Chapter 8

Fundamentals of antenna
theory

8.1 Introduction

Antennas are devices specifically designed for the efficient radiation (or re-
ception) of electromagnetic energy to (or from) the surrounding medium,
which we will assume to be free space. Depending on the expected char-
acteristics of the antenna, such as frequency of work, electrical size, power,
bandwidth, polarization, or optimization of the radiated power in a specific
direction, antennas may have very different configurations. For example, an
antenna may be a piece of conducting wire with a specific dimension and

337
338 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

shape, an aperture or slot in a guiding system, or an arrangement (called

array antenna or simply array) of individual antennas working together as
a unit. A detailed study of antennas is beyond the scope of this book, and
therefore in this chapter and the following one we will consider only some
basic aspects. In antenna problems, we are interested mainly in radiation or
far-zone fields1 .

From Chapter 2 we know that, given the current distribution of an

antenna, we can calculate the electromagnetic fields that it generates. The
problem is that, even for simple antenna structures, it is difficult to determine
the exact current distribution on the antenna under a given excitation, this
requiring numerical methods to be accurately calculated. Nevertheless, for
some kinds of antennas, such as the conducting thin-wire antennas studied
in the following Section, it is possible to make a physically reasonable ana-
lytical estimate for the current distribution and from it to derive analytical
expressions for the radiation fields.

Antenna theory is developed largely under the assumption that the an-
tenna is excited by time-harmonic current waves. This is not only because
most antennas are designed to work in this situation but also because analysis
for arbitrary time dependence of the current is usually complex. Neverthe-
1
It can be shown that the radiation diagram of any antenna has the same shape
regardless of whether it is transmitting or receiving. This property is called reciprocity.
However, it is normally easier to study antennas when they are transmitting.
8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 339

less, for straight thin-wire antennas, there is a simple way of obtaining the
analytical expression of the radiated field produced by an arbitrary current
signal traveling along the wire. This analysis may help us to reach a better
understanding of the radiation mechanisms in antennas. Section (8.3) is de-
voted to this subject. The last Section is devoted to the study of arrays of
antennas.

8.2 Linear thin-wire dipole antennas

One very simple but practical antenna is that formed by a straight perfect-
conducting thin wire of length 2   with a small feeding gap at the center
(Fig. 8.1), and an electrically very small radius    (usually  ≤ 10).
For these kinds of antennas, called linear dipole antennas, it is possible to
estimate the current distribution along the wires assuming the following
simplifications to achieve, at least as a first approximation, very good results:

1. Since the wire radius is electrically very small, it is considered to be

zero (i.e. infinitely thin wire) and the current is assumed to be null at
the ends of the antenna.

2. According to the principle of charge conservation, in order not to have

charge accumulation at the feeding source, the current entering one
terminal must at any instant of time be equal to the current exiting
340 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

the other terminal.

3. As the wire is considered to be a perfect electric conductor the cur-

rent attenuation due to ohmic and radiation losses is ignored. Thus,
the current travels, without deformation, along the wire at the phase
velocity corresponding to the surrounding exterior medium.

4. The traveling current wave is reflected backwards at the ends of the wire
with no attenuation. Thus the current distribution along the antenna
becomes a standing wave formed by two traveling waves of the same
amplitude propagating in opposite directions.

5. The effects of the presence of the ground and any object near the an-
tenna (including the antenna’s own structure) are ignored and the
current distribution in the antenna is assumed to be isolated in space.

If we apply these rules to an antenna of total length 2 and placed

along the -axis, Fig. 8.1, which is fed at its center by a time-harmonic
source (usually by a transmission line such as a coaxial line), we arrive at
the following expressions for the current distribution along the antenna

 0 ) =  sin ( −  0 )(0 )( 0 )̂

( 0  0  
(8.1)
 0 ) =  sin ( +  0 )(0 )( 0 )̂
( −   0  0

where  denotes the maximun current amplitude occurring along the an-
tenna.
8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 341

z  P (Field point)
R
z'  l
I ( z ')
 r

r̂
z'  0
y

x
z '  l

Figure 8.1: Center-fed dipole antena.

These expressions specify the spatial dependence of the current at each

source position  0 in the upper and lower arms of the antenna. The contribu-
tion of an infinitesimal current element ( 0 ) 0 to the radiation field of the
thin-wire antenna at the field point  , is given, from (2.103b), by

 0 ( 0 ) 0 −

E  = E  =   sin  (8.2)
4

The total radiation field can be calculated by integrating (8.2), in order to

add together the contributions of all the current elements, over the total
length of the antenna, i.e.

Z  Z 
  − 0
E  = E  =  0 sin  ( 0 )  (8.3)
− 4 − 
342 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

If we assume that the field point  is in the far zone (  ) and

use the approximations (2.76) and (2.77) for the radiation fields (i.e. we
replace  by  − 0 cos , with 0 =  0 in the exponential, and  by  in the
denominator), then (8.3) simplifies to

Z 
  sin  − 0
E  = 0  ( 0 ) cos 
 0 (8.4)
4 −

Substituting (8.1) into the integral of (8.4) and integrating we get

µZ 0
0   sin  − 0
E  =   sin ( +  0 ) cos   0
4 −
Z  ¶
0  0 cos  0
+ sin ( −  ) 
0
µ ¶
0  − cos( cos ) − cos 
= 
2 sin 
60 −
=   () = 0 H  (8.5)


where we have used the value 0 = 120 for the intrinsic impedance of free
space and introduced the radiation antenna factor  () defined as

cos( cos ) − cos 

 () = (8.6)
sin 

The last equality in (8.5) is attained by using the general relationship (2.84)
 and .
between the radiation fields   From expression (8.5) we can see the

following characteristics of the far-zone radiation fields:

8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 343

i) The radiation fields are linearly polarized and proportional to the

excitation-current amplitude  .

  and 
ii) The radiation fields    are independent of the azimuthal

angle , i.e. they present axial symmetry about the  axis.

The dependence on  of the radiation field is given by the antenna

factor  (), which gives, at a constant radius , the three-dimensional graphic
representation (called radiation pattern) of the amplitude (normalized to a
maximum value of unity) of the radiation field. In general the antenna factor
is associated with the interference of the fields generated by each source
element of the antenna, i.e. their constructive or destructive sum due to
their phase difference.

From (8.5), the time-average value of the Poynting vector, (1.111), is

given by
  = 12 Re{P
P   } = 12 Re{
 × 
 ∗ } =   ̂ (8.7)

that depends on  2 (), which therefore, represents the radiation power pat-
tern. Figure (8.2) shows typical three-dimensional and -plane radiation
patterns for four different lengths of straight thin-wire dipole antennas. It
is worth noting, that dipole antennas do not radiate in the direction given
by  = 0.

Antennas such as straight-wire dipoles for which the radiation pattern

depends only on  (i.e. presents axial symmetry), are called omnidirectional.
344 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

However, in general, the radiation pattern of antennas depends on both

coordinates,  and , and it is usually plotted either in polar or rectangular
coordinates. The radiation pattern normally presents lobes or beams, (i.e.
zones of radiation field bounded by zones of relatively weak or null radia-
tion intensity) with a main lobe in the direction of maximum radiation and
other series of minor lobes called sidelobes. A lobe radiating in the counter
direction to the desired radiation direction is called back lobe. Regions for
which the radiation is very weak are called nulls.

The polarization of an antenna is defined as the polarization of the

wave radiated by the antenna. Thus, from (8.5), the straight-wire dipoles
are linearly polarized antennas. For linearly polarized antennas the radiation
pattern is normally represented in two main orthogonal planes: the electric
field or -plane and the magnetic field or -plane. The -plane is the one
containing the electric field vector and the direction of maximum radiation
while the -plane is the one containing the magnetic field vector and the
direction of maximum radiation.2

The total time-average radiated power or, in short, the total radiated
power  , can be calculated from (8.7) by integrating  over a sphere of
radious  enclosing the antenna and using the expressions of the fields given

2
current distribution on a 2 antennas for different times—
8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 345


2 l  0
330 30
2
l
300 60

2l  0.5
1
0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4
270 90

240 120

 l
210 150

2l   180
0
330 30
l
300 60

2l  
1
0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4
270 90

240 120

l
3
210 150

2l 
180

2 0

l 330 30

2l  1.5
300 60

1
0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4
270 90

 l 240 120

210 150

2l   180

l

2l  2
330 30

300 60

1
0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4
270 90

l 240 120

210 150
180

Figure 8.2: Current distribution and E-plane radiation patterns for center-fed
linear dipole antennas of different length.
346 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

in (8.5). Thus we have

Z
 =   · 
P

2 Z  Z 2 2 Z 
1 0  2 2 0 
= 2 2
[ ()]  sin  = [ ()]2 sin 
2 4  0 0 4 0
(8.8)

The radiation resistance  of an antenna is the value of an hypo-

thetical resistance that, when the current in the resistance is equal to the
peak amplitude  of the current on the antenna, would dissipate the same
amount of power  that is radiated by the antenna, i.e.

1 2
 =   (8.9)
2

Evidently, a desirable property of an antenna is to have high radiation

resistance.

In general, the input current  at the terminals of an antenna differs

from  . Thus, alternativally, we can write radiated power of the antenna as

1
 =  2 (8.10)
2

so that
2

 =  (8.11)
2
8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 347

where  represents the radiation input resistance of the antenna. The two
radiation resistances  and  coincide only if  =  , as for example
for thin-wire antennas of dimension 2 = 2,  being an odd integer, for
instance when  = 1 3, in Fig. 8.2. When  is even (e.g. when  = 2 4
in Fig. 8.2 the input current is theoretically zero, inplying infinite input
resistance. In practice the input current is very small but not null and 
is large but finite.

The input resistance  represents only the real part of the input im-
pedance,  =  +  , which normally is a complex magnitude that char-
acterizes the antenna as a circuit element. The imaginary component of  ,
i.e. the antenna reactance  , is associated with energy stored in the electric
and magnetic near fields, as explained in Subsection (??).

From (8.8) and (8.10) the radiation resistance of a straight dipole an-
tenna is given by

Z  Z 
 2
 = 0 [ ()] sin  = 60 [ ()]2 sin  (8.12)
2 0 0

The integral in (8.12) may be expressed in terms of the special mathe-

matical functions sine,  (), and cosine,  (), integral functions defined as
348 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

Figure 8.3: Dependence of the radiation resistance with the antenna length
expressed in terms of the wavelength.

Z 
sin 
 () =  (8.13a)
0 
Z ∞
cos 
 () = −  (8.13b)
 

Thus we get

µ ¶
1
 = 60  + ln(2) −  (2) + sin(2) [ (4) − 2 (2)] +
2
µ ¶
1
+60 cos(2) [ + ln() +  (4) − 2 (2)] (8.14)
2

where  = 00 5772 is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. The dependence of the

radiation resistance with the antenna length expressed in terms of the wave-
length, is given in Figure (8.3).
8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 349

The directivity ( ) of a given antenna is a measure of how the

antenna concentrates the radiated power in a given direction compared with
an ideal (non physically realizable) isotropic point radiating source which
would radiate the same total power uniformly in all directions producing an
isotropic power radiation pattern. Thus the directivity is determined by the
dimensionless quantity

 Ω ( )

( ) = = (8.15)
 (4) 

where ( ) called radiation intensity, is the radiated power per unit solid
angle or steradian, i.e.

 ( ) = (8.16)
Ω

and  is the radiation intensity of the ideal isotropic radiator, i.e.


 = (8.17)
4

The maximum value of the directivity (in the same direction in which the
radiation intensity is maximum) is

max 4max
 = = (8.18)
 

Although the directivity is in general a function of the angles  and , usually

only its maximum value (called in short simply directivity) is given
350 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

From (8.8) and (8.15), the directivity of a dipole antenna is given by

2
1  0 
2 4 2
[ ()]2 2 [ ()]2
() = R = R (8.19)
[ ()]2 sin 
2
 0 
16 2 0
[ ()]2 sin  0

The directivity as defined in (8.15) is based on radiated power  .

Because the power loss,  , in the antenna itself as well as nearby lossy
structures including the ground,  is less than the total input power  .
Thus we have
 =  +  (8.20)

and the gain of the antenna is defined as

4( )
( ) = (8.21)


and, consequently, the maximum gain is

 = 4  (8.22)

The ratio of the gain to the directivity of an antenna is the radiation efficiency,

 
 = = (8.23)
 

normally the efficiency of very well constructed antennas is very close to

100%.
8.2. LINEAR THIN-WIRE DIPOLE ANTENNAS 351

Half-wave dipole antenna

One particular case of practical interest is the half-wave dipole corresponding

to  = 4 so that the total length equals 2. For this case the radiation
electric field, (8.5), becomes

0  − cos( 2 cos ) 60 − cos( 2 cos )

 = 0  =  = 
2 sin   sin 
(8.24)

Thus the time-average Poynting vector is given by

∙ ¸ ∙ ¸
 1 ~ ~ ∗ 2
 0  cos( 2 cos ) 2 2
15 cos( 2 cos ) 2
P = Re{E  × H  } = 2 2 ̂ = ̂
2 8  sin  2 sin 
(8.25)

and the total power radiated is

Z Z 
£ 2  ¤ Z £ 2  ¤
2 cos ( 2 cos ) cos ( 2 cos )
 =   ·  = 0 
P 2
 = 30 
 4 0 sin  0 sin 
(8.26)

The integral in (8.26) can be evaluated numerically to give  '

360 5
2
. Thus, from (8.9) and (8.10),  =  = 73Ω. The input impedance
of this antenna also has a positive (i.e. inductive) reactance component
352 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

 , which can be calculated to be  = 425Ω. Thus the total input

impedance for the half-wave dipole antenna is  = 73 + 425 Ω and is of
this order for dipoles of electrically very small but finite radius. In practice
the reactance can be made zero,  = 0, by using a length slightly shorter
than 2. Hence we can easily match this antenna to a standard coaxial
line for which the characteristic impedance is approximately 75 ohms. The
maximun directivity of the half-wavelengh antennas occur in the direction
normal to the dipole,  = 2, and is found to be

 ' 164 (8.27)

8.3 Qualitative analysis of thin wires anten-

nas. Where and why antennas radiate.

To understand qualitatively why and where an antenna radiates, let us con-

sider the same antenna of Fig.8.1 but excited by a single short electromag-
netic pulse. As was established in Section (8.2), the current distribution of
a dipole antenna excited by a harmonic source is a standing wave formed
by two harmonic traveling current waves: the one generated at the feed
source and the ones reflected at the ends. However, if the antenna is excited
8.3. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THIN WIRES ANTENNAS. WHERE AND WHY ANTENNA

Figure 8.4: Left: Pulses of charge and current propagating along the antenna
at a given time before they reach the ends of the antenna. They are generated
at the feed source and propagate towards the ends of the wire where they
will be reflected. Upper Right: One wavefront is formed at the feed point
when the antenna is excited (wavefront 1) and, each time the current pulses
reach the ends of the antenna and are reflected new wavefront are created
(wavefronts 2 and 3). Lower Right: The process of generating radiation
wavefronts will continue taking place each time that the reflected pulses at
the ends of the antenna reach again the opposite ends. In a real antenna
the pulses attenuate by ohmic losses in the conductors and by the radiation
itself.
354 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

Figure 8.5: Time evolution of the current pulses along a thin wire antenna.

by a transient current signal or short pulse the resulting transient response

consists of two current pulses as shown in (Fig.8.4) each having the same
shape as the exciting transient current. Taking into account that the direc-
tion of flow of electrons is opposite to the direction of flow of current, these
two current pulses, both propagating in different senses, correspond to two
identical charge pulses (one positive and the other negative) propagating in
the same senses than the current pulses (see Fig.8.4). Thus assuming that
the losses in the antenna are negligible (ohmic loss in the conductors, loss
due to imperfect ground, etc.) the current distribution along the antenna are
two traveling transient charge waves propagating, with no attenuation and
phase velocity  corresponding to surrounding free space, towards the ends
8.4. PATTERN MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE. ARRAY FACTOR 355

of the antenna3 . From expression (2.68), each time that the charges that
form the propagating pulses are accelerated must take place the generation
of a wavefront of radiated field. In this antenna charge acceleration occurss
once at the feed point (when the excitation source is applied and the charge
pulses are formed) and each time that the pulses, after propagating along
the antenna without radiating, reach the ends of the antennas where they
stops propagating and are reflected changing their propagation direction. As
a result the total radiated field must be formed by the sum of different wave-
fronts: the one generated at the feed point when the antenna is excited and
the ones formed each time that the current pulses reach the ends of the an-
tenna and are reflected. Figure (8.5) shows the time evolution of current
pulses along the antenna.

8.4 Pattern multiplication principle. Array

factor

Let us consider an antenna array of  elements, as shown in (Fig. 8.6). Let

us take one point of a given antenna, called the reference radiating element
 = 1 , as the origin of a coordinate system. Thus the position of other
radiating element  (1 ≤  ≤ ) of the array can be specified by means of
a vector  from a given point in the reference antenna to the analogous point
3
It should be note that the total electrical charge of the antenna is null at every moment.
356 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

in the antenna . Thus, if 10 is the position vector of a point on the reference
radiating element, and 0 is the vector that determines the analogous point
on the element , we have
0 =  + 10 (8.28)

On the other hand, as happens frequently in practice, we will assume

that current distribution  of the radiating element  is the same as in the
reference element 1 , i.e. 1 =  , except for a constant complex coefficient
 ,
I  =   (8.29)

Thus  is given by

J~ = I  J~1 =  J~1  (8.30)

where without loss of generality we can assume that 1 = 1 and 1 = 0 as

will be done from now on.

The radiation electric field for the element  in the radiation zone, is
8.4. PATTERN MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE. ARRAY FACTOR 357


Rn

 An RN
rn

AN 
A1  r
rN  ' r '
r N
' n
r1
o r̂

Figure 8.6: Antenna array of  radiating elements  ≈  − 0 · ̂.

given by4

Z ³ ´
~  0 − 0
E =  J~ (0 ) × ̂ × ̂ ̂· 0 (8.31)
4 0

Adding together the contributions of the  elements and using (8.30)

  () of the array is given by
the total radiation pattern 

~  () = E
E ~  × ̂
~ 1 ()AF = 0 H (8.32)
4
 (0 ) =  1 (10 )
X R ³ ´ 0
  () 0 −
 = 4  0  (0 ) × ̂ × ̂̂· 0 =
³ ´ =1 
0 −
X R 0
 0
 (0 ) × ̂
 × ̂ ̂·( +1 ) 0 =
4 =1 
0 −
X R ³ ´ 0
 ̂ 0   1 (10 ) × ̂ × ̂ ̂·1 ̂· 0 =
4 =1 
X 0 R ³ ´
0 −
 (  ̂·

) 0
1 (10 ) × ̂ × ̂ ̂·10 10

4 =1 
358 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

This expression is the mathematical formulation of the principle of pattern

multiplication, which states that the radiation pattern of an array of identical
radiating elements is the product of the dimensionless complex magnitude
 , called array factor, given by

X
 X

0
̂ 0
AF = I  =  (̂ + ) (8.33)
=1 =1

and the radiation pattern of the reference radiating element i.e.

Z ³ ´
~ 1
~  = E 0 − 0
E =  J~1 (10 ) × ̂ × ̂ ̂·1 10 (8.34)
4 0

 1 is given by
For example, for an array of half-wave dipole antennas, 
(8.24).

The array factor does not depend on the type of radiating element
used to built the array and represents the radiation pattern of an array of
ideal isotropic point sources (Fig. 8.7). The array factor depends on number
of radiating elements  and their complex excitation coefficients  (i.e.
amplitude and phase of the current excitation of the individual elements)
and on their geometric configuration (linear, circular, rectangular, etc.) and
relative position  . These parameters can be used as degrees of freedom to
synthesize an antenna array with a given radiation pattern. The study of
antenna arrays is based on obtaining the array factor for a given distribution
of isotropic radiating elements (analysis) or on finding the distribution of
8.5. ARRAY FACTOR FOR UNIFORMLY SPACED LINEAR ARRAYS359


Rn

 An RN
rn

AN 
A1  r
rN  ' r '
r N
' n
r1
o r̂

Figure 8.7: Antenna array of  isotropic radiating elements.

isotropic radiating elements for which its array factor coincides with a given
one (synthesis). Regarding the single antennas or radiating elements forming
the array, the designer have to make an adequate choice according to the
technical requirements demanded.
360 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

y R1  r R2 R3 Rn RN


A1 A2 A3 An AN
od d z

Figure 8.8: Linear array of  radiating elements placed along an axis  with
a uniform spacing  .

8.5 Array factor for uniformly spaced linear

arrays

8.5.1 Uniform linear array

One very common and simple array is the linear array, which is formed by
placing the radiating elements uniformly spaced5 along a line. For example,
let us consider a linear array of  radiating elements placed along an axis
 with a uniform spacing  (Fig. (8.8)) so that the element locations are
 = ( − 1), 1 =  and 0 = ( − 1) ̂. Thus the expression of the array

5
When the elements arrays are of unequally spaced, there exist an additional degree
of freedom that can sometimes be an advantage. Such arrays have been used to obtain
greater gains and smaller secondary lobes than is possible with equally-spaced arrays with
the same number of elements.
8.5. ARRAY FACTOR FOR UNIFORMLY SPACED LINEAR ARRAYS361

factor (8.33) becomes

X
 X

(−1) cos 
AF = I  =  (−1) cos + (8.35)
=1 =1

To simplify the analysis of this array, we will consider the simple practical
case in which the magnitude of the complex coefficient  of each radiating
element is identical to that of the reference element 1 . This magnitude can
be assumed, without loss of generality, to be the unity (i.e.  = 1 = 1).
Thus (8.29) becomes
I  =  (8.36)

If, moreover, there is a linearly progressive phase  from element to element,

i.e.
 = ( − 1) (8.37)

where  is the phase shift of any element with respect to the nearest previous
one, the array is referred to as a uniform array. Thus the array factor (8.35)
simplifies to
X
 X

(−1)( cos +) (−1)Ψ
AF =  =  (8.38)
=1 =1

where the phase function Ψ

Ψ =  cos  +  (8.39)
362 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

y
x 
r

A1 A5 z

Figure 8.9: Array shifted so that the center of the array is located at the
origin.

is a function of the element spacing, phase shift, frequency, and azimuthal

angle 

Expression (8.38) is a geometric progression of  terms and common

Ψ
ratio  and therefore can be summed up in a closed form. Thus (8.38)
reduces to
Ψ sin( Ψ )
AF = (−1) 2 Ψ
2
(8.40)
sin( 2 )

The phase factor (−1)Ψ2 is not usually of interest and can be ne-
glected unless the field has to be added to the one created from another
radiating antenna. Moreover, if the position of the array is shifted so that
the center of the array is located at the origin, (Fig.8.9) the phase factor
disappears. Therefore, the array factor is normally written as

sin( Ψ
2
)
 = Ψ
(8.41)
sin( 2 )
8.5. ARRAY FACTOR FOR UNIFORMLY SPACED LINEAR ARRAYS363

Figure 8.10: Plot of the normalized array factor  for  = 2 3 8

From (8.41) it is evident that the function sin(Ψ2) sin(Ψ2) de-

termines the radiation properties of the array. The maximun value of this
function is  and occurs when

Ψ =  cos 0 +  = 0 (8.42)

Thus the angle of maximum radiation is given by

³ ´
0 = arccos − (8.43)


Moreover, the function (8.41) presents nulls for

Ψ2 = ±  = 1 2 3  (8.44)

364 CHAPTER 8. FUNDAMENTALS OF ANTENNA THEORY

where  is an integer and, between each two consecutive nulls, there is a

maximum for which the magnitude decreases as  increases. By dividing
 by its maximum value , we obtain the normalized array factor 
(see Figure 8.10)
sin( Ψ
2
)
 = Ψ
(8.45)
 sin( 2 )

which is symmetric with respect to Ψ = 180 .

Note that from (8.43), for a given distance , we can control the angle
0 of the main beam of the array by changing the current phase angle  of
the excitation current of the radiating elements while the amplitude of the
currents remains unchanged.

A particular case arises when the input is uniform and identical for
all the elements, i.e. when  = 0 in (8.36). Thus, from (8.43), we have
0 = ±2; that is, the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to
the line of the array and is independent of the distante . This type of array
is known as a broadside array.

Another particular case is that in which the direction of maximum

radiation coincides with the axis of the array ( i.e. 0 = 0 or 0 =  or
cos 0 = ±1). Such arrays are termed endfire arrays. By imposing these
conditions on (8.42) the phase angle  is given by

2
 = ±  = ±  (8.46)

8.5. ARRAY FACTOR FOR UNIFORMLY SPACED LINEAR ARRAYS365

In the particular cases of  = 4 or  = 2, we have  = ± 2 and

 = ± , respectively.

The radiation patterns in the plane  = 0 corresponding to an array

of 8 elements separated by a distance  = 4, of the broadside and endfire
types, are shown in Figure (??). It is apparent from the figures that the
directivity is less for the endfire than for the broadside configuration. In
the following, we will examine more closely the directional characteristics of
these two configurations.