Lecture 02 - Acoustics + Psychoacoustics PDF

SOUND SYSTEM ENGINEERING
AUTUMN 2019
LECTURE 2 – ACOUSTICS + PSYCHOACOUSTICS
DR ADAM HILL
MS 228
A.HILL@DERBY.AC.UK
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
ACOUSTICS - BASICS [01/15]
• Speed of sound
• Relationship between wavelength, frequency and speed of sound
• Wavelength (λ) = physical length of one cycle (frequency-dependent)
• Frequency (f) = number of full cycles per second

• Speed of sound
• Mathematical relationship: c = f
where: c = speed of sound (m/s)
λ = wavelength (m)
f = frequency (Hz or 1/s)
• Derived relationships:
c c
= f =
f 
• Speed of sound
• It can be easy to forget the specific arrangement of this equation…
• Any easy way to check you remember the equation correctly?
c = f
• Speed of sound
• Do you think the speed of sound is a constant?
• Speed of sound
• It’s not constant!
• Temperature is the critical variable
RT
• Can be approximately calculated as: c=
M
where: c = speed of sound (m/s)
γ = ratio of specific heats (1.3987 at 20°C)
R = universal gas constant (8.31451 J/Kmol)
T = absolute temperature (°K)
M = molecular weight of air (0.028904 kg/mol)
• Note: °K = °C + 273
• Speed of sound in different mediums (at 15°C)
Davis, D. E. Patronis. Sound System Engineering, 4th Ed., p.117. 2013.

• Speed of sound
• Independent of air density and pressure (inverse relationship with altitude)
• Wind has no effect (within reason)… more on this later
• Unless otherwise specified, take the speed of sound (c) to be 343 m/s
• Important metrics
Sound power (W)

Sound energy emitted from a source per unit time (W)
Sound intensity (I)

Sound energy transmitted through a unit area per second (W/m2)
Sound pressure (p)

Force exerted by sound waves on any surface area (N/m2 or Pa)
• Important metrics
Sound power level (LW dB)

 sound power  −12
LW = 10 log10   W o = 10 W
 Wo 
Sound intensity level (LI dB)
 sound intensity 
LI = 10 log10   I o = 10 −12 W/m 2
 Io 
Sound pressure level (LP dB)
 sound pressure 
L p = 20 log10   po = 20 Pa
 po 
• Sound field classification – free fields
• Uniform
• Free of boundaries
• Undisturbed by other sound sources
• Anechoic chambers and high-altitude airspace are considered free fields

• Sound field classification – reverberant fields

• Time average of mean square sound pressure is uniform across the field
• Flow of energy in all directions is equally likely
• Most closely achieved with a closed space with almost no absorption

• Sound field classification – semi-reverberant fields

• Sound energy is reflected and absorbed
• Energy flows in more than one direction
• Some sound components are directional (in relation to the source)
• Encountered in most realistic environments

• Sound field classification – pressure fields

• Instantaneous pressure is uniform across the field
• No directional information
• Exists in cavities (a.k.a. couplers) less than ¼ wavelength of the sound
• Commonly used for microphone calibration

• Sound field classification – ambient noise fields

• Made up of sound sources not contributing to the direct (program) material
• Examples: traffic, wind, crowd, air handling, equipment fans

• This is really the tip of the iceberg… there is MUCH more to know
about basic acoustics
• We’re just covering the essentials for this module. The subject is covered in
greater detail next semester in Acoustics
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
ACOUSTICS - OUTDOORS [01/26]
• 5 things to consider with sound outdoors

1. Propagation loss
2. Excess attenuation
3. Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects
4. Refraction due to temperature and wind variations
5. Ground reflection and absorption
• Anything else to consider?

• Let’s examine a few outdoor sound scenarios

(Keep in mind that a boost of 10 dB roughly corresponds to twice as loud)
• Sound source in an open field (no wind or audience)
Davis, D.; E. Patronis Jr. (2006). Sound System Engineering, 3rd Edition, Focal Press, p. 123.
• Sound source in an open field with a band shell (no wind or audience)
• Sound source in an open field with a band shell (no wind, with audience)
• Sound source on a hill with a band shell (no wind, with audience)
• Which is better?
• Sound source inside! (no wind or outside noise, with audience)

• Still some noise though…
• Propagation loss
• Inverse-square law
• Assuming a point-source, 6 dB attenuation with every doubling of

distance
 d ref 
L p ,meas = L p ,ref + 20 log10   I  p2
 d meas 
where: Lp,meas = SPL at measurement location
Lp,ref = SPL at reference location
dref = distance from source to reference location (m)
dmeas = distance from source to measurement location (m)

• Propagation loss
Howard, D.M. and J.A.S. Angus. Acoustics & Psychoacoustics, 4th Ed., 39. 2009.
• Excess attenuation (atmospheric absorption)
• Acoustic energy is lost as sound propagates through the air
• Due to action of viscosity and heat conduction of air
• Additional losses due to vibration of oxygen molecules in air, which is strongly
dependent on presence of water molecules in air (humidity)
• Attenuation due to air loss is commonly termed excess attenuation
• Greater frequency = greater attenuation… any ideas why?

• Excess attenuation (atmospheric absorption)
• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Sound waves interact with obstacles they encounter
• Depends on obstacle size and sound wave frequency
• Let’s consider some examples…


• Large rigid object, high frequency (short wavelength) - reflection

• Medium rigid object, high frequency (short wavelength) – diffraction

• Medium rigid object, low frequency (long wavelength) – diffraction

• Small opening, high frequency (short wavelength) – diffraction

• Small opening, low frequency (long wavelength) – diffraction

• Small rigid object, high frequency (short wavelength) – scattering

• Small rigid object, low frequency (large wavelength) – scattering

• Sound of a certain frequency will be reflected/scattered if it hits an object
of a size roughly equal to (or greater than) one-quarter the wavelength
• Diffraction also occurs (sound bending around the object)
• Rule of thumb:
• Acoustically small objects = little influence on the sound field
• Acoustically large objects = influence on sound field increases with object’s size
• Refraction due to temperature and wind variations

• When sound passes between different materials or temperatures
• Temperature lapse
• Temperature decreases with height
• Speed of sound decreases with height
• Sound closer to ground moves from the source faster than higher components
• Causes the initially omnidirectional wave to be directed upwards
• Temperature inversion
• Opposite scenario
• Causes the sound wave to be directed back towards the ground

(and then is reflected and the process repeats)
• Refractions due to temperature and wind variations


• Does the wind blow away sound at outdoor venues?

• Not really…
• Blowing wind causes temperature gradients within the venue
• Results in refraction
• Consider that sound travels around 15 times faster than 50 mph wind!
• Pretty hard to blow that off course…

OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
ACOUSTICS - INDOORS [01/12]
• Internal acoustics will be covered in detail next semester

(for those of you taking Acoustics)
• There are a few things, though, that I’d like to touch on that are
necessary for this module…
• Components of a sound field

• We already discussed categories for acoustic fields
• Assuming we’re dealing with a semi-reverberant field (as we do in the

real-world), can the field be broken apart further into components?

• Enclosed space, one sound source, one receiver (listener)

• Direct sound: sound transmitted straight from source to receiver

• Early reflections: reflections off one or more surfaces, closely following
the direct sound (arrival after ~30 ms = perceived as echo)

• Reverberant sound: reflections off many surfaces, arriving from all
directions (perceived as one sound, not individual reflections)

1. Near field
• Does not behave predictably in terms of SPL vs. distance
• Very close to the sound source (typically w/in 2 x largest enclosure dimension)
• Due to particle velocity not necessarily being in the sound wave’s direction of travel
2. Far free field

• Inverse-square law dominates
• Direct sound dominates over reverberant field
3. Far reverberant field (a.k.a. diffuse field)

• Beyond critical distance (more on this later)
• Sound energy density is nearly uniform
• Reverberant field dominates over direct sound


• At some point away from the sound source, the direct sound and
reverberant sound will be equal in level
• This point is known as the critical distance

• It is generally good practice to ensure all audience members are situated
in front of the critical distance in a venue
• Worst-case scenario…
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
PSYCHOACOUSTICS - LOUDNESS [1/6]
• Sound pressure level doesn’t directly relate to perception of loudness
• How do we predict subjective impression of loudness?

• Fletcher and Munson determined specific curves of equal loudness

level for pure tones (1933)
• Referred to as equal loudness contours
• Quantified in phons
• Allows us to map sound pressure level measurements to perceptual

loudness (one frequency at a time, though…)
• Does not account for broadband signals (this is beyond the scope of this
lecture + module)
Equal loudness contours

• What do the equal loudness contours tell us?

• Poor sensitivity at low-frequencies (with low intensities)
• Maximum sensitivity around 3.5 – 4 kHz

• Near the first resonance of the outer ear canal
• Another resonant peak around 13 kHz (2nd resonance for a closed pipe)
• Quantification of loudness level

• Base unit = the phon
• Loudness level (phons) = sound pressure level (dB) at 1 kHz
• Fairly arbitrary unit (not used extensively in sound measurement)
• A- and C-weighting scales (vaguely) based on these contours

• A- and C-weighting
• A-weighting: suitable for quiet levels (based loosely on 40-phon curve)
• C-weighting: suitable for loud levels (based loosely on the 100-phon curve)
• Vast majority of event noise regulations (on- and off-site) use A-weighting
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
PSYCHOACOUSTICS - LOCALIZATION [1/5]
• Understanding the mechanisms for sound localization is critical when

designing sound systems
• Primary concern = plausibility
• Secondary concern = immersiveness
• First, we need to understand how we localize sound

• Rayleigh’s Duplex Theory

• 2 complimentary means of localization:
1. Interaural time difference (ITD)
2. Interarual level difference (ILD)
• In simplistic terms, we used the difference in time of arrival and level

between ears to localize a sound (horizontally)
• What about this is important for sound reinforcement?

• Conventional left/right sound systems

• Mix engineer can pan between left and right (amplitude panning)
• Will give ILD cues (using phantom imaging) to SOME audience areas
• Central audience areas benefit from this
• Other areas have a potentially worse listening experience

• Conventional left/right sound systems

• This is why multiple-mono systems are common
• Minimal spatial information, but consistent audience coverage
• Also, true stereo sound runs into issues with delay towers…
• Object-oriented sound reinforcement

• New systems like d&b Soundscape and L-Acoustics L-ISA attempt to
deliver consistent immersive listening experiences to the entire audience
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS
• OUTDOORS
• INDOORS
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY
PSYCHOACOUSTICS - INTELLIGIBILITY [01/26]
• For all non-music (and most music) based sound systems, speech
intelligibility is extremely important
• Emergency systems
• Public address systems
• Train/tube station announcements
• Lecture halls
• Theatres
• Sports arenas/stadiums
• Houses of worship
• Cinemas
• #1 complaint at a live events: “I couldn’t hear the lyrics”

• Speech intelligibility vs. early decay/reverberation time

• Speech intelligibility vs. varied arrival times

• Multiple arrivals (between 80 – 300 ms)
• Slap echo (150 ms delay)

• Audibility does not imply intelligibility
• Intelligibility does not imply pleasantness
• Pleasantness does not imply audibility

• Key factors
Mapp, Peter. Handbook for Sound Engineers, Chapter 40, 5th Ed. pp.1390-1391. 2015.
• Key factors
• Vowel sounds occupy lower frequency range and are strongest
• Consonants are weaker at higher frequencies
• 75% of speech intelligibility is from 1 – 4 kHz
• This means that the weakest aspects of speech are the most important
• Our hearing system helps us to a point (most sensitive between 3 – 4 kHz)
• There will still be issues in reverberant spaces…

• Key factors
• Key factors
• Sound system bandwidth and frequency response
• Loudness + signal-to-noise ratio
• Reverberation time
• Volume + size/shape of space
• Distance from listener to loudspeaker
• Directivity of loudspeaker
• Number of active loudspeakers
• Direct to reverberant ratio (dependent on prev. 5 factors)
• Talker annunciation/rate of delivery + microphone technqiue
• Listener acuity
• Secondary factors
• System distortion (harmonic + intermodulation)
• System EQ
• Uniformity of coverage
• Presence of very early reflections (<1-2 ms)
• High-level late-arriving reflections (>70)… maybe
• Direction of sound arriving at the listener
• Direction of any interfering noise
• Gender of talker
• Vocabulary and context of speech information
• Visual cues
• Always remember this:
Rubbish in = rubbish out

(a.k.a. You can’t polish a turd)
• Articulation loss of consonants (%ALcons)

• Older measure of intelligibility, used predominantly in the US
• Can be predicted separate or inclusive of a sound reinforcement system
• A straightforward value to predict based on existing room measurements
2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
• What do all these variables represent?
2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
D = distance from source to farthest listener (m)
2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
RT60 = reverberation time (s)
2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
N = critical distance divisor
What does that mean…?


• Critical distance devisor (N) = the ratio of acoustic power in the reverberant
sound field to the acoustic power providing direct sound at the listener
• For sound systems:
total number of loudspeakers

N=
number of loudspeakers producing
direct sound to the listener
• For rooms with no sound system, N = 1

Davis + Patronis, Sound System Engineering (3rd Ed), 2006, p171

2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
V = room volume (m3)
2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
Q = directivity factor of the source (or loudspeaker)
2 2
200 D RT N
% ALCONS = 60
VQM
Q = directivity factor of the source (or loudspeaker)
M = critical distance modifier (usually equals 1)

• %ALCONS mostly depends on reverberation time and signal-to-noise ratio


• %ALCONS < 10% = good intelligibility
• 10% < %ALCONS < 15% = good intelligibility if good speaker/listener hearing
• %ALCONS > 15% = only acceptable with sufficiently good speakers/listeners
• There can be up to a 5% difference between and empty and full venue

• Measuring intelligibility (modern methods)

• Human test
• Similar-sounding words spoken
• Listeners record which words they think they heard
• Percentage of correct words heard is calculated
• Higher percentages = better intelligibility

• Measuring intelligibility (modern methods)

• Speech transmission index (STI)
• Determined by examining the transmitted speech signal modulation index
• Measured using a specialized signal generator and sound meter
• On a scale from 0 (bad) to 1 (excellent)

• STI vs. %ALcons

• Peter Mapp’s tips for improved intelligibility:

• Aim the loudspeakers at the listeners!

• Ensure direct line of sight between loudspeakers + listeners

• Minimize distance between loudspeaker + listeners

• Ensure adequate system bandwidth (min. 250 Hz – 6 kHz)

• Avoid frequency response anomalies (use EQ to avoid big peaks)

• Avoid placing loudspeaker in corners

• Avoid long (>45 ms) delay paths (use electronic delay to correct)

• Use directional loudspeakers in reverberant spaces

• Minimize direct field coverage variations (>3 dB could be problematic)

• Minimize direct field coverage variations (>3 dB could be problematic)
• Ensure SNR > 6 dBA, preferably > 10 dBA

• Track background noise and automatically adjust gain to compensate

• Ensure announcement microphone is in a quiet space

• Ensure the announcement microphone is high-quality

• Ensure microphone user is properly trained

• Repeat important messages

• In noisy environment, use simple vocabulary + message formats

• Consider improving the acoustic environment (do not design the sound
system in isolation)

• Consider improving the acoustic environment (do not design the sound
system in isolation)
• Don’t forget about the effects of masking
OUTLINE
• ACOUSTICS
• BASICS DR ADAM HILL
• OUTDOORS
MS 228
• INDOORS
A.HILL@DERBY.AC.UK
• PSYCHOACOUSTICS
• LOUDNESS
• LOCALIZATION
• INTELLIGIBILITY

Lecture 02 - Acoustics + Psychoacoustics PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Lecture 02 - Acoustics + Psychoacoustics PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

SOUND SYSTEM ENGINEERING

LECTURE 2 – ACOUSTICS + PSYCHOACOUSTICS

• Wavelength (λ) = physical length of one cycle (frequency-dependent)

• Frequency (f) = number of full cycles per second

f = frequency (Hz or 1/s)

• Any easy way to check you remember the equation correctly?

• Temperature is the critical variable

γ = ratio of specific heats (1.3987 at 20°C)

R = universal gas constant (8.31451 J/Kmol)

T = absolute temperature (°K)

M = molecular weight of air (0.028904 kg/mol)

• Speed of sound in different mediums (at 15°C)

Davis, D. E. Patronis. Sound System Engineering, 4th Ed., p.117. 2013.

• Wind has no effect (within reason)… more on this later

Sound power (W)

Sound intensity (I)

Sound pressure (p)

Sound power level (LW dB)

• Sound field classification – free fields

• Undisturbed by other sound sources

• Anechoic chambers and high-altitude airspace are considered free fields

• Sound field classification – reverberant fields

• Flow of energy in all directions is equally likely

• Most closely achieved with a closed space with almost no absorption

• Sound field classification – semi-reverberant fields

• Energy flows in more than one direction

• Some sound components are directional (in relation to the source)

• Encountered in most realistic environments

• Sound field classification – pressure fields

• Exists in cavities (a.k.a. couplers) less than ¼ wavelength of the sound

• Commonly used for microphone calibration

• Sound field classification – ambient noise fields

• Examples: traffic, wind, crowd, air handling, equipment fans

• 5 things to consider with sound outdoors

3. Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

4. Refraction due to temperature and wind variations

5. Ground reflection and absorption

• Anything else to consider?

• Let’s examine a few outdoor sound scenarios

• Sound source in an open field (no wind or audience)

• Sound source inside! (no wind or outside noise, with audience)

• Assuming a point-source, 6 dB attenuation with every doubling of

Lp,ref = SPL at reference location

dref = distance from source to reference location (m)

dmeas = distance from source to measurement location (m)

• Excess attenuation (atmospheric absorption)

• Acoustic energy is lost as sound propagates through the air

• Due to action of viscosity and heat conduction of air

• Additional losses due to vibration of oxygen molecules in air, which is strongly

dependent on presence of water molecules in air (humidity)

• Attenuation due to air loss is commonly termed excess attenuation

• Greater frequency = greater attenuation… any ideas why?

• Excess attenuation (atmospheric absorption)

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Let’s consider some examples…

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects

• Reflection and diffraction from/around solid objects