Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DOI 10.1007/s10669-008-9182-4
Abstract Investigators monitoring air quality at the • Several inches of dust covered the entire area after the
World Trade Center, after the September 11th attacks, destruction of the WTC buildings.
found extremely high levels of volatile organic chemicals • Millions of gallons of water were sprayed onto the
as well as unusual species that had never been seen before debris pile.
in structure fires. Data collected by the U.S. Environmental • Several rainfall events occurred at GZ, some heavy;
Protection Agency indicate striking spikes in levels of and
benzene, styrene, and several other products of combus- • A chemical fire suppressant called Pyrocool was
tion. These spikes occurred on specific dates in October pumped into the piles (Lipton and Revkin 2001).
and November 2001, and February 2002. Additionally,
The characteristics of these un-extinguishable fires have
data collected by researchers at the University of California
not been adequately explained as the results of a normal
Davis showed similar spikes in the levels of sulfur and
structure fire, even one accelerated by jet fuel. Conversely,
silicon compounds, and certain metals, in aerosols. To
such fires are better explained given the presence of
better explain these data, as well as the unusual detection of
chemical energetic materials, which provide their own fuel
1,3-diphenylpropane, the presence of energetic nanocom-
and oxidant and are not deterred by water, dust, or chem-
posites in the pile at Ground Zero is hypothesized.
ical suppressants.
Apart from the extensive but failed efforts to extinguish
Keywords World Trade Center EPA
the fires, there are several other physical indicators of the
1,3-diphenylpropane Aluminothermics
presence of energetic chemical reactions in the rubble at
Energetic nanocomposites Volatile organic chemicals
GZ. These include the following.
1. Photographs and witness testimony evidencing molten
1 Introduction metal and explosions accompanied by white dust
clouds (Jones 2006; Meyerowitz 2006; PBS 2002).
For months after the destruction at the World Trade Center 2. Extremely high temperatures in the fires at the WTC
(WTC) on 11th September, 2001, the fires at Ground Zero (Jones et al. 2008a).
(GZ) could not be put out, despite the following facts. 3. Unusual spikes in volatile organic chemical (VOC)
emissions, suggesting abrupt, violent fires on specific
dates.
K. R. Ryan (&)
4. Unusual species in the environmental monitoring data,
P.O. Box 53, Bloomington, IN 47402-0053, USA
e-mail: kncryan@msn.com also corresponding to specific dates.
123
Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63 57
released from the extremely exothermic reaction between Styrene Detected in Air at GZ
ct
ct
ct
ct
ct
ov
ov
ov
ov
described below give more compelling evidence to support
2-O
9-O
-O
-O
-O
6-N
-N
-N
-N
-S
-S
16
23
30
18
25
13
20
27
such an inquiry.
Fig. 2 EPA maximum daily detection of styrene in air at GZ,
September through November 2001
2 EPA data on VOC emissions from GZ The spikes in detected levels of styrene are more
prominent. Styrene is normally seen as a product of the
Through a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request, combustion of plastics, notably polystyrene. Interestingly,
access to environmental monitoring data from the U.S. the dates of the five highest levels of styrene detection
Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) WTC response occurred on the same dates as those of highest detection of
was obtained (EPA 2004). The data set shows that spikes in benzene.
the levels of airborne VOCs occurred on specific dates at A similar pattern in detection was noted in the data for
GZ (Austin Tobin Plaza, WTC 1 or WTC 2), with levels of several other analytes monitored by EPA in the air above
the related contaminants rising sharply and then falling the rubble piles at GZ. For example, toluene, ethylbenzene,
dramatically back to baseline levels, usually within 1 day and propylene follow the same pattern of spiked detection
or less. An example is shown in Fig. 1, for detections of levels as seen above. These FOIA-obtained data indicate
benzene. that all five of these VOCs were detected far above the
Benzene is a major product of the combustion of plastics levels published by EPA in their reports for the general
and other organic materials. In a typical structure fire, when public (Fig. 3, EPA 2002).
plastics are abundant, benzene levels have been seen at The occurrence of such extreme, sharp spikes in VOCs
levels as high as 26 ppb (MOEE 1997). Apart from fires, in air at GZ indicate something other than the behavior of a
benzene is seen in high-traffic areas of urban settings, with typical structure fire. Oxygen influx as a result of shifting
mean levels of *4 ppb (Crebellia et al. 2001). of materials within the pile might have created an increase
Serious health consequences are known to occur when in combustion of material in localized areas. But these
breathing benzene at 100 ppb, and it is known to cause spikes in VOCs, at levels thousands of times higher than
diseases such as leukemia (HHS 2007). Note that, for the seen in other structure fires, suggest extremely violent but
first few weeks after 9/11, the levels of benzene detected at short-lived fire events.
GZ were relatively low, although perhaps higher than Probably the most striking spike in toxic air emissions,
historical levels from structure fires. But the maximum found in EPA monitoring data, occurred on 9th February,
value detected in November 2001 was 180,000 ppb, and 2002. Note (Table 1) that this was nearly 5 months after
the average daily detection for October and November 9/11, and after nearly all the debris had been cleared from
2001 was 18,000 ppb. The five peaks in benzene detection GZ. In fact, the levels of some species, like toluene and
occurred on 5th October, 11th October, 3rd November, 8th styrene, were some of the highest observed at the site. But
November, and 16th November. the levels of benzene and propylene detected on that day
Similarly, the data for styrene are presented in Fig. 2. were far above previous measurements, at 610,000 and
200000
parts per billion (ppb)
500000
180000 Benzene 450000 Ethylbenzene
160000 400000 Propylene
140000 350000
120000 Styrene
300000
100000 250000 Toluene
80000 200000 Benzene
60000 150000
40000 100000
20000 50000
0 0
ep
ep
ov
ov
ov
v
ep
ep
ov
ov
ov
t
ct
ct
ct
2-Oc
9-Oc
2-Oc
9-Oc
6-No
6-No
16-O
23-O
30-O
16-O
23-O
30-O
13-N
20-N
27-N
18-S
25-S
13-N
20-N
27-N
18-S
25-S
Fig. 1 EPA maximum daily detection of benzene in air at GZ, Fig. 3 EPA maximum daily detection of VOCs in air at GZ,
September through November 2001 September through November 2001
123
58 Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63
Table 1 Six dates of maximum detection for five species in air at GZ (ppb)
Analyte 5th October 11th October 3rd November 8th November 16th November 9th February
990,000 ppb, respectively. Other VOCs were measured at November, and 9th February, point not to other sources of
their peak levels on this date, including 1,3-butadiene at typical combustible materials but to other forms of com-
400,000 ppb. bustion. Such forms of combustion appear to be violent and
EPA also monitored very fine particulate matter (PM) short-lived, and thus similar to the effects of energetic
and other sizes of PM. PM is probably the most reliable materials, like thermite.
indicator for the activity of structure fires, as such fires are
generally known to burn incompletely, and produce PM
that drifts up and outward from the source. EPA data from
3 Aerosol measurements after 9/11
the West Broadway sampling site, the location closest to
GZ where PM was monitored, show the following trend in
Thomas Cahill, of the University of California Davis,
very fine PM (PM2.5, or all particles \2.5 lm) in October
reported similar unusual environmental data collected near
and November 2001 (Fig. 4).
GZ, although only through the month of October 2001.
These data show that the peaks in levels of very fine PM
Cahill’s team monitored for the presence of aerosols at a
near GZ correspond to different dates than the peaks for the
distance of *1.8 km (1.1 mile) from GZ during this time.
previously discussed combustion products. The five stron-
The data produced by this team were difficult to explain.
gest peaks in PM2.5 levels are centered on 23th, 26th
For example, with regard to more coarse particles detected
September, and 3rd, 10th, 20th October, closer in time to
in the air at GZ, the following statements were made.
the events of 9/11. None of these dates correspond to the
dates of five peaks in VOCs noted above. Additionally, it is ‘‘These particles simply should not be there,’’ Cahill
clear that the levels of PM2.5 emissions rose more gradu- said. ‘‘It had rained, sometimes heavily, on six days
ally, and died down more gradually, indicating slower fire in the prior three weeks. That rain should have settled
dynamics as might be expected from the burning of the these coarse particles.’’ (Wright 2002)
organic materials previously thought to exist in the WTC.
With respect to fine particles, Cahill and his team saw
These data suggest that the greatest level of fire activity,
three problems with the data, and explained those basic
associated solely with the typical fuel sources expected in
problems in this manner.
the WTC, was completed by the third week of October.
That is, the materials expected to burn (incompletely) in a
structure fire, producing PM, were largely burned off by
• We see very fine aerosols typical of combustion
mid- to late-October.
temperatures far higher than [expected in] the WTC
Therefore, the extreme spikes in air concentrations of
collapse piles.
the five VOCs noted above, particularly on 3rd, 8th
• We see some elements abundantly and others hardly at
all, despite similar abundances in the collapse dust.
PM2.5 Detected in Air Near GZ
Micrograms per cubic meter
450
400 PM2.5
• We see organic species in the very fine mode that
350 would not survive high temperatures (Cahill et al.
300
250 2003).
200
150
100 According to Cahill, the very fine particles found con-
50
0 tained high levels of sulfur and/or sulfur-based compounds,
ov
ov
ov
v
v
ep
ep
ct
ct
ct
t
5-Oc
9-No
12-O
19-O
26-O
16-N
23-N
30-N
21-S
28-S
123
Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63 59
not distinguish between these elements and their compounds are generated in structure fires. Perhaps Cahill
compounds. was proposing a gradient of concentrations for such com-
The silicon compounds were conjectured to originate pounds in air around the pile, with a concentration of 10%
from thousands of tons of glass in the debris. The metals being coincidentally located around the fuel oil source for
found by Cahill’s team in relatively high concentrations vanadium and nickel.
were iron, titanium, vanadium, nickel, copper, and zinc. The only fuel oil source suggested by Cahill and his
Although the sources of some of these metals were not team was under WTC building 7, across the street from the
described precisely, Cahill suggested that iron and titanium towers (Cahill et al. 2004). But it should be noted that
were ‘‘associated with powdered concrete,’’ and vanadium government investigators have suggested that the fuel oil in
and nickel were ‘‘often associated with fuel-oil combus- question was burned to create the fires that caused WTC
tion’’ (Wright 2002). building 7 to collapse. If one assumes they were correct,
Interestingly, the Cahill data exhibited similar dramatic that fuel oil would no longer be available as the source of
peaks in maximum detection related to some elements, vanadium and nickel more than 1 month later.
particularly silicon compounds. Although the measure- Additionally, Cahill’s hypothesis seems to require a
ments made by this group were reported only for October, complicated, multi-step process of metal chlorination in the
the dates 5th and 11th October stand out as peak maxima pile and then de-chlorination after oxygen and/or water
for silicon, corresponding to the dates in October of peak levels returned, in order to allow for the species measured
detections for benzene, ethylbenzene, propylene, styrene, 1.8 km away.
and toluene. Cahill’s team made the following statements
The mechanism proposed is then the formation of
about silicon being dominant, and other similar species
gasses in the oxygen-poor, chlorine rich collapse
being absent, in what they called the very fine mode.
piles, emission through the rubble and conversion at
Silicon dominates all other elements, unlike the or near the surface into oxidized forms and thus very
coarse mode aerosols… (Cahill et al. 2004) fine particles. (Cahill et al. 2003)
other crustal elements (Al, Ca, and iron) seen so A better explanation for the data collected involves the
abundantly in the coarser particles are essentially presence of short-lived, violent fires at GZ. A typical
absent in this very fine mode. (Cahill 2003) modern day form of thermite, used in military devices for
metal cutting, is thermate, with finely powdered sulfur
In July of 2002, Cahill reported that (emphasis added)
added as part of a flare mixture. Additionally, alumino-
The air from Ground Zero was laden with extremely thermic materials can explain the presence of unusual
high amounts of very small particles, probably asso- metals and silica in fine PM, as described below.
ciated with high temperatures in the underground
debris pile. (ENS 2002)
4 The unusual detection of 1,3-diphenylpropane
But by September 2002, Cahill appeared to have chan-
ged his mind on the ‘‘high temperatures,’’ and attempted to
Cahill did not have an explanation for the third part of the
explain some of the unusually high levels of metals in his
problem that his team saw. That is, what effect at the WTC
data by invoking a new mechanism of ‘‘anaerobic incin-
would cause organic compounds in very fine aerosols that
eration.’’ Because the existence of high-temperature fires,
would not survive high temperatures? Although Cahill did
necessary to volatilize such metals, was not compatible
not specifically identify these organic species, EPA did
with the common understanding that only typical fuel
mention one. This analyte detected by EPA may be the
sources could be involved, it was proposed that chlorine
most interesting in the environmental data from the WTC:
was present at concentrations of *10%, causing the metals
1,3-diphenylpropane [abbreviated 1,3-DPP with IUPAC
to volatilize at lower temperatures (Cahill et al. 2003;
name 10 ,10 -(1,3-propanediyl)bis-benzene].
Dalton 2003).
EPA’s Erik Swartz stated that 1,3-DPP was present at
This hypothesis for the volatilization of metals is not
levels ‘‘that dwarfed all others.’’ Swartz went on to say—
well defined. It is clear that 10% chlorine gas could not be
‘‘We’ve never observed it in any sampling we’ve ever
the reactive species in Cahill’s hypothesis, but as stated
done’’ (Garrett 2003). An EPA publication on the findings
before, it is also clear that Cahill and his team did not
stated:
distinguish between elemental forms and compounds.
Chlorine gas, which is highly reactive, would not form at This species has not previously been reported from
10% in air in such an environment, and if it did it would ambient sampling. It has been associated with poly-
have been fatal to workers in the area. But chlorinated vinyl chloride materials, which are believed to be in
123
60 Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63
abundance at the WTC site. These emissions lasted of plastics in the buildings and was off-gassed during
for over three weeks (9/26/01-10/20/01) after the the pulverization process. (Swartz et al. 2003)
initial destruction of the WTC. (EPA 2006)
However, the sources Swartz uses to support 1,3-DPP as
The fact that this species had never been found before is a combustion product of polystyrene are not studies of
a startling fact, considering that EPA has monitored polystyrene combustion, but of gasses released in the long-
extreme structure fires before, including those in which term degradation of enclosed polystyrene food product
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) materials were present. In fact, packaging.
Other studies have shown trace amounts of 1,3-DPP as a
EPA officials and fire-fighting experts were well
secondary product of polystyrene combustion or thermol-
aware, from previous studies of a handful of specta-
ysis. But such studies suggest that 1,3-DPP may only form
cular and tragic fires in hotels, commercial buildings
in negligible quantities and under certain conditions (Bo-
and downtown areas, that such blazes are capable of
ettner et al. 1973; McCaffrey et al. 1996). In such
releasing a witch’s brew of some of the most toxic
experiments, the major product of the combustion or
substances known—including mercury, benzene,
thermolysis of polystyrene, far outweighing others, is the
lead, chlorinated hydrocarbons and dioxins. (Gonz-
monomer styrene. This leads us to the fact that, although
alez 2002)
styrene was a species of interest at 290 Broadway during
EPA’s history with structure fire monitoring indicates the same time period as was 1,3-DPP, styrene detections
that, to have never seen an organic compound like 1,3-DPP were not reported in the FOIA provided data (EPA 2004).
is very unusual, especially when it was found at such high Therefore, it appears that Swartz’ first suggested hypothe-
levels. But 1,3-DPP was not only at high levels, it was also sis, that 1,3-DPP resulted from combustion of polystyrene,
reported to have been ‘‘pervasive’’ (American Scientist is not probable.
2003). The possibility that 1,3-DPP was off-gassed as a result
Considering how unusual, abundant, and pervasive 1,3- of the physical destruction of debris at GZ, as in Swartz’
DPP was reported to be, it is remarkable that EPA released second hypothesis, seems possible. But it is one thing to
only five results for this compound, and all of these from suggest that 1,3-DPP was ‘‘encapsulated in large volumes
only one location—the 290 Broadway site of EPA itself. of plastics in the buildings’’ and another thing to state in
But even at this one site, its clear that 1,3-DPP was mea- what exact materials this rare compound was encapsulated.
sured at levels that were as much as 30 times greater than Consumer plastics do not typically have large amounts of
typical semi-volatile organic combustion products like unusual organic compounds just simply ‘‘encapsulated’’
naphthalene and biphenyl. Additional details about EPA’s within them.
measurements of 1,3-DPP will have to wait. Repeated A review of the literature uncovers one interesting
delays in the fulfillment of the FOIA mentioned above, and source of encapsulated 1,3-DPP that may help to explain
a response letter indicating EPA will withhold a majority of much of the unusual environmental data described above.
the related documents, suggest that EPA has more data on The synthesis of novel nanostructured materials has
1,3-DPP but is reluctant to release it. involved the use of 1,3-DPP to functionalize mesoporous
Unlike the EPA publication, Swartz did not attribute the silicas through control of pore size (Kidder et al. 2003).
high levels of 1,3-DPP to the combustion of PVC. In fact,
The resulting novel hybrid materials possess silyl aryl
there are no readily available references to indicate how
ether linkages to the silica surface that are thermally
1,3-DPP is ‘‘associated with PVC,’’ and the pathway of
stable to ca. 550C, but can be easily cleaved at room
such degradation via combustion would be complicated, at
temperature with aqueous base for quantitative
best.
recovery of the organic moieties. (Kidder et al. 2005)
Instead, Swartz attributed the presence of 1,3-DPP to
polystyrene and other plastics, by stating Such novel nanostructured materials are known to have
been the focus of intense research in the past 10 years,
[1,3-DPP was] primarily found in the gas phase (with particularly with regard to energetic nanocomposites.
90% of the mass found on the front denuder). Although Energetic nanocomposites are hybrid sol–gel materials,
the source of the compound in this study is not known, often made with a silica base, that have been combined
it may have formed during the combustion of poly- with metal oxides and nano-scale aluminum powder to
styrene or other polymers. 1,3-Diphenylpropane has form superthermite materials. Much of this work has been
been found to co-occur with polystyrene plastics done at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories (Gash
(37, 38), so another possibility is that the compound et al. 2000; Clapsaddle et al. 2004, 2005; Simpson et al.
was already present and encapsulated in large volumes 2004).
123
Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63 61
Similar energetic nanocomposites have been known to gas could have evolved in the following way (as well as by
be amenable to spray-on applications. In fact, some several other reaction mechanisms in the high-temperature
investigators have reported that environment of GZ combustion).
The sol-gel process is very amenable to dip-, spin-, 2Al þ 6H2 O ! 2AlðOHÞ3 þ3H2 :
and spray-coating technologies to coat surfaces. We Production of 1,3-DPP might then have followed from a
have utilized this property to dip-coat various sub- metal oxide-catalyzed reaction of p-(3-phenylpropyl)
strates to make sol-gel Fe2O3/Al/Viton coatings. The phenol with hydrogen. A similar reduction of phenol to
energetic coating dries to give a nice adherent film. benzene, catalyzed by MoO3, has been reported (Woodward
Preliminary experiments indicate that films of the and Glover 1948).
hybrid material are self-propagating when ignited by
thermal stimulus. (Gash et al. 2002) MoO3 þ H2 ! MoO2 þ H2 O,
123
62 Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63
123
Environmentalist (2009) 29:56–63 63
Dalton L (2003) Chemical analysis of a disaster. Chem Eng News 2(1):35–40. doi:10.2174/1874149500802010035. http://www.
81(42):26–30. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/NCW/8142aerosols.html. bentham-open.org/pages/content.php?TOCIEJ/2008/00000002/
Accessed 16 Feb 2008 00000001/35TOCIEJ.SGM
ENS (Environment News Service) (2002) Registry to track people Kidder M, Britt PF, Zhang Z et al (2003) Pore size effects in the
exposed to WTC collapse, 18 July 2002. http://www.ens- pyrolysis of 1,3-Diphenylpropane confined in mesoporous sili-
newswire.com/ens/jul2002/2002-07-18-02.asp cas. Chem Commun (Camb) 2003:2804–2805. doi:10.1039/
EPA (2002) World Trade Center disaster response air monitoring data b310405b
summaries, 4 June 2002. http://www.epa.gov/wtc/summaries/ Kidder M, Britt PF, Zhang Z et al (2005) Pyrolysis of mesoporous
datasummaries.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 silica-immobilized 1,3-Diphenylpropane. Impact of pore con-
EPA (2004) WTC response, environmental monitoring data, version finement and size. J Am Chem Soc 127:6353–6360. http://pubs.
3.0, February 2004. The FOIA obtained data was provided on acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jacsat/2005/127/i17/abs/ja050389w.
CD, with comma separated value (CSV) files and a query tool. html. Accessed 16 Feb 2008
The CD can be requested through EPA Region II. Lipton E, Revkin AC (2001) Nation challenged: the firefighters; with
http://oaspub.epa.gov/nyr/cd. Some of this data is available via water and sweat, fighting the most stubborn fire. New York
downloadable zip files at EPA’s website. http://www.epa.gov/ Times, November 19, 2001
wtc/monitoring/. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 Luco V, MacLachlan DJ, Hook JM et al (1995) Synthesis and
EPA (2006) Environmental information management system, EIMS characterization of mesostructured vanadium oxide. Chem Mater
metadata report—document entry ID: 62021. http://oas 7:2220–2223. doi:10.1021/cm00060a002
pub.epa.gov/eims/xmlreport.display?deid=62021&z_chk=65088. McCaffrey WC, Brues MI, Cooper DG et al (1996) Thermolysis of
Accessed 16 Feb 2008 polyethylene/polystyrene mixtures. J Appl Polym Sci 60:2133–
Garrett L (2003) Full effects of WTC pollution may never be known. 2140. doi :10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19960620)60:12\2133::
Newsday, 14 September 2003. http://www.newsday.com/news/ AID-APP10[3.0.CO;2-8
health/ny-hsair0911,0,471193.story?coll=ny-homepage-right-area. Meyerowitz J (2006) Aftermath: World Trade Center archive.
Accessed 16 Feb 2008 Phaldon Publishing, London, p 178. See photograph of the
Gash AE, Simpson RL, Tillitson TM et al (2000) Making nanostruc- event on 11/08/01 that shows a stunning and immediate change
tured pyrotechnics in a Beaker, Lawrence Livermore National of cloud-like emissions from the pile, from dark smoke to white
Laboratory (LLNL) UCRL-JC-137593. http://e-reports-ext.llnl. cloud
gov/pdf/247064.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 MOEE (Canadian Ministry of Environment and Energy) (1997)
Gash AE, Simpson RL, Satcher JH (2002) Energetic nanocomposites Internal review of the Ministry of Environment and Energy
with sol-gel chemistry: synthesis, safety, and characterization, Response to the Plastimet Fire City of Hamilton July 9–12, 1997,
LLNL UCRL-JC-146739. http://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/244 Appendix II (B). http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/techdocs/
137.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 3599e.htm#chap4. Accessed 16 Feb 2008
Gash A, Barbee T, Simpson R et al (2003) Environmentally benign Prakash A, McCromick A, Zachariah MR (2004), Aero-sol-gel synthesis
stab detonators, LLNL report UCRL-TR-201628. http://e- of nanoporous iron-oxide particles: a potential oxidizer for nanoen-
reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/303520.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 ergetic materials. Chem Mater 16(8):1466–1471. http://www.
Gonzalez J (2002) Fallout: the hidden environmental consequences of enme.umd.edu/*mrz/pdf_papers/2004_CM_FeO.pdf. Accessed
9/11, In These Times, 10 September 2002. http://www.alternet. 16 Feb 2008
org/911oneyearlater/14073/?page=1. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (2002) America rebuilds: a year at
Harreld J, Wong HP, Dave BC et al (1998) Synthesis and properties ground zero, credited to Great Projects Film Company. http://www.
of polypyrrole–vanadium oxide hybrid aerogels. J Non-Cryst pbs.org/americarebuilds/engineering/engineering_debris_06.html.
Solids 225:319–324. doi:10.1016/S0022-3093(98)00321-4 Accessed 16 Feb 2008
HHS (US Department of Health and Human Services) (2007) Poutsma ML, Dyer CW (1982) Thermolysis of model compounds for
Toxicological profile for benzene. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ coal. 3. Radical chain decomposition of 1,3-Diphenylpropane
toxprofiles/tp3.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 and 1,4-Diphenylbutane. J Org Chem 47:4903–4914. doi:
Jenkins C (2007) Request for an investigation by the Senate 10.1021/jo00146a017
Subcommittee on superfund and environmental health into the Simpson RL, Satcher JH, Gash AE (2004) Safe and environmentally
Falsification of pH corrosivity data for World Trade Center Dust, acceptable sol-gel derived pyrophoric pyrotechnics, LLNL
J 9/11 studies. http://www.journalof911studies.com/volume/ report UCRL-TR-204902. https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/
200704/DrJenkinsRequestsSenateInvestigationOnWTCdust.pdf 308591.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008
Jones SE (2006) Why indeed did the WTC buildings completely collapse? Swartz E, Stockburger L, Vallero D (2003) Polycyclic aromatic
J 9/11 studies. http://www.journalof911studies.com/volume/200609/ hydrocarbons and other semivolatile organic compounds col-
Why_Indeed_Did_the_WTC_Buildings_Completely_Collapse_ lected in New York City in response to the events of 9/11.
Jones_Thermite_World_Trade_Center.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb Environ Sci Technol 37:3537–3546. http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/
2008 abstract.cgi/esthag/2003/37/i16/abs/es030356l.html. Accessed
Jones SE, Farrer J, Jenkins GS, Legge F et al (2008a) Extremely high 16 Feb 2008
temperatures during the World Trade Center destruction, J 9/11 Woodward LA, Glover AT (1948) Molybdenum oxide catalysts for
studies. http://www.journalof911studies.com/articles/WTCHigh the reduction of phenol to benzene. Trans Faraday Soc 44:608–
Temp2.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2008 616. doi:10.1039/tf9484400608
Jones SE, Legge FM, Ryan KR, Szamboti AF, Gourley JR (2008b) Wright S (2002) Air quality scientists release WTC study. Dateline
Fourteen points of agreement with official government reports on UC Davis. http://www-dateline.ucdavis.edu/021502/DL_wtc.
the World Trade Center destruction, The Open Civil Eng J html. Accessed 16 Feb 2008
123