Heruntergeladen am | 11.11.18 06:35
Comparing Qurʾānic Suras with Pre-800 Documents 313
Typologies of Arabic Documents: Formal Typo-

logies vs. Functional Typologies vs. Semantic
Domains and Social Institutions
During the last few years, research on Arabic documents on papyrus, parchment,
and paper has undergone substantial development. It is not the approach that
has changed ‒ as before, we are looking at these documents as mass sources in
which a single document is best read against as many other similar documents as
possible ‒ but the tools: the painstaking work of looking up parallels in the glos-
saries and indices of books has become much quicker by using state-of-the-art
databases. When we were building up the core full-text and metadata database
of Arabic papyrology, the Arabic Papyrology Database (www.naher-osten.lmu.
de/apd),² we first focused on providing a tool for searching both metadata and
full text, whereas now, in a second step, we are working on providing a tool for
searching document structures.
We ended up with ten major formal (diplomatic) types of Arabic documents:
(A) Protocols (= Formal Type A), on the very first page of papyrus rolls; (B) Tables
(= Formal Type B); (C) documents introduced by phrases like hādhā kitāb min
fulān, “The following is a document from so-and-so” (= Formal Type C) ‒ for
the sake of brevitiy, we will call these “Kitāb Documents”³; (D) documents intro-
duced by phrases like katabtu ʾilayka ʿan salāma, “I am writing to you in plain
health” (= Formal Type D); (E) deeds introduced by phrases like hādhā mā štarà
fulān, “The following is what so-and-so has bought” (= Formal Type E); (F) short
informal notes introduced by phrases like idfaʿ ʾilà fulān, “Pay to X!” (= Formal
Type F); (G) documents introduced by phrases like al-mamlūk yuqabbil al-ʾarḍ,
2 Last accessed 15 July 2017. ‒ Nathan Gibson (LMU Munich), Tamer el-Leithy (Johns Hopkins
University), Nicolai Sinai (University of Oxford), Johannes Thomann (University of Zurich), and
the Arabic papyrologists at LMU Munich gave me feedback on earlier versions of this paper, Vic-
toria Scott helped with proofreading. Thank you all!
3 For the Qurʾānic term kitāb (“writ”), see first and foremost Madigan 2001a (e. g. 74 “The lit-
eral meaning ‘written’ is best interpreted as ‘prescribed’”; 122 “the command of God and the
record of God’s knowledge as revealed through the prophets”); Madigan 2001b; see also Nölde-
ke/Schwally 1909/1961, 79‒80; Horovitz 1926, 65‒77; Jeffery 1950, 41‒55; 113‒117; 121; 134;
199‒206; 266‒275; Mir 2003, 508‒510; Ambros/Procházka 2004, 235; Wild 2006a, 13‒14; Wild
2006b, 140‒142; Stewart 2011, 344‒345; Boisliveau 2014a, 25‒40. ‒ Both the emancipation
letter that a slave might ask for and Solomo’s letter to the Queen of Sheba are called kitāb: wa-lla-
dhīna yabtaghūna l-kitāba mimmā malakat ʾaymānukum fa-kātibūhum, Q 24: 33; qālat [the Queen
of Sheba] yā-ʾayyuhā l-malaʾu ʾinnī ʾulqiya ʾilayya kitābun karīm (30) ʾinnahum min sulaymāna
wa-ʾinnahu bi-smi-llāhi l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (31) ʾallā taʿlū ʿalayya wa-ʾtūnī muslimīn, Q 27: 29‒31.

314 Andreas Kaplony
“The slave kisses the ground” (= Formal Type G); (H) documents introduced by
phrases like ṣadarat hādhihi l-mukātaba, “The following correspondence has
been released” (= Formal Type H); (I) documents introduced by phrases like
rusima bi-l-ʾamr al-sharīf, “It has been decreed by the noble order” (= Formal
Type I); and (J) documents introduced by phrases like lammā kānā bi-taʾrīkh,
“When it was at a given date” (= Formal Type J) ‒ not to mention a number of
minor formal types that can safely be omitted here. Obviously, all of these types
have their subtypes, and all go with a certain time and place. We define these
formal types and subtypes by diplomatics only. On the one hand, we define them
on the basis of a characteristic text structure encompassing a number of text
blocs, to be divided into a number of text parts and subparts, and all text blocs,
parts, and subparts are marked by characteristic markers. On the other hand,
we define them by a characteristic visual layout with a number of layout blocs,
parts, and subparts, and all of these are again marked by characteristic layout
markers.
Formal document types as defined by diplomatics are obviously used for
certain functions. And depending on functions, we might define five major func-
tional types of Arabic documents: (I) the Letter (= Functional Type I), encom-
passing official and private-and-business letters; (II) the Register (= Functional
Type II), encompassing tables of taxpayers and their taxes, lists of debtors and
their debts, lists of merchandise delivered, etc.; (III) the Agreement (= Functional
Type III), encompassing agreements on marriage and divorce, and on selling or
renting land, houses, and apartments; (IV) the Semi-Literary Document (= Func-
tional Type IV), such as amulets and prescriptions; and (V) the Literary Document
(= Functional Type V), i. e. poems, ḥadīth collections, juridical treatises, etc.
Documents obviously refer to five major semantic domains and social institu-
tions: (1) Official letters, receipts, and tables of taxpayers are part of the system
of State Tax Collection (= Semantic Domain 1) by which the state forced groups
to pay taxes. (2) Quite differently, agreements on marriage and divorce, and on
selling and renting, were part of the Legal System (= Semantic Domain 2), i. e.
they were primarily agreed upon between individuals, were protected by addi-
tional testimonies, and were written down following the rules of Islamic law, pos-
sibly to be enforceable secondarily in court. (3) Business and private letters, for
their part, were a secondary yet integral tool in the Networks of Trust (= Semantic
Domain 3) in business and private matters between both individuals and groups,
and served to enforce the oral messages delivered by messengers. (4) Amulets,
horoscopes, and prescriptions provide Knowledge to Be Applied (= Semantic
Domain 4), while (5) literary text documents mostly serve to be used for Teaching
(= Semantic Domain 5). And again, there are other semantic domains I have not
mentioned.

The categories within these three taxonomies do not correlate directly. A func-
tional Letter (= Functional Type I) might semantically be part either of State
Tax Collection (= Semantic Domain 1) or of the Networks of Trust (= Semantic
Domain 3). If written in Umayyad times, it follows the conventions of Formal Type
C, the Kitāb Document, and starts off with hādhā kitāb min fulān, “The follow-
ing is a document from so-and-so”, whereas later it follows the conventions of
Formal Type D and begins, if from the ʿAbbāsid period, after some blessings, with
katabtu ʾilayka ʿan salāma, “I am writing to you in plain health”, yet if in the
Fāṭimid period, with Formal Type G al-mamlūk yuqabbil al-arḍ, “The slave kisses
the ground.” A Legal Agreement (= Formal Type III) such as a marriage contract
might be a formal agreement on the bride price (ṣadāq) or the minutes of how the
witnesses testified (shahāda) that the parties had agreed on a legally valid mar-
riage, i. e., one of the other subtypes of the Legal Deed (Formal Type E).
Formal (diplomatic) types Functional types Semantic domains
(A) Protocol (I) Letter (1) State Tax Collection

(B) Table (II) Register (2) Legal System
(C) hādhā kitāb min fulān (III) Agreement (3) Networks of Trust
(D) katabtu ʾilayka ʿan salāma (IV) Semi-Literary Document (4) Knowledge to be Applied
(E) hādhā mā štarà fulān (V) Literary Document (5) Teaching
(F) idfaʿ ʾilà fulān
(G) al-mamlūk yuqabbil al-ʾarḍ
(H) ṣadarat hādhihi l-mukātaba
(I) rusima bi-ʾamr sharīf
(J) lammā kānā bi-taʾrīkh
Currently, my own focus is on Kitāb Documents (= Formal Type C) from the period
up to 800. When reading them, I must always check the Qurʾānic references.
And the more I have done so, the more I have been struck by a structural par-
allel between these Kitāb Documents and the Qurʾānic Suras:⁴ (a) most begin
with the Basmala, (b) most continue with a kind of prologue, (c) all then have
a longer main part, and (d) there are additional notes. On the following pages,
I first provide some basic information on the historical context of both corpora,
i. e. the pre-800 Kitāb Documents (= Formal Type C) and the Qurʾānic Suras, then
focus on the four document and Sura parts just mentioned, and end with some
conclusions.
4 Comparing Qurʾānic Suras to original documents has been suggested by Bellamy 1973, 279;
281‒282; Schmucker 1995, 121 n. 26; Ambros 2004, 333.

316 Andreas Kaplony
The Two Corpora: Pre-800 Kitāb Documents and

Qurʾānic Suras
The papyrus collections of Egypt, Europe, and North America preserve 758 Arabic
papyrus or parchment documents that have been dated to pre-800 and that have
been properly published, mostly in state-of-the-art editions complete with plates.
Out of these, 225 Kitāb Documents have a characteristic tripartite structure (see
Appendix).⁵ The first bloc of this structure is the Basmala (bi-smi llāhi l-raḥmāni
l-raḥīm); the second bloc has a self-referring title introduced by hādhā kitāb min
fulān li-fulān (or ʾilà fulān), “The following is a writ from so-and-so to so-and-so”,
sometimes shortened to min fulān li-fulān, “From so-and-so to so-and-so”; and
the third bloc is the long main part introduced by fa-, “so”, ʾammā baʿdu fa-, “and
then, so”, or ʾinna, “behold”. This structure can also be visually marked: the
Basmala, the title, and usually also the main part each start on a new line.
The background of the Kitāb Document is the Islamic Empire, which had
been growing ever since, after the first secession (ridda) of the Arab tribes after
Muḥammad’s death, the leaders of the Islamic movement were able to bundle
various centrifugal efforts and build up an Islamic Empire. The empire was led by
a relatively small Arab-Muslim elite who stressed the importance of their distinct
version of a general theist religion (Islām) by means of a distinct (Arabic) writing
system and a distinct (Arabic) language. It was an empire that included a huge
number of communities with very diverse writing systems (e. g. Greek, Syriac,
and Sabaic), very diverse languages (e. g. Latin/Romance, Coptic, Sogdian), and
very diverse religions (e. g. Rabbinic Judaism, Mandeism, and Manicheism). Let
me stress that although the Arabic sources of the time describe both the internal
affairs of the small Arab-Muslim elite and all state affairs ‒ i. e. all the business
this elite group had with the many other peoples of the Islamic Empire – the daily
lives of these other peoples are much better described in sources in Greek, Syriac,
Coptic, etc.
This ever-growing empire is not only the background of our Kitāb Docu-
ments, but also the background of the Qurʾān text as we have it. We are obviously
fascinated by the possibility that, through the Qurʾān, we might reach back into
Muḥammad’s time. Yet it is for good reason that we refer to compilations such as
the Kitāb al-ʾaghānī and the Muʿdjam al-buldān by the names of their compilers
‒ Abū l-Faradj al-Iṣfahānī and Yāqūt al-Rūmī, respectively ‒ for the final choice
and arrangement of the material goes back to them, not to the authors of the bits
5 For a first impression of how an early eighth-century archive from Egypt might include both
official letters and private letters by officials, see Sijpesteijn 2013.

and pieces compiled. Let us apply this same standard to the Qurʾān and stress the
importance of its compilers.
There is almost total consensus as to who the compilers of the Qurʾān were.
Even later Muslim scholars (who would have had the most interest in pushing
the date of the compilation as far back as possible and making the compilation a
well-pondered act) are unanimous in stating that the caliphs ʿUthmān b. ʿAffān
(644‒656) and ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān (685‒705) took one of the existing private
compilations ‒ possibly the one compiled by Zayd b. Thābit at the order of the
caliph ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb (634‒644) ‒ and had it written out in a very small
number of authoritative copies. These authoritative copies were then sent to the
regional headquarters of the empire where, in all official recitation, only this lec-
tionary was to be used from that point on.⁶ As such, this Islamic lectionary was a
parallel to the Christian and Jewish lectionaries of the time.⁷ Whether we accept
6 For the compilation ‒ i. e. codification ‒ of the Qurʾān, see Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961,
44‒55; 159; 172–173; 200; 209; 226‒227; 261; Caetani 1914, 388‒418; Caetani 1915; Minga-
na 1917a; Mingana 1917b; Nöldeke/Schwally 1919/1961; Bauer 1921, 6; 8; 20; Goossens
1923, especially 216‒226; Jeffery 1937, 1‒10; Bergsträsser/Pretzl 1938/1961, 6‒8; 118‒119;
Blachère 1959/1991, 1‒135; 182‒198; Watt 1970/1977, 30‒56; 88‒107; 111; 138‒140; 143‒144;
Bellamy 1973; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 276‒280; Nagel 1983; Kandil 1992, 47‒48; Neuwirth/
Neuwirth 1992, 334; 346‒347; Schoeler 1992, 19‒27; 31‒33; Modarressi 1993 (almost totally
neglecting all former research); Schmucker 1995; Massey 1996; Neuwirth 1996, especially
69‒78; 95; 98; 102‒103; Donner 1998, 35‒61; Whelan 1998; Neuwirth 2000; Welch 2000, 110;
Böwering 2001, 325‒327; 331‒335; Burton 2001; Madigan 2001a, 13‒52; 70; 183‒184; Madigan
2001b, 247; Motzki 2001; Graham 2002, 191; Neuwirth 2002, 245‒251; 263‒264; de Prémare
2002, 278‒323; Massey 2003; Motzki 2003; Lowin, 2004; de Prémare 2005; Hamdan 2006,
135‒174; Neuwirth 2006a, 166‒167; 174; Neuwirth 2006b, 424; de Prémare 2006; Radscheit
2006; Reynolds 2006; Wild 2006a, 11‒12; 16‒17; 20‒21; Wild 2006b, 140‒142; Déroche 2007;
Neuwirth 2007, 18*‒24*; Böwering 2008; Donner 2008, 41‒42; 50; Sinai 2009, 6‒7; 23‒58;
244‒245; Powers 2009, 155‒196 (and 291‒296); 227‒233 (and 302); Dayeh 2010, 464‒468; Ham-
dan 2010; Neuwirth 2010, 24; 29; 107‒114; 190‒192; 235‒253; 328; 343‒345; 363; 367; 392‒393;
516‒517; Schoeler 2010; Déroche 2011, 71‒76; 141‒188; Sadeghi/Bergmann 2010; Boisliv-
eau 2012; Comerro 2012, especially 6‒7; 197‒199; Sadeghi/Goudarzi 2012; Shoemaker 2012,
136‒158; Sinai 2012, 19‒28; Imbert 2013, 119‒121; Bannister 2014, 12‒31; 161; 165‒166 (and
204); 192‒194; 197; 281; Boisliveau 2014a, 27; 320‒321 and 347 (sic); Gilliot 2014; Sinai 2014;
Comerro 2015; Sinai 2015‒2016, 73‒75; Sinai 2016, 133‒136; Sinai 2017a; Sinai 2017c, 25‒34;
40‒58; 87; 92‒104; Stewart 2017, 17‒19; 48‒50.
7 Blachère 1959/1991, 62; 65‒70; 91; 96; 99; Schoeler 1992 n. 99: “Syrisch qeryānā hat selbst
die doppelte Bedeutung anagnōsis (‘Lesen’, ‘Vorlesen’, ‘Vorlesung’) und anagnōsma (‘was ge-
lesen wird’, ‘verlesene Stelle’, ‘Lektionar’)”; Neuwirth 1996, 90; de Prémare 2006, 45‒46;
Madigan 2001a, 16 n. 12 emphasizes that “lectionary” would be Syriac kǝthāḇā dhǝ-qeryānā;
Neuwirth 2007, 22* “Mit dem offiziellen Koran entstand ein Lektionar, eine Perikopensam-
mlung, d. h. ein Corpus, aus dem Texte zur liturgischen Rezitation ausgewählt werden können”;

318 Andreas Kaplony
this account verbatim or only in its basic layout, we all agree that the compilation
was ordered by pre-Umayyad and/or Umayyad officials of the Islamic Empire.
We may accordingly suspect that the compilation followed the agenda that these
officials had in mind.
If the context of the compilation is clear, the text is not at all: it presents a
serious headache. The Qurʾān consists of 114 Suras: one short Sura (Q 1); eight
very long Suras, making up one-third of the Qurʾān (Q 2‒9); 19 middle-length
Suras, making up another one-third (Q 10‒28); and the 86 short and very short
ones of the last one-third (Q 29‒114). The number of manuscripts and prints of the
Qurʾān preserved is uncountable, and worse, there is no textus receptus, i. e. no
text accepted by all Muslims (modern prints provide slightly different texts), and
there is no critical edition. Yet for pre-800 Qurʾān manuscript parts, the number
of copies preserved is relatively small, and they are mostly well published in
state-of-the-art publications complete with plates, even though there again is no
critical edition proper. For this research, I read the text provided electronically by
the Amman-based Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute (www.altafsir.org).
This all implies that, in the best case, we are able to restore what the text of the
Qurʾān copies ordered by the caliph ʿUthmān might have consisted of. Yet there
is next to no hope of being able to restore the layout of the originally compiled
Qurʾān because as soon as documents are copied, they tend to lose most informa-
tion on layout. Preserved pre-800 Qurʾān copies might retain some information,
and we might want to suppose that the compiled Qurʾān had a layout similar to
that of the preserved Kitāb Documents ‒ i. e. that originally the Basmala, the title,
and possibly also the main part each started on a new line ‒ but there is no way to
know this for sure. Thus, in what follows, we are focusing on text only.
Neuwirth 2010, 363 and n. 65: “Wenn der Koran ‒ wie sein Name qurʾān (ein Lehnwort aus
dem Syrischen: qeryānā, ‘Lektionar, Perikope, Lesung’) bereits nahezulegen scheint ‒ am Ende,
nach dem Tode des Verkünders, zu einem eigenen Perikopenbuch für die Entnahme von Texten
zum kultischen Vortrag der Muslime wird …” and “Sowohl Juden als auch orientalische Christen
kennen neben ihren Bibelkodizes eigene Perikopenbücher, tiqqun soferim bzw. evangelistarion,
die die jeweiligen liturgischen Leseabschnitte des Tages für den praktischen, d. h. mündlich[en]
Gebrauch, kontext-isoliert darbieten”. Gilliot 2011, 125‒126; Gilliot 2012, 394‒395 mentions a
number of lectionaries to be used in the Syriac Churches: the Ktābā d-Qeryānā with selections
from Law, Prophets and Acts, the Evangelion with selections from the four Gospels, the Shǝlīḥā
with selections from the Pauline Epistles, the Davida with Psalms, and finally the Targūmā with
metrical homilies to be read after the Qeryānā and the Shǝlīḥā.

Document Basmala vs. Sura Basmala⁸

All our Kitāb Documents (insofar as the upper part has been preserved) begin
with the full Basmala, i. e. with bi-smi llāhi l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm, “In the Name of
Allāh, of al-Raḥmān, the merciful”, combining in one and the same formula the
usual name of God, allāh, with al-raḥmān, the Arabic calque of God’s Aramaic
and Sabaic names, raḥmān-ā and raḥmān-ān, respectively.⁹
What about the formula’s three elements being used in documents outside
the Basmala? Allāh is used in many blessings, while bi-sm (“in the name of”) and
al-raḥmān are only used as part of the Basmala. Let us conclude that in the Kitāb
Documents, the full Basmala bi-smi llāhi l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm, as well as its two ele-
ments bi-sm and al-raḥmān, unambiguously mark the beginning of a single doc-
ument.
Things immediately become interesting if we apply this to the Qurʾān. In the
Qurʾān, the full Basmala bi-smi llāhi l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (“In the Name of Allāh, of
al-Raḥmān, the merciful”) is found at the beginning of 113 out of 114 Suras (Sura
9 has no Basmala), as well as at the beginning of Solomo’s letter (kitāb, Q 27: 29)
to the Queen of Sheba (Q 27: 30‒31).
Solomo’s letter to the Queen of Sheba: qālat [the Queen of Sheba] yā-ʾayyuhā l-malaʾu
ʾinnī ʾulqiya ʾilayya kitābun karīm (30) ʾinnahum min sulaymāna wa-ʾinnahu bi-smi-llāhi
l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (31) ʾallā taʿlū ʿalayya wa-ʾtūnī muslimīn Q 27: 29‒31. – See also the impe-
ratives iqraʾ bi-smi rabbika Q 96: 1; fa-sabbiḥ bi-smi rabbika l-ʿaẓīm Q 56: 74; Q 69: 52; sabbiḥi
sma rabbika l-ʾaʿlà Q 87: 1; and Noah’s order to board the Ark: wa-qāla rkabū fīhā bi-smi llāhi
madjràhā wa-musràhā ʾinna rabbī ghafūrun raḥīm Q 11: 43.
8 For the Sura Basmala, see Nöldeke/Schwally 1919/1961, 46; 79‒81; 116‒117; Blachère
1959/1991, 49; 142‒144; Bellamy 1973; Kandil 1992, 48; Schmucker 1995, 120‒123; Neuwirth
1996, 102; Graham 2001; Böwering 2002, 318; Neuwirth 2006b, 424; Neuwirth 2010, 175 n.
117; 201; 241; 443; 473; Bannister 2014, 140 (and 160).
9 Jomier 1957, 370; Imbert 2013, 119 both emphasize that the Basmala combines God’s names
allāh and al-raḥmān. ‒ For the provenance of al-Raḥmān and its use in the Qurʾān, see Nöldeke/
Schwally 1909/1961, 112‒113; 121; Horovitz 1926, 29 A.1; Jeffery 1938/2007, 140‒141; Moubarac
1955, 95; 123; Jomier 1957; Moubarac 1957, 57‒61; Chelhod 1958, 165; 167; Blachère 1959/1991,
255 n. 367; Watt 1970/1977, 110–112; 118; 152–153; Bellamy 1973, 271‒272; van Ess 1975, 158‒160;
Neuwirth 1996, 71‒72; Greenfield 2000; Böwering 2001, 324; Graham 2001, 208‒209; Jomi-
er 2001; Madigan 2001a, 86; Böwering 2002, 317‒318; Kister 2003, 460; Ambros/Procházka
2004, 305; Robin 2006, 566‒567; Gajda 2009, 224‒232; al-Azmeh 2010, 66‒67 (who suggests
distinguishing, in the Qurʾān, between Rabbanist, Rahmanist and Allahist pericopes); Neu-
wirth 2010, 473‒474; Stein 2010, 568; Sinai 2017c, 133; 154‒155; Imbert 2013, 118 emphasiz-
es the replacement of the standard Qurʾānic allāh by al-raḥmān in a graffito quoting Q 26: 89:
ʾillā man ʾatà l-raḥmāna bi-qalbin salīm (al-Ḥisān 2006: 29 no. 5; Early ʿAbbāsid; al-Ashāqif al-
Djanūbī, Jordan).

320 Andreas Kaplony
There is only one conclusion to be drawn: the compilers of the Qurʾān wanted
to emphasize that the single Suras were autonomous documents, and that the
Qurʾān as a whole was a collective manuscript made up of single independent
manuscripts that were only secondarily put together.¹⁰
10 Blachère 1959/1991 constantly uses the term “corpus,” and no other term, to designate the
collection of Suras preserved in the Koran, as well as all earlier collections, e. g. 34 (“Dans ces
conditions, il est permis de se demander si l’initiative de ʿOmar [the initiative to collect doc-
uments preserving the text of the Koran] sanctionnée ou non par l’authorité d’Abou Bakr, ne
procédait pas d’une autre cause: le désir de posséder personellement un corpus de la Révéla-
tion tout comme en avaient d’autres Compagnons du Prophète”); 136 (“Très tôt, probablement à
l’époque oû se constituent les corpus d’Abou-Bakr, d’Obayy, d’ibn Masʿoud et d’autres, on prend
l’habitude d’employer le terme qurʾan, non plus avec sa signification primitive de ‘prédication’,
mais avec celle de ‘livre contenant la prédication’”); 166 (”Cette situation … conduit à quelques
disparates dans la langue de notre Vulgate.”); 168 (“on a là les trace d’une hétérogénéité très
certainement ancienne mais qui ne peut être le fait du Prophète”); de Prémare 2006, 29‒30
(“Le Coran tel qu’il se présente aujourd’hui est un assemblage de textes, un corpus … De toute
manière, lorsque nous parlons du Coran, nous avons affaire à un corpus d’écritures et non à une
entité indépendante de cette réalité concrète et observable … Tel qu’il se présente actuellement,
le Coran est effectivement hétérogène et fragmenté. Les cent quatorze ‘sourates’, de longueurs
étonnamment variables … ne sont pas véritablement des chapitres. Il peut s’agir de morceaux
isolés à thème unique, constitués d’à peine trois à sept lignes … Mail il peut s’agir, à l’invers …
de collections de fragments sur des thèmes différents. La logique interne de l’assemblage n’y
apparaît pas et reste à trouver.”); Sinai 2006, 110 (“In most of the early recititations, it is clearly
the individual sūra rather than the qurʾānic corpus as a whole which constitutes the basic tex-
tual unity and thus defines the horizon of self-referentiality.”); Neuwirth 2007, 21* (“Der Koran
ist, so wie er auf uns gekommen ist, eine ‘Sammlung’ von Einzeltexten, Suren, deren Anord-
nung im Kodex keiner chronologischen, geschweige denn erzähltechnisch logischen Konzeption
folgt. Die Anordnung der 114 Suren lässt auch keine theologische Konzeption erkennen, wie sie
etwa den einzelnen Evangelien unterliegt, noch weniger bietet der Koran eine fortlaufende Er-
zählung wie der Pentateuch.”); 39* (“Der Gesamtkoran in seiner uns vorliegenden Form mag
zwar äußerlich ein gestaltloses Archiv von Einzelsuren sein …”); Larcher 2014, 67; Sinai 2017c,
1 (“the internal heterogeneity of the Qurʾanic corpus”); 5; 11; 14; 25‒30; 48; 54. ‒ For the Sura
as the one unit, see Horovitz 1926, 1‒3; Blachère 1959/1991, 259‒260; Neuwirth 1981/2007;
Nagel 1983, 143‒144; Kandil 1996a, 5‒6; Neuwirth 1996, 69‒70; 102; Böwering 2001, 321‒322;
Neuwirth 2002, 246‒248; 255; Neuwirth 2004, 471‒473; de Prémare 2006, 35; Neuwirth
2006a, 166‒167; Neuwirth 2007, 38*‒40* (“Kompositionseinheit Sure”); Böwering 2008, 71;
Sinai 2009, 63; 80; 245; Neuwirth 2010, 276‒331, especially 276–280; 464 (“In einer späteren
Phase, in Medina, … figurieren ganz Suren als Manifestationen des kitāb”); Sadeghi/Goudarzi
2012, 21–23; Boisliveau 2014a, 223–224; Sinai 2016, 137–140; Sinai 2017b, 106; 119; Sinai 2017c,
87–92.

God’s Names allāh vs. al-raḥmān vs. rabb

al-ʿālamīn: A Hegemonic Term vs. Two Minority
Terms
Looking at the Basmala’s elements opens up further horizons. Throughout the
Qurʾān, the combination allāh al-raḥmān, “Allāh (God’s name in North Arabic)
al-Raḥmān (a calque from his Sabaic name),” exists only in Sura 1, and there a
third name of God, rabb al-ʿālamīn, “The Lord of the Eternities” (a calque from
the Hebrew ribbōn ha-ʿōlamīm, Greek βασιλεὺς τῶν αἰῶνων), is added: allāh rabb
al-ʿālamīn al-raḥmān, “Allāh, the Lord of the Eternities, al-Raḥmān.”¹¹ Allāh alone
is present in almost every Sura. Al-raḥmān alone figures in 16 Suras (Q 2; 13; 17; 19;
20; 21; 25; 26; 36; 41; 43; 50; 55; 59; 67; 78),¹² and once explicitly as an alternative
to allāh.¹³ Rabb al-ʿālamīn shows up in 20 Suras (2; 5; 6; 7; 10; 26; 27; 28; 32; 37; 39;
40; 41; 43; 45; 56; 69; 59; 81; 83), either alone¹⁴ or in the combination allāh rabb
al-ʿālamīn.¹⁵ Our conclusion: the omnipresent term allāh is part of the hegemonic
terminology, whereas rabb al-ʿālamīn and al-raḥmān are minority terminologies
only used in two groups of Suras; all three terms are combined in Sura 1 only.¹⁶
11 Allāh rabb al-ʿālamīn al-raḥmān: Q 1: 2. For the provenance of rabb al-ʿālamīn (“the Lord of
the Eternities”), see Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 112; Jeffery 1938/2007, 208–209; Mouba-
rac 1955, 332; Chelhod 1958 (rabb); Calderini 1994, 52; de Prémare 2002, 437‒438: n. 156;
see also Böwering 2001, 329; Böwering 2002, 319 (rabb); Imbert 2013, 112, 118‒119. ‒ Imbert,
Frédéric 2013, 112 emphasizes that āmīn ʾāmin rabb al-ʿālamīn is much seen in the graffiti found
between Palmyra and Nadjrān.
12 Al-raḥmān only: Q 2: 163; 13: 30; 19: 18; 19: 26; 19: 44; 19: 45; 19: 58; 19: 61; 19: 69; 19: 75; 19:
78; 19: 85; 19: 87; 19: 88; 19: 91; 19: 92; 19: 93; 19: 96; 20: 5; 20: 90; 20: 108; 20: 109; 21: 26; 21: 36;
21: 42; 21: 112; 25: 26; 25: 59; 25: 60 (2x); 25: 63; 26: 5; 36: 11; 36: 15; 36: 23; 36: 52; 41: 2; 43: 17; 43:
19; 43: 20; 43: 33; 43: 36; 43: 45; 43: 81; 50: 33; 55: 1; 59: 22; 67: 3; 67: 19; 67: 20; 67: 29; 78: 37: 78:
38. ‒ Al-raḥmān is unknown to those listening: Q 25: 60.
13 Allāh and al-raḥmān are alternatives in quli dʿū llāha ʾawi dʿū l-raḥmāna ʾayyāmā tadʿū fa-la-
hu l-ʾasmāʾu l-ḥusnà, “Say: ask Allāh or ask al-Raḥmān, whichsoever you ask, he has the most
beautiful names,” Q 17: 110.
14 Rabb al-ʿālamīn only in Q 2: 131; 5: 28; 6: 71; 7: 67; 7: 104; 7: 121; 10: 37; 26: 16; 26: 23; 26: 47; 26:
77; 26: 98; 26: 109; 26: 127; 26: 145; 26: 164; 26: 180; 26: 192; 32: 1; 37: 2; 37: 87; 40: 66; 41: 9; 43: 46;
56: 80; 69: 43; 83: 6. ‒ Rabb al-ʿālamīn is unknown to Pharao: qāla firʿawnu wa-mā rabbu l-ʿālamī-
na (24) qāla rabbu l-samawāti wa-l-ʾarḍi wa-mā baynahumā ʾin kuntum mūqinīn Q 26: 23‒24.
15 Allāh rabb al-ʿālamīn: Q 6: 45; 6: 162; 7: 54; 7: 61; 10: 10; 27: 8; 27: 44; 28: 30; 37: 182; 39: 75; 40:
64; 40: 65; 59: 16; 81: 29, see also fa-li-llāhi l-ḥamdu rabbi l-samawāti wa-l-ʾarḍi rabbi l-ʿālamīn Q
45: 36.
16 Jomier 1957, 366 n. 1 discusses the uses of allāh and al-raḥmān and adds: “Le fait que l’Islam
ait préféré Allah comme nom principal du Dieu unique …”

322 Andreas Kaplony
Nevertheless, the two minority terminology groups overlap. The three Suras
2, 41, and 59 have both terms once.¹⁷ Sura 43 has overhwelmingly al-raḥmān,¹⁸
and Sura 26 overwhelmingly rabb al-ʿālamīn,¹⁹ but each has one reference to the
alternative term. For the time being, it is best to assign these five Suras to a mixed
group. Thus, for the moment, we have a pure al-raḥmān group of 11 Suras (Q 13;
17; 19; 20; 21; 25; 36; 50; 55; 67; 78), a pure rabb al-ʿālamīn group of 15 Suras (Q 5;
6; 7; 10; 27; 28; 32; 37; 39; 40; 45; 56; 69; 81; 83), and a mixed al-raḥmān-and-rabb
al-ʿālamīn group of 5 Suras (Q 2; 26; 41; 43; 59).
There remain two problems. The fact that Sura 9 has no Basmala implies that
the compilers did not consider Sura 9 but rather Suras 8+9 together an independ-
ent document. Yet Sura 9 has a title:
barāʾatun mina llāhi wa-rasūlihi ʾilà lladhīna ʿāhadtum mina l-mushrikīn … (3) wa-ʾadhānun
mina llāhi wa-rasūlihi ʾilà l-nāsi yawma l-ḥadjdji l-ʾakbari
“An acquittal from God and His Messenger to those from the Mushrikūn with whom you have
made an agreement … (3) and a permit from God and His Messenger to the people on the day
of the Greatest Feast …” Q 9: 2‒3
We need to conclude that titles were prior to Basmalas, and that Suras 8+9 had
reached the compilers as one document (therefore the single Basmala), yet as a
complex document made up of two different documents (each with its own title).
Later on, the scribes trusted the title (and the length)²⁰ more than the Basmala,
considered the composite document again as two documents rather than one,
put them in order where the lengths of the two separate halves (rather than of
both halves together) fitted, and visually marked them separately as Suras 8 and
Sura 9.
The other problem is the Basmala in front of Sura 1. Was this Basmala meant
to open Sura 1 only (in which case the Qurʾān as a whole would have had no
Basmala), or to open the entire Qurʾān (in which case Sura 1 would have had
no Basmala, rather being a kind of prologue to the Qurʾān as a whole), or both?
Now, given the fact that Sura 1, despite its shortness, is placed out of order at
17 Three Suras with al-raḥmān and rabb al-ʿālamīn: al-raḥmān Q 2: 163 vs. rabb al-ʿālamīn Q 2:
131; al-raḥmān Q 41: 2 vs. rabb al-ʿālamīn Q 41: 9; and al-raḥmān Q 59: 22 vs. allāh rabb al-ʿālamīn
Q 59: 16.
18 Sura 43: al-raḥmān Q 43: 17; 43: 19; 43: 20; 43: 33; 43: 36; 43: 45; 43: 81 vs. rabb al-ʿālamīn Q
43: 46.
19 Sura 26: al-raḥmān Q 26: 5 vs. rabb al-ʿālamīn Q 26: 47; 26: 77; 26: 98; 26: 109; 26: 127; 26: 145;
26: 164; 26: 180; 26: 192.
20 Bauer 1921, 8.

the Qurʾān’s beginning, and that this is the only Sura in which all three names
of God, i. e. allāh, rabb al-ʿālamīn and al-raḥmān, are mentioned, I am inclined
to consider Sura 1 indeed what it is later called: a separate Fāṭiḥat al-Kitāb, “the
Opening of the Book,”²¹ i. e. a kind of preface, and to assign the Basmala to all of
the Qurʾān only.
Let us combine all this with the traditional Muslim narrative of how, under
the caliphs ʿUmar and ʿUthmān, all texts said to preserve Muḥammad’s revela-
tion were compiled into a small number of authoritative copies of the Qurʾān. We
should add that, according to the standard account, nothing was changed in the
texts themselves, but each was carefully marked as being an independent text
and then they were simply added to one another. This is basically the approach
we find with the parallel texts of Samuel and Kings in the Old Testament, and
with the parallel texts of the four Gospels in the New Testament.²² In all three
cases the compilers took texts that clearly were in parallel, and did not merge
them but bound them together into one book. Obviously the books the compilers
had in front of them ‒ i. e. Samuel and Kings, and Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John,
and possibly the 113 Suras ‒ were themselves composite texts. Here, however, we
are not dealing with their interior structure but only with the compilers’ grouping
of them into a major book. Our preliminary result: the Qurʾān was not intended to
be a monograph, but rather a compilation of independent writs.
21 For fāʿila-type verbal nouns, see Ullmann 2013, 11‒278. ‒ For the special place of Suras 1, 113,
and 114, possibly also of Sura 112, see Bauer 1921, 1‒2; Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 36; 38;
41‒42; 68; 108‒116; Goossens 1922, 196; 201; Blachère 1959/1991, 44; 190; Goitein 1966/2010,
77; 82‒84; Watt 1970/1977, 58; Neuwirth / Neuwirth 1992, 335‒338; Neuwirth 1996, 102‒103;
Whelan 1998, 9; Burton 2001, 359; Graham 2002, 142; 188‒189; Neuwirth 2002, 247; de
Prémare 2002, 303‒304; Neuwirth 2006b, 424‒425; de Prémare 2006, 35‒36; 77; 87; Rad-
scheit 2006, 95; Neuwirth 2010, 192‒193; 244‒245; 371‒372; 392; 459‒462; Sinai 2012, 20; 66;
Sinai 2014, 521; Sinai 2016, 137; Sinai 2017b, 108; Sinai 2017c, 26; 131; 161.
22 I owe the idea of these parallels to the kindness of Mirjam Lindgren Hjälm (formerly Munich,
now Uppsala).

324 Andreas Kaplony
In Between the Basmala and the Main Part
Sura Prologue 1: Document Title vs. Sura Title
In the Kitāb Documents, there is a title in between the Basmala and the main part.
This is usually a syntactically detached noun plus epithets to characterize the
document as such, sometimes followed by blessings, e. g.
Hādhā kitābun min qurrata bni sharīkin li-ʾahli (4) ʾurūs marīya mina l-qurà l-sharqīya
“This following is a writ from Qurra b. Sharīk for the people of (4) Horos Maria from the
Eastern Villages” (P.Cair.Arab. 162.3–4; 91/709–710; Ishqaw)
Hādhā kitābu barāʾatin min mūsà bni salmāna wa-khīb (3) ibni nashbūd li-mīri l-bāmiyānīyi
“This following is a writ of acquittal from Mūsà b. Salmān and Khīb b. Nashbūd for the mīr
of al-Bāmiyānī” (P.Khorasan 27.2–3; 149/766; Balkh).
The introductory hādhā kitāb might be dropped, as in
Li-ʿabdi llāhi bni qaysin min yaḥyà bni l-ḥadjdjādji salāmun ʿalayka fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu (2)
ʾilayka llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa
For ʿAbd Allāh b. Qays from Yaḥyà b. al-Ḥadjdjādj – greeting to you, as I am praising, in
front of you, God concerning whom we say: there is no godhood except Him” (P.Berl.Arab.
II 23.1‒2; 643‒700; Egypt?).
Min nādjidi bni muslimin ʾilà ʿabdi llāhi bni ʾasʿada (3) salāmun ʿalayka fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu (4)
ʾilayka llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha (5) ʾillā huwa
From Nādjid b. Muslim to ʿAbd Allāh b. Asʿad (3) ‒ greeting to you, as I am praising, (4) in
front of you, God concerning whom we say: there is no godhood (5) except Him” (P.State
20.2‒5; 730‒750; al-Fayyūm).
If we compare this with the Qurʾānic Suras, we must keep in mind, as Muslim tra-
dition unanimously stresses, that the Sura header with the Sura name ‒ e. g. sūrat
al-baqara, “The Sura of the Cow” (Q 2) ‒ is not part of the original text.²³ Never-
theless, 24 Suras have a title similar to our Kitāb Documents: a detached noun,
23 For Sura names, see Bergsträsser/Pretzl 1938/1961, 259‒260; Blachère 1959/1991, 99;
140‒141; Watt 1970/1977, 59; Kandil 1992; Déroche 2003, 257; Motzki 2003, 465‒466; Neu-
wirth 2006a, 166; de Prémare 2006, 31‒32.

possibly with epithets, possibly followed by blessings. The main part follows only
after the Basmala and the title.²⁴
Dhālika l-kitābu lā rayba fīhi hudan li-l-muttaqīn (3) alladhīna yuʾminūna bi-l-ghaybi
wa-yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-mimmā razaqnāhum yunfiqūn (4) wa-lladhīna yuʾminūna bi-mā
ʾunzila ʾilayka wa-mā ʾunzila min qablika wa-bi-l-ʾākhirati hum yūqinūn
“That following writ has no ambiguity in it, a right-guidance for those Fearing (God), (3)
who trust in the Unseen, perform prayer, and spend from what We (God speaking) give, (4)
and who trust in what has been consigned to you and what has been consigned before you,
and on the Last Day they rely” (Q 2: 1‒4).
ʾlmṣ (2) kitābun ʾunzila ʾilayka fa-lā yakun fī ṣadrika ḥaradjun minhu li-tundhira bihi wa-
dhikrà li-l-muttaqīn
“ʾlmṣ. A writ that was consigned to you, and therefore, there should be no hardship in your
breast if you warn (people) by it, and a reminder for those who fear (God)” (Q 7: 1‒2).
These titles each use one of four options, or groups of terms, to refer to the indi-
vidual Sura that follows. First, the Sura might be called kitāb, “a document”
(Q 2; 11; 14); kitāb wa-dhikrà, “a document and an invocation” (Q 7);²⁵ barāʾa
wa-ʾadhān, “an acquital and a permit” (Q 9); dhikr, “an invocation” (Q 19); or
24 For these introductory Sura titles, see Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 120 (“förmliche
Überschriften”); 173; Bauer 1921, 11; 15‒16 n. 1; 16 (all “Eingang”); 17 (“Überschriften”); Goos-
sens 1923, especially 219‒222 (“Einleitung”, “Einleitungstext”); Speight 1969, 206‒207; Watt
1970/1977, 64; 110; Bellamy 1973, 271 (“formal superscriptions”); Neuwirth 1981/2007, 252‒254
(“Offenbarungskündigung”; “formelhafte Einführung der Offenbarung = Rezitationsankün-
digung”); Neuwirth 1991, 32; Nagel 1995, 115‒119 (“Einleitungsformeln”); Schmucker 1995
(“ein titelartiger Satz”; “ein Motto, eine Überschrift … (wie eine verkürzte Titelüberschrift!)”;
Kandil 1996a, 33‒34; 37‒38; 45; 157; 183; Neuwirth 1996, 89‒90 (“eine … feierliche deiktische
Einleitung”); Neuwirth 2000, 148; Böwering 2001, 324; Madigan 2001b, 249; Neuwirth
2002, 247; 255 (“introductory formulas”); 260 (“at a later stage … whole sūras figure as manifes-
tations of al-kitāb); 261‒262 (“incipit of sūras”; “incipit”); Neuwirth 2002, 262; Madigan 2006,
63‒64; Sinai 2006, 116; 129‒130 (“In all these cases, dhālika/tilka reflects the metatextual gap
between a headline and what follows rather than the ontological gap between the Qurʾān and
the celestial kitāb”); Wild 2006a, 10; Sinai 2009, 9; 64‒71; Neuwirth 2010, 146‒158 (“Offen-
barungskündigung”; “incipit”); 293; 323‒324; 360‒362; Sinai 2010, 411; Sinai 2012, 64; Boisli-
veau 2014a, 365‒369 (“introductions et conclusions de parties, de sourates”; “titres”); Stewart
2011, 344‒345; Nagel 2014, 458; Drori 2016, 137; Sinai 2017c, 53 and 57 n. 64 (“Introductory
invocations of God’s ‘sending down’ (tanzīl) of ‘the Scripture’… Further surah openings contain
either a reference to God’s ‘sending down’ or make reference to ‘the Scripture’”); 100‒101; 121.
25 For dhikr, dhikrà, “invocation,” a calque from the Syriac dhikrā, “invocation,” see Ambros/
Procházka 2004, 104; Sinai 2017c, 105 n. 27.

326 Andreas Kaplony
sūra, “a chapter” (Q 24). Second, the titles name the Sura tanzīl al-kitāb, “the rev-
elation of the writ” (Q 32; 39; 40; 45; 46), or tanzīl kitāb, “a revelation writ” (Q 41).
And third, they describe it as encompassing ʾāyāt al-kitāb al-ḥakīm, “the signs of
the wise writ” (Q 10; 31); ʾāyāt al-kitāb al-mubīn, “the signs of the distinct writ”
(Q 12; 26; 28); ʾāyāt al-kitāb wa-lladhī ʾunzila ʾilayka, “the signs of the book and of
what has been consigned to you” (Q 13); or ʾāyāt al-kitāb wa-qurʾān mubīn, “the
signs of the writ and of a distinct recitation” (Q 15; 27). Finally, there are titles that
are embedded in a sentence (Q 42; 47; 98).
Titles in which the Sura is termed a document of some kind: ʾlm (2) dhālika l-kitābu lā rayba
fīhi hudan li-l-muttaqīn (3) alladhīna yuʾminūna bi-l-ghaybi wa-yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-mimmā
razaqnāhum yunfiqūn (4) wa-lladhīna yuʾminūna bi-mā ʾunzila ʾilayka wa-mā ʾunzila min
qablika wa-bi-l-ʾākhirati hum yūqinūn (5) ʾulāʾika ʿalà hudan min rabbihim wa-ulāʾika humu
l-mufliḥūn Q 2: 1‒5; ʾlmṣ (2) kitābun ʾunzila ʾilayka fa-lā yakun fī ṣadrika ḥaradjun minhu li-
tundhira bihi wa-dhikrà li-l-muttaqīn Q 7: 1‒2; barāʾatun mina llāhi wa-rasūlihi ʾilà lladhīna
ʿāhadtum mina l-mushrikīn (2) fa-sīḥū fī l-ʾarḍi ʾarbaʿata ʾashhurin wa-ʿlamū ʾannakum
ghayru muʿdjizī llāhi wa-ʾanna llāha mukhzī l-kāfirīn (3) wa-ʾadhānun mina llāhi wa-rasūlihi
ʾilà n-nāsi yawma l-ḥadjdji l-ʾakbari ʾanna llāha barīʾun mina l-mushrikīna wa-rasūluhu
fa-ʾin tubtum fa-huwa khayrun lakum wa-ʾin tawallaytum fa-ʿlamū ʾannakum ghayru muʿdjizī
llāhi wa-bashshiri lladhīna kafarū bi-ʿadhābin ʾalīm Q 9: 2‒3; ʾlr kitābun ʾuḥkimat ʾāyātuhā
thumma fuṣṣilat min ladun ḥakīmin khabīr Q 11: 1; ʾlr kitābun ʾanzalnāhu ʾilayka li-tukhridja
n-nāsa mina ẓ-ẓulumāti ʾilà n-nūri bi-ʾidhni rabbihim ʾilà ṣirāṭi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥamīd Q 14: 1; khyʿṣ
(2) dhikru raḥmati rabbika ʿabdahu zakarīyā Q 19: 1‒2; sūratun ʾanzalnāhā wa-faraḍnāhā
wa-ʾanzalnā fīhā ʾāyātin bayyinātin laʿallakum tadhakkarūn Q 24: 1; ḥm (2) tanzīlun mina
l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (3) kitābun fuṣṣilat ʾāyātuhu qurʾānan ʿarabīyan li-qawmin yaʿlamūn (3)
bashīran wa-nadhīran fa-ʾaʿraḍa ʾaktharuhum fa-hum lā yasmaʿūn Q 41: 1‒3. – There are two
unrelated titles: in Sura 41:²⁶ tanzīlun mina l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (3) kitābun fuṣṣilat ʾāyātuhu
Q 41: 1‒3 (as in the preceding paragraph). ‒ There is an additional title in the middle of Sura
38: kitābun ʾanzalnāhu ʾilayka mubārakun li-yaddabbarū ʾāyātihi wa-li-yatadhakkara ʾūlū
l-albāb Q 38: 29. ‒ See also the introductory oaths on the writ: ṣ wa-l-qurʾāni dhī l-dhikr
Q 38: 1; ḥm (2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 43: 1‒2; ḥm (2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 44: 1‒2; q wa-l-
qurʾāni l-madjīd Q 50: 1; ys (2) wa-l-qurʾāni l-ḥakīm.
Titles in which the Sura is termed “the revelation of the writ” or “a revelation writ”: ʾlm (2)
tanzīlu l-kitābi lā rayba fīhi min rabbi l-ʿālamīn Q 32: 1–2; tanzīlu l-kitābi mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi
l-ḥakīm Q 39: 1; ḥm (2) tanzīlu l-kitābi mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi l-ʿalīm (2) ghāfiri l-dhanbi wa-qābili
t-tawbi shadīdi l-ʿiqābi dhī l-ṭawli lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa ʾilayhi l-maṣīr Q 40: 1‒3; ḥm tanzīlun
mina l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (3) kitābun (as in the preceding paragraph) Q 41: 1‒3; ḥm (2) tanzīlu
l-kitābi mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥakīm Q 45: 1‒2; ḥm (2) tanzīlu l-kitābi mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥakīm
Q 46: 1‒2. – See also the oath: ḥm (2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 44: 1‒2.
26 Schmucker 1995, 111‒112.

Titles in which the Sura is termed “the signs (or: characters) of the writ”:²⁷ ʾlr tilka ʾāyātu
l-kitābi l-ḥakīm Q 10: 1; ʾlr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 12: 1; ʾlmr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi
wa-lladhī ʾunzila ʾilayka min rabbika l-ḥaqqu wa-lākinna ʾakthara n-nāsi lā yuʾminūn Q 13:
1; ʾlr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi wa-qurʾānin mubīn Q 15: 1; ṭsm (2) tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-mubīn
Q 26: 1‒2; ṭs tilka ʾāyātu l-qurʾāni wa-kitābin mubīn (2) hudan wa-bushrà li-l-muʾminīn
(3) alladhīna yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-yuʾtūna l-zakāta wa-hum bi-l-ʾākhirati hum yūqinūn Q
27: 1‒3; ṭsm (2) tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 28: 1‒2; ʾlm (2) tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-ḥakīm
(3) hudan wa-raḥmatan li-l-muḥsinīn (4) alladhīna yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-yuʾtūna l-zakāta
wa-hum bi-l-ʾakhirati hum yūqinūn Q 31: 1‒4.
Titles that are embedded in a sentence of the Sura itself: ḥm (2) ʿsq (3) ka-dhālika yūḥī
ʾilayka wa-ʾilà lladhīna min qablika llāhu l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm Q 42: 1‒3; alladhīna kafarū
wa-ṣaddū ʿan sabīli llāhi ʾaḍalla ʾaʿmālahum (2) wa-lladhīna ʾāmanū wa-ʿamilū l-ṣāliḥāti
wa-ʾāmanū bi-mā nuzzila ʿalà muḥammadin wa-huwa l-ḥaqqu min rabbihim kaffara
ʿanhum sayyiʾātihim wa-ʾaṣlaḥa bālahum Q 47: 1‒2; lam yakuni lladhīna kafarū min ʾahli
l-kitābi wa-l-mushrikīna munfakkīna ḥattà taʾtīhimi l-bayyina Q 98: 1.
The diversity of the terminology is a characteristic of the Qurʾān and nothing pecu-
liar. In the main parts, the oral revelation to Muḥammad and his predecessors – mā
nazzalnāhu or mā ʾanzalnāhu, “What We (God speaking) have consigned”, or mā
yūḥà, “What was communicated”, possibly from written copies – has many many
names. The revelation itself is mostly call ʾāya (pl. ʾāyāt) or bayyina (pl. bayy-
ināt), meaning “sign”; or kitāb (pl. kutub), “writ”, but also furqān, “redemption”;
bayān, “explanation”; burhān, “proof”; dhikr or dhikrā, “invocation”; ḥadīth (pl.
ʾaḥādīth), “saying”; ḥaqq, “truth”; ḥukm or ḥikma “decision”;²⁸ hudà, “right-guid-
ance”; ʿilm, “knowledge”; ʾīmān, “faith”; ʾindjīl, “Gospel”; kalima (pl. kalimāt),
“word”; lawḥ (pl. ʾalwāḥ), “plate”; mathānī, “stories”; mīzān, “balance”; nabaʾ
(pl. ʾanbāʾ), “message”; nūr, “light”; qaṣaṣ, “story”; qawl, “saying”; qurʾān,
“recitation”; risāla (pl. risālāt), “message”; rushd, “right-guidance”; sharīʿa,
“law”; ṣuḥuf, “pages”; sūra (pl. suwar), “chapter”; tadhkira, “reminder”; tawrāt,
“Thora”; yaqīn, “sure”; and zabūr (pl. zubur), “psalm.”²⁹
27 Usually, Arabic ʾāya is “sign,” while Hebrew ʾōth and Syriac ʾāthā is “character, letter”
(Nöldeke/Schwally 1919/1961, 74 n. 1) and Syriac ātūtā, even “argument, proof”; see Abra-
hamov 2006, 2‒3. ‒ Given the fact that the first two options for this title (kitāb, etc. and tan-
zīl al-kitāb, etc.) both belong to the sphere of writing, we should keep in mind to understand
ʾāyātu l-kitābi possibly as “letters of the writ, characters of the writ”; Neuwirth 2010, 433‒436;
447‒448; see also Jeffery 1938/2007, 72‒73; Schmucker 1995, 104; Madigan 2006, 62‒63; 69;
Neuwirth 2006b, 419; Boisliveau 2014a, 68‒82; Sinai 2017c, 36 n. 32.
28 For ḥikma possibly to be read as a variant of ḥukm, “decision”, see Madigan 2001, 93.
29 For the many names given to the oral revelation, see Madigan 2001a, 125‒144; Mir 2003;
Wild 2006b, 140‒147; Boisliveau 2014a, 25‒103; Boisliveau 2014b.

328 Andreas Kaplony
Sura Prologue 2: Oaths³⁰
The place in between the Basmala and the main part can be taken by a title, as
just shown. But this is only one of seven options as to how to realize the pro-
logue.³¹ In another 24 Suras, there is an oath instead of one of the other options.
wa-ṭ-ṭūr (2) wa-kitābin masṭūr (3) fī raqqin manshūr (4) wa-l-bayti l-maʿmūr (5) wa-l-saqfi
l-marfūʿ (6) wa-l-baḥri l-masdjūr
“By the Mountain (2), and a book written (3) upon a parchment stretched. (4) By the House
inhabited, (5) and the roof raised, (6) and the sea boiling” (Q 52: 1‒6).
wa-l-samāʾi dhāti l-burūdj (2) wa-l-yawmi l-mawʿūd (3) wa-shāhidin wa-mashhūd
“By the Heaven with the Zodiac (2) and the day promised (3) and those asking and being
asked for witness” (Q 85: 1‒3)
Oaths refer to the obvious signs of God’s rule. They encompass not only natural
phenomena but institutions such as Mount Sinai (al-ṭūr; ṭūr sīnīn), Mekka (al-
bayt al-maʿmūr, hādhā l-balad al-ʾamīn), and the ten (holy) nights (layālī ʿashr),
and also the writ itself (Q 2; 36; 38; 44; 50) ‒ called al-kitāb al-mubīn, ”the distinct
writ”; al-qurʾān dhū dhikr, “the recitation with an invocation”; al-qurʾān al-mad-
jīd, “the praised recitation”; and al-qurʾān al-ḥakīm, “the wise recitation” ‒ and
the no less obvious signs reminding one of the Last Judgment.
Oaths on natural phenomena, introduced by wa-: wa-l-samāʾi dhāti l-burūdj (2) wa-l-
yawmi l-mawʿūd (3) wa-shāhidin wa-mashhūd Q 85: 1‒3; wa-l-samāʾi wa-l-ṭāriq (2) wa-mā
ʾadràka mā l-ṭāriq (3) al-nadjmu l-thāqib Q 86: 1‒3; wa-l-fadjr (2) wa-layālin ʿashr (3) wa-l-
shafʿi wa-l-watr (4) wa-llayli ʾidhā yasri (5) hal fī dhālika qasamun li-dhī ḥidjr Q 89: 1‒5;
wa-l-shamsi wa-ḍuḥàhā (2) wa-l-qamari ʾidhā talàhā (3) wa-n-nahāri ʾidhā djallàhā (4)
wa-llayli ʾidhā yaghsàhā (5) wa-l-samāʾi wa-mā banàhā (6) wa-l-ʾarḍi wa-mā ṭaḥàhā
30 For these introductory oaths, see Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 75‒76; 120; Goossens
1923, 219‒222; Horovitz 1926, 12; Speight 1969, 205; 207; Watt 1970/1977, 77‒80; 110; Juyn-
boll 1974, 240‒242; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 187‒188; 251; 255; Neuwirth 1991; Neuwirth 1993;
Kandil 1996a; Kandil 1996b; Neuwirth 1996, 88‒90; Böwering 2001, 323‒324; Neuwirth
2002, 255‒258 (“introductory … sections”); Hawting 2003, 560‒561; Schmucker 1995, 113‒114;
117; Neuwirth 2004, 464‒468; Neuwirth 2006, 426‒427; de Prémare 2006, 37; Sinai 2006,
108‒109; 116; Sinai 2009, 64‒71; Neuwirth 2010, 282‒293; 318; 321; 359; 361; 400; 581‒584; 599;
681; 692‒696; Sinai 2012, 63‒65; 67; Sinai 2010, 410‒411; Stewart 2011, 325‒327; Boisliveau
2014a, 378; Sinai 2016, 147; Sinai 2017c, 61; 74; 105; 118; 121; 168.
31 All seven types of prologues (or their parts) serve, in rhymed and rhythmed prose (sadjʿ), as
introductory phrase or maṭla; see Stewart 1990, 116‒118; Stewart 2004, 479‒480.

(7) wa-nafsin wa-mā sawwàhā Q 91: 1‒7; wa-llayli ʾidhā yaghshà (2) wa-l-nahāri ʾidhā
tadjallà Q 92: 1‒2; wa-l-ḍuḥà (2) wa-llayli ʾidhā shadjà Q 93: 1‒2. – See also kallā wa-l-
qamar (33) wa-llayli ʾidhā ʾadbar (34) wa-l-ṣubḥi ʾidhā ʾasfar (35) ʾinnahā la-iḥdà l-kubar
(36) nadhīran li-l-bashar (37) li-man shāʾa minhum ʾan yataqaddam ʾaw yataʾakhkhar Q 74:
32‒37; wa-l-samāʾi dhāti l-radjʿ (12) wa-l-ʾarḍi dhāti l-ṣadʿ (13) ʾinnahu la-qawlun faṣl (14)
wa-mā huwa bi-l-hazl Q 86: 11‒14.
Oaths on natural phenomena, introduced by lā ʾuqsimu, “shall I not swear”: ʾidhā l-shamsu
kuwwirat (2) wa-ʾidhā l-nudjūmu nkadarat … wa-ʾidhā l-djannatu ʾuzlifat (14) ʿalimat nafsun
mā ʾaḥḥdarat (15) fa-lā ʾuqsimu bi-l-khunnas (16) al-djawāri l-kunnas (17) wa-llayli ʾidhā
ʿasʿas (18) wa-l-ṣubḥi ʾidhā tanaffas (19) ʾinnahu la-qawlu rasūlin karīm (20) dhī quwwa-
tin ʿinda dhī l-ʿarshi makīn (21) muṭāʿin thumma ʾamīn Q 81: 1‒21. ‒ See also fa-lā ʾuqsimu
bi-mawāʿiqi l-nudjūm (76) wa-ʾinnahu la-qasamun law taʿlamūna ʿaẓīm (77) ʾinnahu
la-qurʾānun karīm (78) fī kitābin maknūn (79) lā yamassuhu ʾillā l-muṭahharūn (80) tanzīlun
min rabbi l-ʿālamīn Q 56: 75‒80; fa-lā ʾuqsimu bi-mā tubṣirūn (39) wa-mā lā tubṣirūn (40)
ʾinnahu la-qawlu rasūlin karīm (40) wa-mā huwa bi-qawli shāʿirin qalīlan mā tuʾminūn (41)
wa-lā bi-qawli kāhinin qalīlan mā tadhakkarūn (42) tanzīlun min rabbi l-ʿālamīn Q 69: 38‒41;
fa-lā ʾuqsimu bi-rabbi l-mashāriqi wa-l-maghāribi ʾinnā la-qādirūn (41) ʿalà ʾan nuba-
dhdhila khayran minhum wa-mā naḥnu bi-masbūqīn Q 70: 40‒41; fa-lā ʾuqsimu bi-l-shafaq
(17) wa-llayli wa-mā wasaq (18) wa-l-qamari ʾidhā ttasaq (19) la-tarkabunna ṭabaqan ʿan
ṭabaq Q 84: 16‒19.
Oaths on peculiar places and institutions, introduced by wa-: wa-l-ṭūr (2) wa-kitābin
masṭūr (3) fī raqqin manshūr (4) wa-l-bayti l-maʿmūr (5) wa-l-saqfi l-marfūʿ (6) wa-l-baḥri
l-masdjūr Q 52; wa-l-tīni wa-l-zaytūn (2) wa-ṭūri sīnīn (3) wa-hādhā l-baladi l-ʾamīn Q
95: 1‒3.
Oaths on peculiar places and institutions, introduced by lā ʾuqsimu, “shall I not swear”:
lā ʾuqsimu bi-hādhā l-balad (2) wa-ʾanta ḥillun bi-hādhā l-balad (3) wa-wālidin wa-mā
walad Q 90: 1‒3. ‒ See also li-ʾīlāfi quraysh (2) ʾīlāfihim riḥlata l-shitāʾi wa-l-ṣayf (3)
fa-l-yaʿbudū rabba hādhā l-bayt (4) lladhī ʾaṭʿamahum min djūʿin wa-ʾāmanahum min khawf
Q 106: 1‒4?
Oaths on eschatological events, introduced by wa-: wa-l-ṭūr (2) wa-kitābin masṭūr (3) fī
raqqin manshūr (4) wa-l-bayti l-maʿmūr (5) wa-l-saqfi l-marfūʿ (6) wa-l-baḥri l-masdjūr Q
52: 1‒6; n wa-l-qalami wa-mā yasṭurūn Q 68: 1; wa-l-samāʾi dhāti l-burūdj (2) wa-l-yawmi
l-mawʿūd (3) wa-shāhidin wa-mashhūd Q 85: 1‒3. ‒ See also wa-yawma yuʿraḍu lladhīna
kafarū ʿalà l-nāri ʾa-laysa hādhā bi-l-ḥaqqi Q 46: 34; wa-l-mursalāti ʿurfā (2) fa-l-ʿāṣifāti
ʿaṣfā (3) wa-l-nāshirāti nashrā (4) fa-l-fāriqāti farqā (5) fa-l-mulqayāti dhikrā (5) ʿudhran
wa-nudhrā (6) ʾinnamā tūʿadūna la-wāqiʿ (8) fa-ʾidhā l-nudjūmu ṭumisat (9) wa-ʾidhā
l-samāʾu furidjat (10) wa-ʾidhā l-djibālu nusifat (11) wa-ʾidhā l-rusulu ʾuqqitat (12)
li-ʾayyi yawmin ʾudjdjilat Q 77: 1‒12.
Oaths on eschatological events, stressing their sudden and overwhelming coming, int-
roduced by wa-: wa-l-ṣāffāti ṣaffan (2) fa-l-zādjirāti zağran (3) fa-l-tāliyāti dhikran Q
37: 1‒3; wa-l-dhāriyāti dharwā (2) fa-l-ḥāmilāti wiqrā (3) fa-l-djāriyāti yusrā (4) fa-l-
muqassimāti ʾamrā Q 51: 1‒4; wa-l-nadjmi ʾidhā hawà Q 53: 1; wa-l-mursalāti ʿurfā (2)

330 Andreas Kaplony
fa-l-ʿāṣifāti ʿaṣfā (3) wa-l-nāshirāti nashrā (4) fa-l-fāriqāti farqā (5) fa-l-mulqayāti
dhikrā (5) ʿudhran wa-nudhrā (6) ʾinnamā tūʿadūna la-wāqiʿ (8) fa-ʾidhā l-nudjūmu ṭumisat
(9) wa-ʾidhā l-samāʾu furidjat (10) wa-ʾidhā l-djibālu nusifat (11) wa-ʾidhā l-rusulu ʾuqqitat
(12) li-ʾayyi yawmin ʾudjdjilat Q 77: 1‒12; wa-l-nāziʿāti gharqā (2) wa-l-nāshiṭāti nashṭā (3)
wa-l-sābiḥāti sabḥā (4) fa-l-sābiqāti sabqā (5) fa-l-mudabbirāti ʾamrā Q 79: 1‒4; wa-l-
ʿādiyāti ḍubḥā (2) fa-l-mūriyāti qadḥā (3) fa-l-mughīrāti ṣubḥā (4) fa-ʾatharna bihi naqʿā
(5) fa-wasaṭna bihi djamʿā Q 100: 1‒5; wa-l-ʿaṣr Q 103: 1.
Oaths on eschatological events, introduced by lā ʾuqsimu, “shall I not swear”: lā ʾuqsimu

bi-yawmi l-qiyāma (2) wa-lā ʾuqsimu bi-l-nafsi l-lawwāma Q 75: 1‒2.
Oaths on the writ, introduced by wa-: ys (2) wa-l-qurʾāni l-ḥakīm Q 36: 1‒2; ṣ wa-l-qurʾāni
dhī l-dhikr Q 38: 1; ḥm (2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 43: 1‒2; ḥm (2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 44:
1‒2; q wa-l-qurʾāni l-madjīd Q 50: 1.
Sura Prologue 3: Hymns³²
Another 14 Suras begin with a hymn quite similarily referring to natural phenom-
ena, the writ itself, or the Last Judgment.
subḥāna lladhī ʾasrà bi-ʿabdihi laylan mina l-masjidi l-ḥarāmi ʾilà l-masdjidi l-aqṣā lladhī
bāraknā ḥawlahu li-nuriyahu min ʾāyātinā ʾinnahu huwa l-samīʿu l-baṣīr
“Praise be to the One who traveled by night with His servant from the Holy District to the
Furthest District around which we blessed, to show him some of our signs – He is the One
who listens and sees” (Q 17: 1)
al-ḥamdu li-llāhi fāṭiri l-samawāti wa-l-ʾarḍi djāʿili l-malāʾikati rusulan ʾūlī ʾadjniḥatin
muthnà wa-thulātha wa-rubāʿa yazīdu fī l-khalqi mā yashāʾu ʾinna llāha ʿalà kulli shayʾin
qadīr
“Praise be to God, the creator of the Heavens and the Earth, the One who makes the angels
messengers with double, triple, or fourfold wings, He adds to creation what He wants to ‒
God is able to do everything” (Q 35: 1).
32 For these introductory hymns, see Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 186; Baumstark 1927;
Goitein 1966/2010, 75‒76; Speight 1969, 208‒209; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 189; 251; 255; Neu-
wirth 1996, 95; Neuwirth 2002, 258‒260; Neuwirth 2004, 470; Stewart 2004, 479‒480;
Neuwirth 2006, 426‒427; Sinai 2009, 66‒67; Neuwirth 2010, 146; 283; 303‒305; 318; 329‒331;
Sinai 2010, 411; Sinai 2017c, 118‒121.

These hymns are introduced either by al-ḥamdu li-llāhi, “Praise to God” (Q 1; 6; 18;
34; 35), or by subḥāna llāhi, “Glory of God” (Q 17); sabbaḥa li-llāhi, “May that-and-
that glorify God” (Q 57; 59); or yusabbiḥu li-llāhi, “Glorifies that-and-that God”.
Hymns introduced by al-ḥamdu li-llāhi: al-ḥamdu li-llāhi rabbi l-ʿālamīn (2) al-raḥmān
al-raḥīm (3) māliki yawmi l-dīn Q 1: 1‒3; al-ḥamdu li-llāhi lladhī khalaqa l-samawāti wa-l-
ʾarḍa wa-djaʿala l-ẓulumāti wa-l-nūra Q 6: 1; al-ḥamdu li-llāhi lladhī ʾanzala ʿalà ʿabdihi
l-kitāba wa-lam yadjʿal lahu ʿiwadjan (2) qayyiman li-yundhira baʾsan shadīdan min ladunhu
wa-yubashshira l-muʾminīna lladhīna yaʿmalūna l-ṣāliḥāti ʾanna lahum ʾadjran ḥasanan Q
18: 1‒2; al-ḥamdu li-llāhi lladhī lahu mā fī l-samāwāti wa-mā fī l-ʾarḍi wa-lahu l-ḥamdu fī
l-ʾakhirati wa-huwa l-ḥakīmu l-khabīr Q 34: 1; al-ḥamdu li-llāhi fāṭiri l-samawāti wa-l-ʾarḍi
djāʿili l-malāʾikati rusulan ʾūlī ʾadjniḥatin muthnà wa-thulātha wa-rubāʿa yazīdu fī l-khalqi
mā yashāʾu ʾinna llāha ʿalà kulli shayʾin qadīr Q 35: 1.
Hymns introduced by subḥāna llāhi: subḥāna lladhī ʾasrà bi-ʿabdihi laylan mina l-masdjidi
l-ḥarāmi ʾilà l-masdjidi l-ʾaqṣā lladhi bāraknā ḥawlahu li-nuriyahu min ʾāyātinā ʾinnahu huwa
l-samīʿu l-baṣīr Q 17: 1.
Hymns introduced by sabbaḥa li-llāhi: sabbaḥa li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-mā fī l-ʾardi

wa-huwa l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm Q 57: 1; sabbaḥa li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-l-ʾardi wa-huwa
l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm Q 59: 1 (see also the last verse of the same Sura: yusabbiḥu lahu mā fī
l-samāwāti wa-l-ʾardi wa-huwa l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm Q 59: 24); sabbaḥa li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti
wa-mā fī l-ʾardi wa-huwa l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm Q 61: 1.
Hymns introduced by yuṣabbiḥu li-llāhi: yusabbiḥu li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-l-ʾardi

l-maliki l-quddūsi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥakīm Q 62: 1; yusabbiḥu li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-mā fī l-ʾardi
lahu l-mulku wa-lahu l-ḥamdu wa-huwa ʿalà kulli shayʾin qadīr Q 64: 1.
Hymns introduced by ṣabbiḥ li-llāhi: sabbiḥi sma rabbika l-ʾaʿlà (2) alladhī khalaqa fa-
sawwà (3) wa-lladhī qaddara fa-hadà (4) wa-lladhī ʾakhradja l-marʾà (5) fa-djaʿalahu
ghuthāʾan ʾaḥwà Q 87: 1‒5.
Hymns introduced by tabāraka alladhī: tabāraka lladhī nazzala l-furqāna ʿalà ʿabdihi
li-yakūna li-l-ʿālamīna nadhīrā (2) alladhī lahu mulku l-samawāti wa-l-ʾarḍi wa-lam yatta-
khidh waladan wa-lam yakun lahu sharīkun fī l-mulki wa-khalaqa kulla shayʾin fa-qaddarahu
taqdīrā: Q 25: 1‒2; tabāraka lladhī bi-yadihi l-mulku wa-huwa ʿalà kulli shayʾin qadīr Q 67: 1.

332 Andreas Kaplony
Sura Prologue 4: References to Eschatological Events³³
Another 19 Suras are introduced by a reference to an eschatological event.
idhā l-samāʾu nshaqqat (2) wa-ʾadhinat li-rabbihā wa-ḥuqqat (3) wa-ʾidhā l-ʾarḍu muddat
(4) wa-ʾalqat mā fīhā wa-takhallat (5) wa-ʾadhinat li-rabbihā wa-ḥuqqat (6) yā ʾayyuhā
l-ʾinsānu ʾinnaka kādiḥun ʾilà rabbika kadḥan fa-mulqīh (7) fa-ʾammā man ʾūtiya kitābahu
bi-yamīnih …
“When the Heaven will be split, (2) listen to its Lord and be judged, (3) when the Earth will
be stretched, (4) confound all in it and be abandoned, (5) listen to its Lord and be judged:
(6) Man!, you are striving for your Lord, but you are trifling with it. (7) The one who has been
given his writ will be standing on His (God’s) right side …” (Q 84: 1‒7)
Some of these references clearly mark the Last Days as inescapable (ʾidhā …, “as
soon as”; Q 56; 81; 82; 84; 99; 110), while others stress that they have approached
(iqtaraba, “has approached”; Q 21; 54) and still others show that they have already
started with recent events (e. g. qad ʾaflaḥa l-muʾminūn, “the Believers achieved
success”; Q 23; 30; 58), especially by the revelation of the writ, introduced either
in the name of God (e. g. ʾinnā ʾanzalnāhu, “We made it come down”; Q 20; 48; 80;
97; 108) or by the name of God (Q 3; 55).
Eschatological events introduced by ʾidhā: ʾidhā waqaʿati l-wāqiʿa (2) laysa li-waqʿatihā
kādhiba (3) khāfiḍatun rāfiʿa (4) ʾidhā rudjdjati l-ʾarḍu radjdjā (5) wa-bussati l-djibālu
bassā (6) fa-kānat habāʾan munbaththan (7) wa-kuntum ʾazwādjan thalāthatan Q 56: 1‒7;
ʾidhā l-shamsu kuwwirat (2) wa-ʾidhā l-nudjūmu nkadarat (3) wa-ʾidhā l-djibālu suyyirat
(4) wa-ʾidhā l-ʿishāru ʿuṭṭilat (5) wa-ʾidhā l-wuḥūshu ḥushirat (6) wa-ʾidhā l-biḥāru sud-
jdjirat (7) wa-ʾidhā l-nufūsu zuwwidjat (8) wa-ʾidhā l-mawʾūdatu suʾilat (9) bi-ʾayyi dhanbin
qutilat (10) wa-ʾidhā l-ṣuḥufu nushirat (11) wa-ʾidhā l-samāʾu kushiṭat (12) wa-ʾidhā
l-djaḥīmu suʿʿirat (12) wa-ʾidhā l-djannatu ʾuzlifat (14) ʿalimat nafsun mā ʾaḥḥdarat Q 81:
1‒14; ʾidhā l-samāʾu nfaṭarat (2) wa-ʾidhā l-kawākibu ntatharat (4) wa-ʾidhā l-biḥāru fud-
jdjirat (5) wa-ʾidhā l-qubūru buʿthirat (5) ʿalimat nafsun mā qaddamat wa-ʾakhkharat Q 82:
1‒5; ʾidhā l-samāʾu nshaqqat (2) wa-ʾadhinat li-rabbihā wa-ḥuqqat (3) wa-ʾidhā l-ʾarḍu
muddat (4) wa-ʾalqat mā fīhā wa-takhallat (5) wa-ʾadhinat li-rabbihā wa-ḥuqqat Q 84:
1‒5; ʾidhā zulzilati l-ʾarḍu zilzālahā (2) wa-ʾakhradjati l-arḍu ʾathqālahā (3) wa-qāla
l-ʾinsānu mā lahā (4) yawma-ʾidhin tuḥaddithu ʾakhbārahā (5) bi-ʾanna rabbaka ʾawḥà lahā
(6) yawma-ʾidhin yaṣduru n-nāsu ʾashtātan li-yuraw ʾaʿmālahum (7) fa-man yaʿmal mithqāla
dhurratin khayran yarahu (8) wa-man yaʿmal mithqāla dhurratin sharran yarahu Q 99: 1–8;
33 For the introductory references to events, see Horovitz 1926, 4; Speight 1969, 207; Neu-
wirth 1981/2007, 188‒189; 190‒193; 255‒256; 420‒424; Neuwirth 1996, 89; Neuwirth 2002,
257‒260 (“introductory … sections”); Neuwirth 2004, 468‒469; Neuwirth 2006, 426‒427;
Sinai 2009, 64‒71; Neuwirth 2010, 283; 293‒300; 359; Sinai 2010, 410‒411; Stewart 2011,
334‒339; Sinai 2012, 63‒64; 67; Sinai 2016, 146; Sinai 2017c, 118; 121; 161; 168.

idhā djāʾa naṣru llāhi wa-l-fatḥ (2) wa-raʾayta l-nāsa yadkhulūna fī dīni llāhi ʾafwādjā
(3) fa-sabbiḥ bi-ḥamdi rabbika wa-staghrifhu ʾinnahu kāna tawwābā Q 110: 1‒3.
Eschatological events introduced by iqtaraba(t): iqtaraba li-l-nāsi ḥisābuhum wa-hum

fī ghaflatin muʿriḍūn (2) mā yaʾtīhim min dhikrin min rabbihim muḥdathin ʾillā stamaʿūhu
wa-hum yalʿabūn (4) lāhiyatan qulūbuhum wa-ʾasarrū l-nadjwà lladhīna ẓalamū Q 21: 1‒3;
iqtabarati l-sāʿatu wa-nshaqqa l-qamar (2) wa-ʾin yaraw ʾāyatan yuʿriḍū wa-yaqūlū siḥrun
mustamirr (3) wa-kadhdhabū wa-ttabaʿū ʾahwāʾahum wa-kullu ʾamrin mustaqirr (4) wa-la-
qad djāʾakum mina l-ʾanbāʾi mā fīhi muzdadjar (5) ḥikmatun bālighatun fa-mā tughni l-nu-
dhur (6) fa-tawalla ʿanhum yawma yadʿu d-dāʿi ʾilà shayʾin nukur Q 54: 1‒6.
Recent events mostly introduced by qad: qad ʾaflaḥa l-muʾminūn (2) alladhīna hum fī
ṣalātihim khāshiʿūn (3) wa-lladhīna hum ʿani l-laghwi muʿriḍūn (4) wa-lladhīna hum li-l-zakāti
fāʿilūn (5) wa-lladhīna hum li-furūdjihim ḥāfiẓūn (6) ʾillā ʿalà ʾazwādjihim ʾaw mā malakat
ʾaymānuhum fa-ʾinnahum ghayru malūmīn Q 23: 106; ʾlm (2) qad ghulibati l-rūm (3) f ī ʾadnà
l-ʾarḍi wa-hum min baʿdi ghalabihim sa-yaghlibūn (4) fī biḍʿi sinīna li-llāhi l-ʾamru min qablu
wa-min baʿdu wa-yawma-ʾidhin yafraḥu l-muʾminūn Q 30: 1‒4; qad samiʿa llāhu qawla llatī
tudjādiluka fī zawdjihā wa-tashtakī ʾilà llāhi wa-llāhu yasmaʿu taḥāwurakumā ʾinna llāha
samīʿun baṣīr Q 58: 1; ʿabasa wa-tawallà (2) ʾan djāʾahu l-ʾaʿmà (3) wa-mā yudrīka laʿallahu
yazzakkà (4) ʾaw yadhdhakkarahu fa-tanfaʿahu l-dhikrà Q 80: 1‒4.
Muḥammad’s (and Noah’s) mission, introduced by, e. g. ʾinnā ʾanzalnāhu:³⁴ ṭh (2) mā
ʾanzalnā ʿalayka l-qurʾāna li-tashqà (3) ʾillā tadhkiratan li-man yakhshà (4) tanzīlan
mimman khalaqa l-ʾarḍa wa-s-samāwāti l-ʿulà Q 20: 1‒4; ʾinnā fataḥnā laka fatḥan
mubīnā (2) li-yaghfira laka llāhu mā taqaddama min dhanbika wa-mā taʾakhkhara wa-
yutimma niʿmatahu ʿalayka wa-yahdīka ṣirāṭan mustaqīmā (3) wa-yanṣura llāhu naṣran
ʿazīzā Q 48: 1‒3; ʾinnā ʾarsalnā nūḥan ʾilà qawmihi ʾan ʾandhir qawmaka min qabli ʾan
yaʾtiyahum ʿadhābun ʾalīm Q 71: 1; ʾinnā ʾanzalnāhu f ī laylati l-qadr (2) wa-mā ʾadràka mā
laylatu l-qadr (3) laylatu l-qadri khayrun min ʾalfi shahr (4) tanazzalu l-malāʾikatu wa-l-rūḥu
fīhā bi-ʾidhni rabbihim min kulli ʾamr (5) salāmun hiya ḥattà maṭlaʿi l-fadjr Q 97: 1‒5; ʾinnā
ʾaʿṭaynāka l-kawthar (2) fa-ṣalli li-rabbika wa-nḥar (3) ʾinna shaʾnaka huwa l-ʾabtar Q 108:
1‒3.
The revelation of the writ, introduced by God’s name: ʾlm (2) ʾallāhu lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa
l-ḥayyu l-qayyūmu (3) nazzala ʿalayka l-kitāba bi-l-ḥaqqi muṣaddiqan li-mā bayna
yadayhi wa-ʾanzala t-tawrāta wa-l-ʾindjīl (4) min qablu hudan li-l-nāsi wa-ʾanzala
l-furqāna ʾinna lladhīna kafarū bi-ʾāyāti llāhi lahum ʿadhābun shadīdun wa-llāhu ʿazīzun
dhū ntiqām Q 3: 1‒3; al-raḥmān (2) ʿallama l-qurʾān (3) khalaqa l-ʾinsān (4) ʿallamahu
l-bayān Q 55: 1‒5. ‒ See wa-ʾidhā l-ṣuḥufu nushirat (11) wa-ʾidhā l-samāʾu kushiṭat (12)
wa-ʾidhā l-djaḥīmu suʿʿirat (12) wa-ʾidhā l-djannatu ʾuzlifat (14) ʿalimat nafsun mā ʾaḥḥdarat
Q 81: 10‒14.
34 Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 92‒93; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 190 suggest that Suras intro-
duced with ʾinnā (Q 48; 71; 97; 108) have lost their original prologue; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 251
suggests this also for Q 20; 72; see also Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 95.

334 Andreas Kaplony
Sura Prologue 5: Questions³⁵
Another 11 Suras begin with a question that the text then answers.
ʿamma yatasāʾalūn (2) ʿani l-nabaʾi l-ʿaẓīm (3) alladhī hum fīhi mukhtalifūn (4) kallā
sa-yaʿlamūn (5) thumma kallā sa-yaʿlamūn
“What are they asking each other about? (2) About the great news (3) on which they disag-
ree – (4) no, certainly not: they will know. (5) Again, no, certainly not – they will know.” (Q
78: 1‒5)
Some of these are rhetorical questions that are asked to make a statement (Q 29;
76; 88; 94; 105; 107), and some ask about terms that are difficult to understand (Q
60; 101). Other questions are simply mentioned (Q 70; 78), and there is even one
theological riddle (Q 63).
Rhetorical questions: ʾlm (2) ʾa-ḥasiba l-nāsu ʾan yutrakū ʾan yaqūlū ʾāmanna wa-hum lā
yuftanūn Q 29: 1‒2; hal ʾatà ʿalà l-ʾinsāni ḥīnun mina l-dahri lam yakun shayʾan madhkūrā
Q 76: 1; hal ʾatàka ḥadīthu l-ghāshiya Q 88: 1; ʾa-lam nashraḥ laka ṣadrak (2) wa-waḍaʿnā
ʿanka wizrak (3) alladhī ʾanqaḍa ẓahrak (4) wa-rafaʿnā laka dhikrak Q 94: 1‒4; ʾa-lam tara
kayfa faʿala rabbuka bi-ʾaṣḥābi l-fīl (2) ʾa-lam yadjʿal kaydahum fī taḍlīl (4) wa-ʾarsala
ʿalayhim ṭayran ʾabābīl (4) tarmīhim bi-ḥidjāratin min sidjdjīl (5) fa-djaʿalahum ka-ʿaṣfin
maʾkūl Q 105: 1‒5; ʾa-raʾayta lladhī yukadhdhibu bi-l-dīn (2) fa-dhālika lladhī yadaʿu
l-yatīm (3) wa-lā yaḥuḍḍu ʿalà ṭaʿāmi l-miskīn Q 107: 1‒3.
Questions about terms that are difficult to understand: al-ḥāqqa (2) mā l-ḥāqqa (3) wa-mā
ʾadràka mā l-ḥāqqa (4) kadhdhabat thamūdu wa-ʿādun bi-l-qāriʿa (5) fa-ʾammā thamūdu
fa-ʾuhlikū bi-l-ṭāghiya (6) wa-ʾammā ʿādun fa-ʾuhlikū bi-rīḥin ṣarṣarin ʿātiya Q 69: 1‒6;
al-qāriʿa (2) mā l-qāriya (3) wa-mā ʾadràka mā l-qāriʿa (4) yawma yakūnu n-nāsu ka-l-
farāshi l-mabthūth (5) wa-takūnu l-djibālu ka-l-ʿihni l-manfūsh (6) fa-ʾammā man thaqulat
mawāzīnuhu (7) fa-huwa fī ʿīshatin rāḍiya (7) wa-ʾammā man khaffat mawāzīnuhu (9)
fa-ʾummuhu hāwiya (10) wa-mā ʾadràka mā hiya [with tā marbūṭa] (11) nārun ḥāmiya
Q 101: 1‒10. ‒ See also sa-ʾuṣlīhi saqar (27) wa-mā ʾadràka mā saqar (28) lā tubqī wa-lā
tadhar (29) lawwāḥatun li-l-bashar ʿalayhā tisʿata ʿashar Q 74: 26‒29; li-ʾayyi yawmin
ʾudjdjilat (13) li-yawmi l-faṣl (14) wa-mā ʾadràka mā yawmu l-faṣl (15) waylun yawma-
ʾidhin li-mukadhdhibīn (16) ʾa-lam nuhliki l-ʾawwalīn (17) thumma nutbiʿuhumu l-ʾākhirīn
(18) ka-dhālika nafʿalu bi-mudjrimīn Q 77: 13‒18; wa-mā hum ʿanhum bi-ghāʾibīn (16) wa-mā
ʾadràka mā yawmu l-dīn (17) thumma mā ʾadràka mā yawmu l-dīn (18) yawmun lā tamliku
35 For these introductory questions, see Horovitz 1926, 4‒5; Speight 1969, 206‒207; Watt
1970/1977, 94; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 132‒133; 189‒190; 232 (“Lehrfrage”); 255; Kandil 1996a,
20; Neuwirth 2004, 469‒470 (“Lehrfrage”); Hoffmann 2007, 101; Neuwirth 2010, 300‒303;
308‒310 (“Lehrfragen”); Stewart 2011, 327‒329; 339; Sinai 2012, 99‒100; Boisliveau 2014a,
100‒101.

nafsun li-nafsin shayʾan wa-l-ʾamru yawma-ʾidhin li-llāh Q 82: 17‒19; kallā ʾinna kitābata
l-fudjdjāri la-fī sidjdjīn (8) wa-mā ʾadràka mā sidjdjīn (9) kitābun marqūm Q 83: 7‒8; kallā
ʾinna kitābata l-ʾabrāri la-fī ʿillīyīn (19) wa-mā ʾadràka mā ʿillīyūn (20) kitābun marqūm
(21) yashhaduhu l-muqarrabūn Q 83: 189‒221; wa-l-samāʾi wa-l-ṭāriq (2) wa-mā ʾadràka
mā l-ṭāriq (3) al-nadjmu l-thāqib Q 86: 1‒3; fa-lā qtaḥama l-ʿaqaba (12) wa-mā ʾadràka
mā l-ʿaqaba (13) fakku raqaba (14) ʾaw ʾiṭʿāmun fī yawmin dhī masghaba (15) yatīman dhā
maqraba Q 90: 11‒15; innā ʾanzalnāhu fī laylati l-qadr (2) wa-mā ʾadràka mā laylatu l-qadr
(3) laylatu l-qadri khayrun min ʾalfi shahr (4) tanazzalu l-malāʾikatu wa-l-rūḥu fīhā bi-ʾidhni
rabbihim min kulli ʾamr (5) salāmun hiya ḥattà maṭlaʿi l-fadjr Q 97: 1‒5 wa-mā ʾadràka mā
l-ḥuṭama (6) nāru llāhi l-mūqada (7) llatī tatṭallaʿu ʿalà l-ʾafʾida Q 104: 5‒6.
Questions that are simply mentioned: saʾala sāʾilun bi-ʿadhābin wāqiʿ (2) li-l-kāfirīna laysa
lahu dāfiʿ (3) mina llāhi dhī l-maʿāridj Q 70: 1‒3; ʿammā yatasāʾalūn (2) ʿani l-nabaʾi l-ʿaẓīm
(3) alladhī hum fīhi mukhtalifūn Q 78: 1‒3.
A theological riddle about the Hypocrites being right: ʾidhā djāʾaka l-munāfiqūna qālū
nashhadu ʾinnaka la-rasūlu llāhi wa-llāhu yaʿlamu ʾinnaka la-rasūluhu wa-llāhu yashhadu
ʾinna l-munāfiqīna la-kādhibūn Q 63: 1.
Sura Prologue 6: Admonishments³⁶
Another 18 Suras begin with an admonishment to Muḥammad, or to the individ-

ual Believer or the Believers in general.
iqraʾ bi-smi rabbika lladhī khalaq (2) khalaqa l-ʾinsāna min ʿalaq (3) iqraʾ wa-rabbika
l-ʾakram alladhī ʿallama bi-l-qalam (4) ʿallama l-ʾinsāna mā lam yaʿlam
“Read aloud, in the name of your Lord who has created, (2) has created man from a clod. (3)
Read aloud, by your most noble Lord, who has taught by the pen, (4) has taught man what
he did not know!” (Q 96: 1‒4)
These admonishments are addressed either to Muḥammad (Q 33; 65; 66; 72; 73;
74; 112; 113; 114) or to the Believers in general (Q 4; 5; 16; 22; 35; 49; 60; 61; 109).
Admonishments can be repeated later in the same Sura.
Admonishments addressed to Muḥammad, introduced by a vocative, mostly yā-ʾayyuhā

l-nabīyu: yā-ʾayyuhā l-nabīyu ttaqi llāha wa-lā tuṭiʿi l-kāfirīna wa-l-munāfiqīna ʾinna
llāha kāna ʿalīman ḥakīmā (2) wa-ttabiʿ mā yūḥà ʾilayka min rabbika ʾinna llāha kāna
36 For the introductory admonishments, see Nöldeke/Schwally 1909/1961, 120; 144; Speight
1969, 207‒208; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 196; 200‒201; Neuwirth 1996, 95; Böwering 2001, 324;
Neuwirth 2002, 253‒264; Neuwirth 2004, 470; Stewart 2004, 479‒480; Neuwirth 2010,
305‒308; Sinai 2012, 65; Sinai 2017c, 101; 118‒122.

336 Andreas Kaplony
bi-mā taʿlamūna khabīrā (3) wa-tawakkal ʿalà llāhi wa-kafà bi-llāhi wakīlā Q 33: 1;
yā-ʾayyuhā n-nabīyu ʾidhā ṭallaqtumu l-nisāʾa fa-ṭalliqūhunna li-ʿiddatihinna wa-ʾaḥṣū
l-ʿiddata wa-ttaqū llāha rabbakum lā tukhridjūhunna min buyūtihinna wa-lā yakhrudjna
ʾillā ʾan yaʾtīna bi-fāḥishatin mubayyinatin Q 65: 1; yā-ʾayyuhā l-nabīyu li-mā tuḥarrimu
mā ʾaḥalla llāhu laka tabtaghī mirḍāta ʾazwādjika wa-llāhu ghafūrun raḥim (2) qad faraḍa
llāhu lakum taḥillata ʾaymānikum wa-llāhu mawlàkum wa-huwa l-ʿalīmu l-ḥakīm Q 66: 1‒2;
yā-ʾayyuhā l-muzzammil (2) qumi llayla ʾillā qalīlā (4) niṣfahu ʾawi nquṣ minhu qalīlā
(5) ʾaw zid ʿalayhi wa-rattili l-qurʾāna tartīlā Q 73: 1‒4; yā-ʾayyuhā l-muddathir (2) qum
fa-ʾandhir (3) wa-rabbaka fa-kabbir (4) wa-thiyābaka fa-ṭahhir (5) wa-l-radjza fa-hdjur
(6) wa-lā tamnun tastakthir (7) wa-li-rabbika fa-ṣbir Q 74: 1‒7.
Admonishments to recite, addressed to Muḥammad, introduced by an imperative, mostly

qul: qul ʾūḥiya ʾilayya ʾannahu stamaʿa nafarun mina l-djinni fa-qālū samiʿnā qurʾānan
ʾadjaban (2) yahdī ʾilà l-rushdi fa-ʾāmannā bihi wa-lan nushrika bi-rabbinā ʾaḥadan, etc. Q
72: 1‒2; iqraʾ bi-smi rabbika lladhī khalaq (2) khalaqa l-ʾinsāna min ʿalaq (3) iqraʾ wa-rab-
bika l-akrami lladhī ʿallama bi-l-qalam (4) ʿallama l-ʾinsāna mā lam yaʿlam Q 96: 1‒4; qul
yā-ʾayyuhā l-kāfirūn Q 109: 1; qul huwa llāhu ʾaḥad (2) allāhu l-ṣamad (3) lam yalid wa-lam
yūlad (4) wa-lam yakun lahu kufuʾan ʾaḥad Q 112: 1‒4; qul ʾaʿūdhu bi-llāhi bi-rabbi l-falaq (3)
min sharri mā khalaq (3) wa-min sharri ghāsiqin ʾidhā waqab (4) wa-min sharri n-naffāthāti fī
l-ʿuqad (5) wa-min sharri ḥāsidin ʾidhā ḥasad Q 113: 1‒5; qul ʾaʿūdhu bi-rabbi l-nās (2) maliki
l-nās (3) ʾilāhi l-nās (4) min sharri l-waswāsi l-khannās (5) yuwaswisu fī ṣudūri l-nās (6) mina
l-djannati wa-l-nās
Admonishments addressed to the Believers in general, introduced by yā-ʾayyuhā l-nāsu:

yā-ʾayyuhā l-nāsu ttaqū rabbakumu lladhī khalaqakum min nafsin wāḥidatin wa-kha-
laqa minhā zawdjahā wa-baththa minhumā rigjdālan kathīran wa-nisāʾan wa-ttaqū llāha
lladhī tasāʾalūna bihi wa-l-ʾarḥāma ʾinna llāha kāna ʿalaykum raqībā (2) wa-ʾātū l-yatāmà
ʾamwālahum wa-lā tatabaddalū l-kahbītha bi-l-ṭayyibi wa-lā taʾkulū ʾamwālahum ʾilà
ʾamwālikum ʾinnahu kāna ḥūban kabīran Q 4: 1‒2; yā-ʾayyuhā l-nāsu ttaqū rabbakum
ʾinna zalzalata l-sāʿati shayʾun ʿaẓīm Q 22: 1; al-ḥamdu li-llāhi fāṭiri l-samawāti wa-l-ʾarḍi
djāʿili l-malāʾikati rusulan ʾūlī ʾadjniḥatin muthnà wa-thulātha wa-rubāʿa yazīdu fī l-khalqi
mā yashāʾu ʾinna llāha ʿalà kulli shayʾin qadīr (2) yā-ʾayyuhā l-nāsu dhkurū niʿmata llāhi
ʿalaykum Q 35: 1.
Admonishments addressed to the Believers, introduced by yā-ʾayyuhā lladhīna ʾāmanū:

yā-ʾayyuhā lladhīna ʾāmanū ʾawfū bi-l-ʿuqūdi Q 5: 1; yā-ʾayyuhā lladhīna ʾāmanū lā
tuqaddimū bayna yadayi llāhi wa-rasūlihi wa-ttaqū llāha ʾinna llāha samīʿun ʿalīm Q 49:
1; yā-ʾayyuhā lladhīna ʾāmanū lā tattakhidhū ʿadūwī wa-ʿadūwakum ʾawliyāʾa tulqūna
ʾilayhim bi-l-mawaddati wa-qad kafarū bi-mā djāʾakum mina l-ḥaqqi yukhridjūna l-rasūla
wa-ʾiyyākum ʾan tuʾminū bi-llāhi rabbikum Q 60: 1; sabbaḥa li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-mā
fī l-ʾardi wa-huwa l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm (2) yā-ʾayyuhā lladhīna ʾāmanū li-mā taqūlūna mā lā
tafʿalūn Q 61: 1‒2.
Admonishments addressed to the Believers, with no introduction: ʾatà ʾamru llāhi fa-lā
tastaʿdjilūhu subḥānahu wa-taʿālà ʿammā yushrikūn Q 16: 1. ‒ Different is qul yā-ʾayyuhā
l-kāfirūn Q 109: 1, where Muḥammad is addressed, who in his turn shall address the Unbe-
lievers.

Sura Prologue 7: Threats or Curses³⁷
Finally, yet another four Suras start with a threat or curse, e. g.
waylun li-kulli hamzatin lumaza (2) alladhī djamaʿa mālan wa-ʿaddadah (3) yaḥsabu ʾanna
mālahu ʾakhladah (4) kallā la-yunbadhanna fī l-ḥuṭama
“Woe to every bit of a critic (2) who has collected wealth and has counted it (3), as he thinks
that his wealth will make him live forever, no, he certainly will be thrown to the rubble …”
(Q 104: 1‒4)
Some of these are real threats (Q 83; 104; 107), while one is an explicit curse (Q
111).
Threats introduced by waylun li-: waylun li-l-muṭaffif īn (2) alladhīna ʾidhā ktālū ʿalà n-nāsi
yastawfūn (3) wa-ʾidhā kālūhum ʾaw wazzanūhum yukhsirūn Q 83: 1‒3; waylun li-kulli ham-
zatin lumaza (2) alladhī djamaʿa mālan wa-ʿaddadah (3) yaḥsabu ʾanna mālahu ʾakhladah
(4) kallā la-yunbadhanna fī l-ḥuṭama (5) wa-mā ʾadràka mā l-ḥuṭama (6) nāru llāhi l-mūqada
(7) llatī tatṭallaʿu ʿalà l-ʾafʾida (8) ʾinnahā ʿalayhim muʾṣada (9) fī ʿamadin mumaddada Q
104: 1‒4; ʾa-raʾayta lladhī yukadhdhibu bi-l-dīn (2) fa-dhālika lladhī yadaʿu l-yatīm (3) wa-lā
yaḥuḍḍu ʿalà ṭaʿāmi l-miskīn (4) fa-waylun li-l-muṣallīn (5) alladhīna hum ʿan ṣalātihim
sāhūn (6) alladhīna hum yurāʾūn (7) wa-yamnaʿūna l-māʿūn Q 107: 1‒7.
An explicit curse: tabbat yadā ʾabī lahab wa-tabbat (2) mā ʾaghnà ʿanhu māluhu wa-mā
kasab (3) sa-yaṣlà nāran dhāta lahab (4) wa-mraʾatuhu ḥammalatu l-ḥaṭab (5) fī djīdihā
ḥablun min masad Q 111: 1‒5.
Thus, all our 114 Suras utilize, in between the Basmala and the main part, one
of the following seven prologue types: a title, an oath, a hymn, a reference to an
event, an admonishment, a question, or a threat (or curse). None of these types
correlates either with al-raḥmān Suras or with rabb al-ʿālamīn Suras.
37 For these introductory threats (or curses), see Neuwirth 1981/2007, 189; 196; 200‒201; Neu-
wirth 2004, 470; Neuwirth 2010, 305‒308.

338 Andreas Kaplony
Documentary Archival Notes vs. Qurʾānic

Mysterious Letters
After the main part that makes up the lion’s share of the text both in the Kitāb
Documents and in the Qurʾānic Suras, the Kitāb Documents end with a validation
clause that provides the name of the scribe and the date, and possibly also the
names of witnesses. Nothing similar is found in the Qurʾānic Suras: some have
a concluding prayer, though usually this is not separated clearly from the main
part.
Yet, there is one optional element left. On the one hand, the Kitāb Documents
sometimes carry, in the upper margin or on the verso, a very short summary ‒ or
achival note ‒ to ease, in the archives, the retrieval of a relevant document.
fa-djumʿatuhu ʿasharatun wa-thalāthu miʾati (18) mudyi qamḥin wa-mithluhu zaytan
“And its sum is 310 mudy of wheat and the same amount of oil” (P.Ness. 62.17‒18; 55/675;
Naṣtān).
min qurrata bni sharīkin ʾilà basīl ṣāḥibi ʾishqawh (2) [fī] ʾarzāqi l-djuyūsh
“From Qurra b. Sharīk to Basīl, the one of Ishqaw (2) [on] the wages of the soldiers”
(P.RagibQurra v.2; 90/709; al-Fayyūm?)
On the other hand, immediately after the Basmala and sometimes before the
title, 29 twenty-nine Qurʾānic Suras have so-called “Mysterious Letters,” i. e. a
single letter or a one- or two-word combination of up to five letters each.³⁸ These
letters cannot be read as proper Arabic and have been interpreted very differently
by scholars old and new. All of them are undotted, except for the hook in khyʿṣ
dotted as yāʾ, since an undotted hook cannot be pronounced; the oldest Qurʾān
manuscripts preserved have no compulsory dotting, and different dottings are
38 For the Mysterious Letters, see Loth 1881, 603‒610; Meyer 1912, 82 n.1; Nöldeke/Schwally
1919/1961, 68‒78; Bauer 1921; Goossens 1923; Jeffery 1924 (who mostly quotes Goossens);
Blachère 1959/1991, 29; 46‒47; 138; 144‒149; Seale 1959/1975; Jones 1962; Speight 1969, 206;
208; Watt 1970/1977, 61‒65; 90; 138; 140; 144; Bellamy 1973; Neuwirth 1981/2007, 105; Nagel
1983, 145‒147; Neuwirth 1991, 32; Schmucker 1995; Kandil 1996a, 37; Massey 1996; Shahîd
2000; Welch 2000, 79 (and 111‒112 n. 8); Böwering 2001, 326‒327; Madigan 2001a, 40‒42;
Massey 2003; Robinson 2003, 260‒270; Ambros/Procházka 2004, 367‒368; Wild 2006a, 20;
Hoffmann 2007, 101‒106; Neuwirth 2007, 21*; Sinai 2009, 36; Dayeh 2010, 462‒464; Neu-
wirth 2010, 147; 174; 246‒249; 323; 361‒362; 436; 448‒449; 454 (“sakrale Intonation”); 464 (“In-
tonation”); Stewart 2011, 339‒347; Bannister 2014, 174 (and 204 n. 7); Boisliveau 2014a,
97‒101; Sinai 2016, 137; Sinai 2017c, 26‒28; 109.

easily possible. It has been wrongly claimed that all undotted Arabic letters are
present, yet dāl and wāw are missing.
ʾ-l-r (could also be read as ʾ-l-z): ʾlr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-ḥakīm Q 10: 1; ʾlr kitābun ʾuḥkimat
ʾāyātuhā thumma fuṣṣilat min ladun ḥakīmin khabīr Q 11: 1; ʾlr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-mubīn
Q 12: 1; ʾlr kitābun ʾanzalnāhu ʾilayka li-tukhridja n-nāsa mina ẓ-ẓulumāti ʾilà n-nūri bi-ʾidhni
rabbihim ʾilà ṣirāṭi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥamīd Q 14: 1; ʾlr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi wa-qurʾānin mubīn Q 15: 1.
ʾ-l-m: ʾlm (2) dhālika l-kitābu lā rayba fīhi hudan li-l-muttaqīn (3) alladhīna yuʾminūna bi-l-
ghaybi wa-yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-mimmā razaqnāhum yunfiqūn (4) wa-lladhīna yuʾminūna
bi-mā ʾunzila ʾilayka wa-mā ʾunzila min qablika wa-bi-l-ʾākhirati hum yūqinūn (5) ʾulāʾika
ʿalà hudan min rabbihim wa-ulāʾika humu l-mufliḥūn Q 2: 1–5; ʾlm (2) allāhu lā ʾilāha ʾillā
huwa l-ḥayyu l-qayyūmu (3) nazzala ʿalayka l-kitāba bi-l-ḥaqqi muṣaddiqan li-mā bayna
yadayhi wa-ʾanzala t-tawrāta wa-l-ʾindjīl (4) min qablu hudan li-l-nāsi wa-ʾanzala l-furqāna
ʾinna lladhīna kafarū bi-ʾāyāti llāhi lahum ʿadhābun shadīdun wa-llāhu ʿazīzun dhū ntiqām Q
3: 1‒3; ʾlm (2) ʾa-ḥasiba l-nāsu ʾan yutrakū ʾan yaqūlū ʾāmanna wa-hum lā yuftanūn Q 29: 1‒2;
ʾlm (2) qad ghulibati l-rūm (3) fī ʾadnà l-ʾarḍi wa-hum min baʿdi ghalabihim sa-yaghlibūn (4)
fī biḍʿi sinīna li-llāhi l-ʾamru min qablu wa-min baʿdu wa-yawma-ʾidhin yafraḥu l-muʾminūn Q
30: 1‒4; ʾlm (2) tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-ḥakīm (3) hudan wa-raḥmatan li-l-muḥsinīn (4) alladhīna
yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-yuʾtūna l-zakāta wa-hum bi-l-ʾakhirati hum yūqinūn Q 31: 1‒4; ʾlm (2)
tanzīlu l-kitābi lā rayba fīhi min rabbi l-ʿālamīn Q 32: 1‒2.
ʾ-l-m-r (or ʾ-l-m-z): ʾlmr tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi wa-lladhī ʾunzila ʾilayka min rabbika l-ḥaqqu
wa-lākinna ʾakthara n-nāsi lā yuʾminūn Q 13: 1.
ʾ-l-m-ṣ (or ʾ-l-m-ḍ): ʾlmṣ (2) kitābun ʾunzila ʾilayka fa-lā yakun fī ṣadrika ḥaradjun minhu li-
tundhira bihi wa-dhikrà li-l-muttaqīn Q 7: 1‒2.
ḥ-m (or dj-m or kh-m): ḥm (2) tanzīlu l-kitābi mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi l-ʿalīm (2) ghāfiri l-dhanbi
wa-qābili t-tawbi shadīdi l-ʿiqābi dhī l-ṭawli lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa ʾilayhi l-maṣīr Q 40: 1; ḥm (2)
tanzīlun mina l-raḥmāni l-raḥīm (3) kitābun fuṣṣilat ʾāyātuhu qurʾānan ʿarabīyan li-qawmin
yaʿlamūn (3) bashīran wa-nadhīran fa-ʾaʿraḍa ʾaktharuhum fa-hum lā yasmaʿūn Q 41: 1‒3; ḥm
(2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn; Q 43: 1‒2; ḥm (2) wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 44: 1‒2; ḥm (2) tanzīlu l-kitābi
mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥakīm Q 45: 1–2; ḥm (2) tanzīlu l-kitābi mina llāhi l-ʿazīzi l-ḥakīm Q 46: 1‒2.
ḥ-m (or dj-m or kh-m) ʿ-s-q (or gh-sh-q, etc.): ḥm (2) ʿsq (3) ka-dhālika yūḥī ʾilayka wa-ʾilà
lladhīna min qablika llāhu l-ʿazīzu l-ḥakīm Q 42: 1‒3.
ṣ (or ḍ): ṣ wa-l-qurʾāni dhī l-dhikr Q 38: 1.
ṭ-s (or ẓ-sh, etc.): ṭs tilka ʾāyātu l-qurʾāni wa-kitābin mubīn (2) hudan wa-bushrà li-l-muʾminīn
(3) alladhīna yuqīmūna l-ṣalāta wa-yuʾtūna l-zakāta wa-hum bi-l-ʾākhirati hum yūqinūn Q
27: 1‒3.
ṭ-s-m (or ẓ-sh-m, etc.): ṭsm (2) tilka ʾāyātu l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 26: 1‒2; ṭsm (2) tilka ʾāyātu
l-kitābi l-mubīn Q 28: 1‒2.

340 Andreas Kaplony
ṭ-h (or ẓ-h): ṭh (2) mā ʾanzalnā ʿalayka l-qurʾāna li-tashqà (3) ʾillā tadhkiratan li-man yakhshà
(4) tanzīlan mimman khalaqa l-ʾarḍa wa-s-samāwāti l-ʿulà Q 20: 1‒4.
q: q wa-l-qurʾāni l-madjīd Q 50: 1.
k-h-y-ʿ-ṣ (or k-h-n-gh-ḍ, or k-h-t-gh-ḍ, or k-h-th-gh-ḍ, or k-h-b-gh-ḍ, etc.): khyʿṣ (2) dhikru
raḥmati rabbika ʿabdahu zakarīyā Q 19: 1‒2.
n: n wa-l-qalami wa-mā yasṭurūn Q 68: 1.
y-s (or n-sh, or t-sh, or th-sh, or b-sh, etc.): ys (2) wa-l-qurʾāni l-ḥakīm Q 36: 1‒2.
Mysterious Letters do not correlate with the seven prologue types. However, Suras
with the Mysterious Letters ʾlmr, ḥm ʿsq, ṭh, q, khyʿṣ, n, ṣ, and ys³⁹ do correlate
with and go beyond al-raḥmān Suras, while Suras with Mysterious Letters ʾlr, ʾlm,
ʾlmṣ, ḥm, ṭs and ṭsm correlate with and go beyond rabb al-ʿālamīn Suras (includ-
ing mixed Suras 2, 26, 41, and 43). Thus we have: (a) an enlarged al-raḥmān group
of 12 Suras (Q 13; 17; 19; 20; 21; 25; 36; 38; 50; 55; 67; 78); (b) an enlarged rabb
al-ʿālamīn group of 29 Suras (Q 2, with al-raḥmān and rabb al-ʿālamīn each once;
3; 6; 7; 10; 11; 12; 14; 15; 26, mostly rabb al-ʿālamīn, once al-raḥmān; 27; 28; 29; 30;
31; 32; 37; 39; 40; 41, with al-raḥmān and rabb al-ʿālamīn each once; 42; 43, with
mostly al-raḥmān, once rabb al-ʿālamīn; 44; 45; 46; 56; 69; 81; 83); and (c) just 1
Sura in the mixed al-raḥmān-and-rabb al-ʿālamīn category (Q 59).
Trying to read the Qurʾānic Mysterious Letters as a parallel to the archival
notes on our Kitāb Documents is difficult for three reasons: (1) the Mysterious
Letters follow the Basmala, whereas the archival notes proceed the Basmala; (2)
the Mysterious Letters are obviously abbreviations, whereas the archival notes
are full text; and (3) the Mysterious Letters are fully incorporated into the text,
whereas the archival notes are clearly marked as being outside the document
proper.
For the time being, we nevertheless consider the Mysterious Letters as
marking provenance, by pointing to either the name of the owner or compiler of
a Sura, or to the name of a place where the Sura comes from. A strong argument
in favor of their indicating provenance is their correlation with al-raḥmān Suras
and rabb al-ʿālamīn Suras that, in their turn, seem to be related to provenance.
Also, the fact that half of the Mysterious Letters start with ʾl while the other half
39 We are grouping Mysterious Letters ṣ (Q 38), ḥm ʿsq (Q 42), and n (Q 68) with al-raḥmān Suras,
anticipating that djannat ʿadn Q 38: 50, al-saʿīr Q 42: 7 and djannāt al-naʿīm 68: 34 make Suras
38, 42, and 68 al-raḥmān Suras (see below).

do not⁴⁰ definitely supports the assumption that the Mysterious Letters stand for
names, because Arabic (personal or geographical) names either start with the
article al- (e. g. al-Ḥasan) or do not (e. g. ʿĀʾisha).
Terms for Heaven and Hell in the Suras

In one group of Suras, Heaven is called djannāt ʿadn, “the Gardens of Eden”,⁴¹
and Hell is called al-saʿīr, “the Blaze”,⁴² whereas in another group, Heaven is
named the Garden(s) of naʿīm, “Amenity”,⁴³ and Hell is named djaḥīm, “Fire”.⁴⁴
With only four exceptions,⁴⁵ these two groups do not overlap. Both groups also
have ubiquitous hegemonic terms speaking of allāh, al-djanna (“the Garden”)
or djannāt (“Gardens”), and djahannam (“Gehenna”) or al-nār (“the Fire,”) and
many Suras use hegemonic terminology only. This distribution is strongly remi-
niscent of the distribution of al-raḥmān, rabb al-ʿālamīn, and allāh, and the two
distributions indeed correlate.⁴⁶
Thus, we have again (a) an enlarged al-raḥmān group of 19 Suras (Q 13; 16;
17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 25; 34; 35; 36; 38; 42; 50; 55; 61; 67; 78; 98); (b) an enlarged rabb
al-ʿālamīn group of 37 Suras (Q 2; 3; 5; 6; 7; 10; 11; 12; 14; 15; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31;
32; 37; 39; 40; 41; 42; 43; 44; 45; 46; 52; 56; 57; 68; 69; 70; 79; 81; 82; 83; 102), and
(c) an enlarged mixed group of four Suras (Q 9; 22; 31; 59).
40 Goossens 1923, 221, who, however, draws a different conclusion.

41 Djannāt ʿadn: Q 9: 72; 13: 23; 16: 31; 18: 31; 19: 61; 20: 76; 35: 33; 38: 50; 40: 8; 61: 12; 98: 8.
42 Al-saʿīr: Q 22: 4; 31: 21; 34: 12; 35: 6; 42: 7; 67: 5; 67: 10; 67: 11.
43 Djannat naʿīm: Q 56: 89; 70: 38. ‒ Naʿīm: Q 82: 13; 83: 22. ‒ Djannat al-naʿīm: Q 26: 85. ‒ Al-
naʿīm: Q 83: 24; 102: 8. ‒ Djannāt al-naʿīm Q 5: 65; 22: 56; 31: 8; 37: 43; 56: 12; 68: 34, see also
djannāt fīhā naʿīm muqīm Q 9: 21. ‒ Djannāt wa-naʿīm: Q 52: 17.
44 Al-djaḥīm: Q 2: 119; 5: 10; 5: 86; 9: 113; 22: 51; 26: 91; 37: 23; 37: 55; 37: 64; 37: 68; 37: 97; 37: 163;
40: 7; 44: 47; 44: 56; 52: 18; 57: 19; 69: 31; 79: 36; 79: 39; 81: 12; 83: 16; 102: 6. ‒ Djaḥīm: Q 56: 94;
82: 14.
45 Suras 9, 22, 31, and 40 combine terms of both groups: djannat ʿadn Q 9: 72 vs. al-djaḥīm Q 9:
113; as-saʿīr Q 22: 4 vs. al-djaḥīm Q 22: 51; djannāt al-naʿīm Q 31: 8 vs. al-saʿīr Q 31: 21; djannāt ʿadn
Q 40: 8 vs. al-djaḥīm Q 40: 7. Keep in mind that Q 40, because of the Mysterious Letter ḥm, has
been attributed to rabb al-ʿālamīn-Suras.
46 The correlation of al-raḥmān and djannāt ʿadn has been remarked by Jomier 1957, 374, and
correlation of al-raḥmān and djahannam by Jomier 1957, 378.

342 Andreas Kaplony
Conclusion: Two Minority Discourses vs. a

Hegemonic Discourse
Of the ten major formal types of Arabic documents, the Protocol and the Table
(= Formal Types A and B) were plainly inherited from earlier Byzantine adminis-
tration, while another seven (= Formal Types D-J) are attested from the Abbasid
period onward only. The one formal document type that the officials of the new
Islamic Empire added to the two they inherited – and the one type that was to
shape the lion’s share of all later Arabic documents – is the Kitāb Document (=
Formal Type C).
Kitāb Documents and most Qurʾānic Suras share one and the same structure,
consisting of three, if not four, parts: the Basmala, a prologue, a long main part,
and possibly some notes for later processing. In the Kitāb Document, the introduc-
tion is always realized as a title, whereas in the Qurʾānic Suras, the prologue can be
a title, an oath, a hymn, a reference to an eschatological event, an admonishment,
a question, or a threat. For the Kitāb Documents, we know both the text structure
and the mise en page, whereas for the Qurʾānic Suras, we know the texture struc-
ture only. We might suppose that the mise en page was similar to that of the Kitāb
Document, but this is something that remains to be proven from the Qurʾānic man-
uscript parts preserved, and is thus a track to follow in future research.
Another result might be even more promising: the Qurʾān is no monograph,
but a compilation of autonomous Suras each claiming to preserve Muḥammad’s
revelation. Terms for “God”, “Heaven”, and “Hell” and also the Mysterious Letters
make the Suras fall into three groups. This diversity probably points to the diverse
provenance of the Suras.
The one minority group, in addition to the hegemonic terms (see below),
uses at least one of the terms al-raḥmān , djannāt ʿadn, “the Gardens of Eden,” a
calque from the Hebrew gan ʿēden), and al-saʿīr (“the Blaze”), and/or are marked
by one of the Mysterious Letters ʾlmr, ḥm ʿsq, q, khyʿṣ, ṣ, ṭh, and ys. These Suras are
Q 13; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 25; 34; 35; 36; 38; 42; 50; 55; 61; 67; 78; 98.
The other minority group, in addition to the hegemonic terms, uses at least
one of the terms rabb al-ʿālamīn (“the Lord of the Eternities”), (al-)naʿīm (“(the)
Amenity”) and (al-)djaḥīm “(the) Fire”), and/or are marked by one of the Myste-
rious Letters ʾlm, ʾlmṣ, ʾlr, ḥm, ṭs, and ṭsm. These Suras are Q 2; 3; 5; 6; 7; 10; 11; 12;
14; 15; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 37; 39; 40; 41; 42; 43; 44; 45; 46; 52; 56; 57; 68; 69;
70; 79; 81; 82; 83; 102.
Finally, the ubiquitous hegemonic discourse uses the terms allāh, al-djanna
(“the Garden”) or djannāt (“Gardens”), and djahannam (“Gehenna,” a calque of
the Hebrew gē hinnōm) or al-nār (“the Fire”).

Suras Minority Group Minority Group Hegemonic Group
Q 13; 16; 17; 18; 19; Q 2; 3; 5; 6; 7; 10; 11;

20; 21;25; 34; 35; 36; 12; 14; 15; 26; 27; 28;
38; 42; 50; 55; 61; 67; 29; 30; 31; 32; 37; 39;
78; 98 40; 41; 42; 43; 44; 45;
46; 52; 56; 57; 68; 69;
70; 79; 81; 82; 83; 102
God al-raḥmān rabb al-ʿālamīn allāh
Mysterious Letters ʾlmr, ḥm ʿsq, q, khyʿṣ, ʾlm, ʾlmṣ, ʾlr, ḥm, ṭs and -
ṣ, ṭh, ys ṭsm
Heaven djannāt ʿadn (al-)naʿīm al-djanna, djannāt
Hell al-saʿīr (al-)djaḥīm djahannam, al-nār
How does this diversity relate to the claim that the Suras preserve the words that
Muḥammad had pronounced and that a portion of them had been written down
during his lifetime?
We need to keep in mind that, possibly, the texts preserved in these Suras
were mostly presented and transmitted orally. And although we usually do not
apply the term sadjʿ, “rhymed and rhythmed prose”, to the Qurʾān, this is what
these texts are composed in.⁴⁷ As such, they basically follow the rules for how
oral texts were transmitted in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Arabia. Agreements
were written down and archived next to the Kaʿba, to allow the original wording
to be checked in the case of a disagreement. Yet in the case of poetry, those who
recited it wherever possible improved it to make it more precise, i. e. more biting
or more touching: polishing a poet’s poetry this way was no shame, but rather the
opposite – it was the performer’s duty to the author.⁴⁸
Until the officials of the caliphs had them written down into an authoritative
lectionary, the longer or shorter pieces Muḥammad had presented in rhymed and
rhythmed prose were mostly orally transmitted. And over these decades, those
reciting Muḥammad’s words may possibly have constantly exchanged synonyms,
improving rhyme and rhythm to help ensure that the message was understood
better. Before the officials had the texts written down, the peculiar rules of mostly
oral transmission, with its constant reworking, must therefore have left their traces.
47 Stewart 1990; Stewart 2004; Stewart 2015, 200.

48 Schoeler 1992, 1‒16.

344 Andreas Kaplony
Appendix: Subtypes of Pre-800 Kitāb Documents

On July 28th, 2017, the Arabic Papyrology Database (www.naher-osten.lmu.de/
apd) covered almost all editions of pre-800 Arabic documents. A metadata search
for editions of documents dated prior to 800 yielded 758 documents. About half
of these seem to mirror the structure of the Kitāb Documents, yet only the 225
mentioned below are well preserved and show most of the structural elements,
while the others are fragmentary at the crucial places.
The following survey excludes three further subtypes that start off in the
790s and later become very imporant: These are the (1) hādhā kitāb min fulān ʿalà
kharādj … li-fulān-Kitāb; (2) the dhikr ḥaqq fulān ʿalà fulān-Kitāb; and (3) the ʾinnī
ʾakraytuka-Kitāb.⁴⁹ Optional parts appear inside round brackets.
1 The fa-Kitāb Document
In this first subtype, the prologue (the title) starts min fulān ʾilà fulān, “From
so-and-so to so-and-so”, while the main part is introduced by fa-, “so”, or ammā
baʿdu fa-, “What concerns what follows, so”. Both the prologue and the main part
start on a new line.
In the prologue and in the address, the order of persons might be switched
and become li-fulān min fulān, “In favor of so-and-so” or ʾilà fulān min fulān, “To
so-and-so from so-and-so”.
In the shorter subtypes, fa- or ammā baʿdu fa- are followed by a formula
that stresses the document’s function. This subtype includes (1) orders to receive
material and process it, introduced by fa-qbuḍū, “So, accept”; (2) fa-ʾaṭū, “So,
give”; (3) fa-ḥmīl, “So, transport”; (4) ʾammā baʿdu fa-sarriḥ, “What concerns
what follows, so, allow passage”; and (5) ʾammā baʿdu fa-ḥḍur, “What concerns
what follows, so, be present” (6–7). Two long versions additionally enlarge the
main part with salāmun ʿalayka fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka (or: aḥmadu) llāha lladhī
lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa, “Peace upon you, and I am praising in front of you (or: I am
49 Pre-800 documents of those three subtypes include: hādhā kitāb min fulān ʿalà kharādj …
li-fulān-Kitābs: P.DiemFrueheUrkunden 4 = P.Alqab 23 (793; al-Fayyūm?); P.GrohmannApercu
p. 50 = P.World p. 116 = CPR XXI 2 b (792; al-Fayyūm?). ‒ Dhikr ḥaqq fulān ʿalà fulān-Kitābs:
P.ThungWrittenObligations 1 = CPR XXVI 16 (789; Egypt?); P.ThungWrittenObligations 2 = CPR
XXVI 17 (795; Madīnat al-Fayyūm). ‒ ʾInnī ʾakraytuka-Kitābs: P.DiemFrueheUrkunden 4 = P.Alqab
23 (793; al-Fayyūm); P.MargoliouthSelectPapyri p. 413–414 = P.Ryl.Arab. I IX 6 = P.Ryl.Arab. II 4 =
CPR XXI 5 (798–799; al-Ushmūnayn). – Additionally, we abstract of P.World p. 132 = P.Grohman-
nAperçu p. 73 n. 2 (lines 10‒15) = P.GrohmannProbleme III p. 132 n. 1 (lines 10‒15) (793; Egypt?).

praising) God concerning whom we are saying there is no god but He.” The two
long versions are by far the best attested; they differ by their rare or extensive
use of eulogies, as well as by their consequent or occasional use of a final dating.
1.1 The fa-qbuḍū-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) bi-smi llāhi l-raḥmāni al-raḥīm +
(new line) min sender ʾilà <addressee> +
(new line) fa-qbuḍū <objects> … + wa-kataba <scribe> fī <month> min sanat
<year>
verso
(new line) min sender ʾilà <addressee>
(new line) <seal?>
P.BeckerPAF 9 = P.Heid.Arab. I 8 (left part) (709; Ishqaw; no new line with

fa-qbuḍū; no address on verso);
1.2 The fa-ʾaʿṭū-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) fa-ʾaʿṭū <tax> … + wa-kataba <scribe> fī (shahr) <month> min (or li-,
or directly) sanat <year>
(new line) <seal>
verso
P.BeckerPapyrusstudien (713‒714; Anṣinā; no address on verso); P.DelattreEnta-

gion (694; Anṣinā; no new line with fa-ʾaṭū; li-sanat <year>); P.DiemFrue-
heUrkunden 1 (698; al-Fayyūm?; no new line with fa-ʾaṭū); P.Gascou 27 b (695;
al-Ushmūnayn; no new line with fa-ʾaṭū); P.Heid.Arab. I 22 (709‒714; Ishqawh; no
new line with fa-ʾaṭū; sanat …, without min or li-); P.Ness. 60 b = P.GrohmannPa-
pyrusprotokoll 2 b (674; Naṣtān; no address); P.Ness. 61 (675; Naṣtān; no new line
with fa-ʾaṭū; additional summary fa-djamʿatuhu …)

346 Andreas Kaplony
1.3 The fa-ḥmil-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) fa-ḥmil <passenger> + wa-huwa <physical description of passenger>
+ ʿalà dābbatayni min al-barīd … + wa-kataba <scribe> fī (shahr)
<month> sanat <year>
verso
(new line) <seal?>
P.DiemRemarkableDocuments 2 (751; al-Ushmūnayn); P.MargoliouthSelectPapyri

1 = P.Ryl.Arab. I IV 3 = P.RagibLettresdeService 1 = P.Ryl.Arab. II 6 (745; al-Ush-
mūnayn); P.MargoliouthSelectPapyri 2 = P.Ryl.Arab. I IV 2 = P.RagibLettresdeSer-
vice 2 (751; al-Ushmūnayn); P.MargoliouthSelectPapyri 3 = P.Ryl.Arab. I IV 4 =
P.RagibLettresdeService 4 (752; al-Ushmūnayn; wa-katabahu); P.Ryl.Arab. I IV 1 =
P.RagibLettresdeService 3 (745; al-Ushmūnayn);
1.4 The ʾammā baʿdu fa-sarriḥ-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) ʾilà <addressee> +
(new line) ʾammā baʿdu fa-sarriḥ (or: fa-dfaʿ) li-<beneficiary and released
object> … wa-kataba <scribe> <weekday> + <day> + min <month> min
sanat <year>
(new line) <seal>
P.David-WeillLouvre 27 A = P.DiemDienstschreiben d (720; al-Fusṭāṭ); P.Da-

vid-WeillLouvre 27 B = P.DiemDienstschreiben a (720; al-Fusṭāṭ, no <year>);
P.Seoudi 1 = P.DiemDienstschreiben b (720; al-Fusṭāṭ; fa-innā katabnā ʾilayka
ʾan tusarriḥa … fa-dfaʿhu ʾilayhi; no <year>); P.Seoudi 2 = P.DiemDienstschreiben
c (720; al-Fusṭāṭ); P.TillierFustat 1 (753‒785; al-Fusṭāṭ; ʾammā baʿdu fa-); P.Van-
thieghemMiel 2 (765; al-Fusṭāṭ; fa-dfaʿ; wa-kutiba dhālika?); P.World p. 141 a (776:
Madīnat al-Fayyūm; fa-dfaʿ; wa-kutiba; day of the week and <year> only in Greek
numerals).

1.5 The ʾammā baʿdu fa-ḥḍur-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) ʾammā baʿdu fa-ḥḍur … wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka
(new line) <seal?>
P.TillierFustat 1 (753–785; al-Fusṭāṭ; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu fa-ḥḍur).
1.6 The Long ʾammā baʿdu fa-Kitāb Document without Eulogies
recto
(new line) (fī <keyword>) +
(new line) min sender ʾilà <addressee> + fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu (or: ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka)
llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa +
(new line) ʾammā baʿdu fa-<expositio> + <dispositio with order(s)> +
(new line) wa-l-salāmu ʿalà mani ttabaʿa l-hudà (or: wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka
wa-raḥmatu llāhi) + wa-kataba <scribe> fī (shahr) <month> (min)
sanat <year>
(new line) <seal?>
verso
P.BeckerNPAF 12 = P.DietrichTopkapi 1 (709; Ishqaw; no expositio); P.BeckerNPAF

2 = P.Cair.Arab. 148 = P.World p. 126); P.BeckerNPAF 5 = P.Heid.Arab. I 12 (top) =
P.BeckerPAF 14 = P.Cair.Arab. 151 (710; Ishqaw); P.BeckerNPAF 6 (l. 4‒19) = P.Cair.
Arab. 153 (710; Ishqaw; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu); P.BeckerNPAF 8 (l. 4‒23)
= P.Cair.Arab. 154 = P.World p. 1292 (709‒710; Ishqaw; with wa-nasakha <copist>);
P.BeckerNPAF 9 (l. 3–20) = P.Cair.Arab. 155 (709‒710; Ishqawh; no wa-l-salāmu
ʿalà mani ttabaʿa l-hudà; with wa-nasakha copist); P.BeckerPAF 12 (l. 6‒20) =
P.Cair.Arab. 150 (709; Ishqaw); P.BeckerPAF 2 (710; Ishqawh); P.Diem Amtliche
Schreiben 1 (750‒754; Egypt?; ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu
llāhi); P.GrohmannQorra-Brief (709; al-Fayyūm?; ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka; no expositio;
wa-l-salāmu ʿalà muḥammadini n-nabīyi wa-raḥmatu llāhi; tamām sanat <year>);
P.Heid.Arab. I 1 = P.World p. 124 = Chrest.Khoury I 90 (710; Ishqaw); P.Heid.Arab.
I 2 (710; Ishqawh); P.Heid.Arab. I 3 = Chrest.Khoury I 91 (710; Ishqaw); P.Heid.

348 Andreas Kaplony
Arab. I 10 (710; Ishqawh; wa-nasakha <copist>); P.HindsNubia = P.BlauHandbook

p. 57 (758; Qaṣr Ibrīm; at beginning and end salāmun ʿalà ʾawliyāʾi llāhi wa-ʾahli
ṭāʿatihi; wa-ʾaḥmadu ʾilayhimu llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa; wa-kataba <scribe>
<weekday> + <month> + <year>); P.HoylandDhimma 1 (681‒690; Naṣtān; ʾaḥmadu
ʾilayka; wa-l-salāmu ʿalaykum wa-rahmatu llāhi); 2 (681‒690; Naṣtān; ʾaḥmadu
ʾilayka; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-rahmatu llāhi);
P.Qurra 1 (709; Ishqawh); 3 (709; Ishqawh; no new line with min; no new line
with fa-ʾinna, without ʾammā baʿdu; with wa-nasakha <copist>); P.RagibLettres
1 = Chrest.Khoury I 95 (750–753; Madīnat al-Fāris; ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka; wa-l-salāmu
ʿalayka wa-rahmatu llāhi); P.RagibQurra 1 = Chrest.Khoury I 92 = P.GascouQurra
(709; al-Fayyūm); P.SijpesteijnInvitation (705‒717; Egypt?; ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka;
wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-rahmatu llāhi)
1.7 The Long ʾammā baʿdu fa-Kitāb Document with Eulogies
recto
(new line) min sender ʾilà <addressee> (or: li-<addressee> min <sender>; or:
ʾilà <addressee> min <sender>) + salāmun ʿalayka fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu
ʾilayka (or: aḥmadu) llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa +
(new line) ʾammā baʿdu fa-<reference to the present letter and health of sender>
+ <enquiring after letters coming from addressee> + <main text> +
<greetings> + wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu llāhi (or: wa-l-salāmu
ʿalayka; or: wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu llāhi wa-barakātuhu) +
(wa-kataba <scribe> fī (shahr) <month> sanat <year>)
(new line) <seal?>
verso
(new line) min sender ʾilà <addressee> (or: li-<addressee> min <sender>) (raḥima
(or: yarḥami) llāhu man ballaghahā)
Names often have eulogies.
CPR XVI 4 (650–750; Egypt?; ʾaḥmadu, without ilayka; postscriptum); 9 (701–

750; Egypt?; li-<addressee> min <sender>); 18 (li-<addressee> min <sender>;
wa-raḥmatu llāhi wa-barakātuhu); 33 (632‒800; Egypt?; fa-ʾinnanī; wa-l-salāmu
ʿalayka); P.Berl.Arab. I 3 (771‒800; al-Fayyūm?; postscriptum); P.Berl.Arab. II 23
(643‒700; Egypt?; li-<addressee> min <sender>; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu
llāhi wa-barakātuhu); 25 (701‒800; Egypt?); 49 (701‒800; Egypt?; no new line with

ʾammā baʿdu; in verso address additionally li-<city of addressee>); 73 (701‒800;

al-Ushmūnayn; ʾilà <addressee> min <sender>; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu
llāhi wa-barakātuhu; postscriptum); P.David-WeillLouvre 12‒13 (701‒800; Madīnat
al-Fāris; no ʾilayka; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu); 26 (701‒800; Egypt); P.Diem-
RemarkableDocuments 1; no new line with min; salāmun ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu llāhi,
without fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu ʾilayka llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha ʾilla huwa; no new line with
ʾammā baʿdu); P.GrohmannAperçu p. 90 n. 2 = P.GrohmannProbleme III p. 148
n. 3 = P.HusseinSteuersystem p. 159 = P.DiemFrueheUrkunden p. 150 = P.Diem
Amtliche Schreiben 3 (632‒800; Egypt?; li-<addressee> min <sender>); P.Heid.
Arab. II 24 (701‒800; Egypt?; postscriptum); P.Horak 85 (701‒800; Egypt?); P.Jahn
3 (745; Madīnat al-Fayyūm; wa-kataba <scribe> fī <month> sanat <year>); P.Jahn 5
= P.BlauHandbook p. 60 (771‒800; Egypt?; new line with both ʾammā baʿdu and
with fa-ʾinnī); P.Jahn 9 (771‒800; Madīnat al-Fayyūm; li-<addressee> min <sender>;
wa-l-salām); P.Jahn 12 = Chrest.Khoury I 98 (771‒800; al-Fayyūm; no ʾilayka;
wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka; postscriptum); P.Khalili I 14; li-<addressee> min <sender>);
15 Recto (701‒800; Egypt?; li- <addressee> min <sender>; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka
wa-raḥmatun); 21 (701‒800; Egypt?; salāmun ʿalayka wa-raḥmatuhu; no new line
with ʾammā baʿdu; no final greeting); P.Kratchkovski (717‒719; Zarafshān; li-<ad-
dressee> min <sender>; al-salāmu ʿalayka ʾayyuhā l-ʾamīru wa-raḥmatu llāhi;
wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka ʾayyuhā l-ʾamīru wa-raḥmatu llāhi); P.Loth 2 = P.Berl.Arab. II
75 (701‒800; Madīnat al-Fayyūm; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu llāhi wa-bar-
akātuhu; postscriptum); P.Mird 18 (651‒700; Khirbat al-Mird; li-<addressee> min
<sender>); 23 (701‒800; Khirbat al-Mird; ʾilà <addressee> min <sender; no new line
with ʾammā baʿdu); 31 (632‒800; Khirbat al-Mird); 32 (701‒800; Khirbat al-Mird;
li-<addressee> min <sender>); 43 recto (744‒745; Khirbat al-Mird); 60 (701‒800;
Khirbat al-Mird); 61 (701‒800; Khirbat al-Mird; li-<addressee> min <sender>; no
new line with ʾammā baʿdu); P.MuslimState 1 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 2 (730‒750;
al-Fayyūm?); 3 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; wa-kataba <scribe> <weekday>); 5 (730‒750;
al-Fayyūm?); 6 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 7 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; wa-kataba
<scribe> <weekday>); 8 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 9 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 10
(730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 11 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 13 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 14
(730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 22 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 24 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; ʾilà
<addressee> min <sender; postscriptum); 25 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; no new line
with ʾammā baʿdu; wa-l-salāmu ʿalayka wa-raḥmatu llāhi wa-barakātuhu); 26
(730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 27 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; ʾilà <addressee> min <sender;
postscriptum); 28 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu; text
continues on verso); 29 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 30 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 31
(730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu); 32 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?;

350 Andreas Kaplony
no new line with ʾammā baʿdu); 33 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; fa-ʾinnī ʾaḥmadu

ʾilayka (or: aḥmadu) llāha lladhī lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa l-laṭīf al-khabīr al-qādir ʿalà
mā yurīdu + a very long prayer; yarḥami llāhu man ballaghahā); 34 (730‒750;
al-Fayyūm?; ʾilà <addressee> min <sender>; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu); 35
(730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 36 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; li-<addressee> min <sender>); 37
(730‒750; al-Fayyūm?); 38 (730‒750; al-Fayyūm?; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu);
P.RagibLettreFamiliale (721; Egypt?; no new line with title; wa-l-salāmu ʿalaykum
wa-raḥmatu llāhi wa-barakātuhu; postscriptum katabtu ʾilaykum kitābī hādhā fī
<day><month> min <year>; raḥima llāhu man ballaghahā ʾilayhim); P.RagibLet-
tres 4 (701‒800; Egypt?); 8 (757; Saqqāra; li-<addressee> min <sender>; wa-kataba
<scribe><day> min shahr <month> sanat <year>); 9 a (701‒800; Egypt?); 9 b
(701‒800; Egypt?; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu; wa-ʿalayka l-salām?; wa-kataba
<scribe>; yarḥamu llāhu man ballaghahā ʾāmīn wa-l-salām); 10 (701‒800; Egypt?;
ʾilà <addressee> min <sender; no new line with ʾilà; no new line with ʾammā
baʿdu; no alladhī lā ʾilāha ʾillā huwa; raḥima llāhu man ballaghahā); 11 (701‒800;
Egypt?; ʾilà <addressee> min <sender; no new line with ʾammā baʿdu); P.Reinfan-
dtLeinenhaendler (701‒750; Ihnās; new line inside ʾammā baʿdu | fa-ʾinnī; post-
scriptum); P.RogersNotice p. 15 bottom = P.RagibLettres 2 a (701‒800; al-Fayyūm?;
li-<addressee> min <sender>); P.ShahinScheltbrief (701‒800; al-Fayyūm?; li-<ad-
dressee> min <sender>).
2 The ʾinnahu-Kitāb Document
In this second subtype, the prologue (the title) starts with hādhā kitāb min fulān
li-fulān, “The following is a writ from so-and-so in favor of so-and-so”, while the
main part is introduced by innahu, “Behold”, followed by a formula that stresses
the document’s function. Only the prologue, but not necessarily the main part,
starts on a new line.
This second subtype includes (1) tax assignments introduced by innahu
ʾaṣābakum, “Behold, has reached you”; (2) passports introduced by ʾinnī ʾadhintu
lahu, “Behold, I am giving a permit to so-and-so”, where the prologue is enlarged
by the passholder’s physical description and provenance; (3) and (4) receipts,
where the term barāʾa, “receipt,” is somehow inserted into the prologue – hādhā
kitāb min fulān barāʾa li-fulān, “The following is a writ from so-and-so, meant to
serve as a receipt in favor of so-and so”, or the shorter hādhihi barāʾa min fulān
li-fulān, “The following is an receipt from so-and-so in favor of so-and-so” – while
the main part starts off with ʾinnī qabaḍtu minka, “Behold, I received from you”,
or with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta ʾilayya, “Behold, you paid to me”. The receipt form
serves to testify other administrative procedures, too: (5) a land survey is recorded

by ʾinnā masaḥnā ʿalayka, “Behold, we measured with you (sc. the dimension
of your land)”; and (6) and (7) the settlement of a dispute by ʾinnā khāṣamtuka
and ʾinnā ḥāsabtuka, “Behold, I have disputed with you”. Generally speaking,
innahu-Kitāb Documents are much less rigid in formulas and easily change them
slightly.
2.1. The ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) hādhā kitāb min <sender> li-<addressee> +
(new line) ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum tax + wa-kataba <scribe> fī <month> (min) sanat
<year>
(new line) <seal?>
P.BeckerNPAF 13 = P.Cair.Arab. 160 (709‒710; Ishqawh; new line inside ʾinnahu

| ʾaṣābakum; no new line with wa-kataba); P.BeckerNPAF 14 = P.Cair.Arab. 161
(709‒710; Ishqawh); P.BeckerNPAF 15 (l. 2‒7) = P.Cair.Arab. 162 (709‒710; Ishqawh;
no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.BeckerNPAF 16 (l. 2‒7) = P.Cair.Arab. 163
(709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.Clackson 45 (753;
Egypt?; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.Heid.Arab. I 5 = Chrest.Khoury I
93 (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.Heid.Arab. I 6 =
Chrest.Khoury I 94 (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum);
P.Heid.Arab. I a (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.Heid.
Arab. I b (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.Heid.Arab. I
c = P.Heid.Arab. I p. 106 (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum);
P.Heid.Arab. I d = P.Heid.Arab. I p. 106 (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu
ʾaṣābakum); P.Heid.Arab. I f = P.Heid.Arab. I p. 106 (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line
with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); P.Heid.Arab. I g (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with
ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum); h (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum);
i (709‒710; Ishqawh); l (709‒710; Ishqawh; no new line with ʾinnahu ʾaṣābakum).
2.2 The ʾinnī ʾadhintu lahu-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) hādhā kitāb min <sender> li-<addressee> + <physical description and
provenance of addressee> +

352 Andreas Kaplony
(new line) ʾinnī ʾadhintu lahu … + fa-man laqiyahu … + wa-l-salāmu ʿalà mani
ttabaʿa l-hudà + wa-kataba <scribe> fī <month> (min) sanat <year>
(new line) <seal>
P.BeckerPAF 17 = P.GrohmannAperçu p. 55 = P.Cair.Arab. 175 (731; Ishqawh; new

line inside ʾinnī | ʾadhintu; fī mustahall <month> tamām sanat <year>); P.Cair.
Arab. 174 (722; al-Ushmūnayn); P.PiletteSauf-Conduit (729; Dayr Abī Hirmīs; no
new line with ʾinnī ʾadhintu; no wa-l-salām ʿalà mani ttabaʿa l-hudà; wa-kutiba);
P.RagibSauf-conduits 3 (733‒734; Armant); P.RagibSauf-conduits 6 (751; Saqqāra;
no new line with wa-ʾadhinnā lahu; no wa-l-salām ʿalà mani ttabaʿa l-hudà; fī
mustahall <month>); P.SilvestredeSacyPapyrus A = P.RagibSauf-conduits 7 (751;
Saqqāra; no new line with ʾinnī ʾadhintu lahu; fī mustahall <month>); P.Silves-
trePaléographie p. 84 = P.RagibSauf-conduits 5 (750; Saqqāra).
2.3 The ʾinnī qabaḍtu minka-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) hādhā kitāb min <sender> barāʾa (or: hādhihi barāʾa min <sender>)
li-<addressee> +
(new line) ʾinnī qabaḍtu minka <tax> + qabaḍtu minka dhālika wa-bariʾta ʾilayya
minhu +
(new line) wa-kutiba fī shahr <month> sanat <year>
(new line) <seal>
P.Khurasan 1 (764; Balkh; wa-qad qabaḍnā; at end additional wa-kutiba);

2 (764‒765; Balkh; no new line with qabaḍnāhā minka; wa-kutiba li-ghurrat
<month>); 3 (765; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa; qabaḍtu dhālika minka; no new line
with wa-kutiba); 4 (766; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa; no new line with ʾinnī qabaḍtu;
qabaḍtu dhālika minka); 5 (766; Balh; qabaḍtu dhālika minka); 6 (766; Balkh;
hādhā kitāb barāʾa; no new line with ʾinnī qabaḍtu); 7 (767; Balkh; no new line
with ʾinnī qabaḍtu; qabaḍtu dhālika minka); 26 (765; Balkh; hādhā kitāb, without
barāʾa; no new line with wa-qad qabaḍa dhālika mūsà … minnī … wa-bariʾta
ʾilayhi minhu; additional shahida fulān …).

2.4 The ʾinnaka ʾaddayta ʾilayya-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) hādhā kitāb min <sender> barāʾa (or: hādhihi barāʾa min <sender>)
li-<addressee> +
(new line) ʾinnaka ʾaddayta ʾilayya <tax> + qabaḍtu dhālika minka wa-bariʾta
ʾilayya minhu + wa-kutiba fī shahr <month> sanat <year>
(new line) <seal>
P.Khurasan 8 (767; Balkh; no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta; wa-qabaḍtu); 9 (769;
Balkh; new line with min; no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta); 10 (769; Balkh); 11
(771; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa); 12 (768; Balkh; new line with min); 13 (769; Balkh;
new line inside ʾinnaka | ʾaddayta); 14 769; Balkh; no new line with ʾinnaka ʾad-
dayta); 15 (771; Balkh; hādhā barāʾa … barāʾa (sic); no new line with ʾinnaka ʾad-
dayta); 16 (772; Balkh; Basmala + <addressee>; hādhihi barāʾa; no new line with
ʾinnaka ʾaddayta; no new line with wa-kutibaba); 17 (772; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa;
no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta); 18 (772; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa; no new line
with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta); 19 (774; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa; no new line with ʾinnaka
ʾaddayta); 20 (774; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa; no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta);
21 (775; Balkh; hādhihi barāʾa; no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta); 22 (774‒775;
Balkh; hādhā barāʾa (sic); no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta; qabaḍnā dhālika
without minka; dating not introduced by wa-kutiba); 23 (770; Balkh; hādhihi
barāʾa; 770; Balkh; no new line with ʾinnaka ʾaddayta).
2.5 The ʾinnā masaḥnā ʿalayka-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) ʾinnā masaḥnā ʿalayka <ground> + wa-kutiba fī shahr <month> sanat
<year>
(new line) <seal?>
P.Khurasan 24 (771; Balkh; no new line with ʾinnā masaḥnā; no seal preserved)

354 Andreas Kaplony
2.6 The ʾinnī khāṣamtuka-Kitāb Document
recto
(new line) ʾinnī khāṣamtuka fī <object of argument> + wa-innī radadtuka ʿalà
<object of the argument> … + shahida <witnesses> + wa-kutiba <day>
min <month> sanat <year> + wa-l-shuhūd <witnesses>
(new line) <seal>
P.Khurasan 25 (762; Balkh; no new line with ʾinnī khāṣamtuka)
2.7 The ʾinnī ḥāsabtuka-Kitāb Document

(new line) hādhā kitāb barāʾa min sender li-fulān +
(new line) ʾinnī ḥāsabtuka bi-<object of argument> + fa-qad qabaḍtu minka
dhālika wa-bariʾta ʾilayya minhu … + shahida <witnesses> + wa-ku-
tiba fī <month> sanat <year>
(new line) <seal?>
P.Khurasan 27 (766; Balkh; no new line with ʾinnā ḥāsabnāka; no seal preserved).
3 The barāʾa li-fulān min shayʾ-Kitāb Document
A third, almost unattested subtype has as prologue (title) barāʾa li-fulān fī shayʾ,
“(The following is) a receipt in favor of so-and-so concerning that-and that”. Only
this prologue starts on a new line, but not the main part.

(new line) barāʾa li-<addressee> min <object> …
(new line) fa-qad dafaʿa <provider> … + shahida ʿalà dhālika <witnesses>
(new line) <seal?>
P.David-WeillLouvre 16 (773; Egypt?); P.David-WeillLouvre 24 (741; Egypt?); P.Khal-

ili I 9 a (723; Egypt?); 9 b (723; Egypt?); P.KhanLegalDocument (707; Egypt?).

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Kaplony, Andreas, Comparing Qurʾānic suras with pre-800 documents (with an appendix

on subtypes of pre-800 kitāb documents), Der Islam 95 (2018) 312-366

ʾillā man ʾatà llāha bi-qalbin salīm Q 26: 89;

Keywords: Koran, Arabic documents, Arabic papyri, official letters, Umayyads,

*Corresponding author: Andreas Kaplony, Ludwig-Maximilians-University München, Germany,

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Typologies of Arabic Documents: Formal Typo-

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Formal (diplomatic) types Functional types Semantic domains

(A) Protocol (I) Letter (1) State Tax Collection

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The Two Corpora: Pre-800 Kitāb Documents and

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Document Basmala vs. Sura Basmala⁸

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God’s Names allāh vs. al-raḥmān vs. rabb

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In Between the Basmala and the Main Part

Sura Prologue 1: Document Title vs. Sura Title

The introductory hādhā kitāb might be dropped, as in

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26 Schmucker 1995, 111‒112.

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Sura Prologue 2: Oaths³⁰

wa-l-samāʾi dhāti l-burūdj (2) wa-l-yawmi l-mawʿūd (3) wa-shāhidin wa-mashhūd

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Oaths on eschatological events, introduced by lā ʾuqsimu, “shall I not swear”: lā ʾuqsimu

Sura Prologue 3: Hymns³²

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Hymns introduced by sabbaḥa li-llāhi: sabbaḥa li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-mā fī l-ʾardi

Hymns introduced by yuṣabbiḥu li-llāhi: yusabbiḥu li-llāhi mā fī l-samāwāti wa-l-ʾardi

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Sura Prologue 4: References to Eschatological Events³³

Another 19 Suras are introduced by a reference to an eschatological event.

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Eschatological events introduced by iqtaraba(t): iqtaraba li-l-nāsi ḥisābuhum wa-hum

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Sura Prologue 5: Questions³⁵

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Sura Prologue 6: Admonishments³⁶

Another 18 Suras begin with an admonishment to Muḥammad, or to the individ-

Admonishments addressed to Muḥammad, introduced by a vocative, mostly yā-ʾayyuhā

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Admonishments to recite, addressed to Muḥammad, introduced by an imperative, mostly

Admonishments addressed to the Believers in general, introduced by yā-ʾayyuhā l-nāsu:

Admonishments addressed to the Believers, introduced by yā-ʾayyuhā lladhīna ʾāmanū:

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Sura Prologue 7: Threats or Curses³⁷

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Documentary Archival Notes vs. Qurʾānic

fa-djumʿatuhu ʿasharatun wa-thalāthu miʾati (18) mudyi qamḥin wa-mithluhu zaytan

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ṣ (or ḍ): ṣ wa-l-qurʾāni dhī l-dhikr Q 38: 1.

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