1.

SOURCES OF WASTEWATER
The sources of wastewater in urban areas are as followings:

1.1 Domestic Sewage

It is wastewater from residential buildings, offices, hotels and institutions etc.

1.2 Industrial Waste

It includes the liquid discharges from industrial processes.

1.3 Storm Sewage

It include surface run off generated by rainfall and the street wash.

– NOTE: Sanitary Sewage refers to the combined sewage from domestic and
industrial sources

2. FACTORS AFFECTING SEWAGE GENERATION

Factors affecting the sewage generation rate in a city are similar to those which
affect the consumption rate of water. These include the followings:

2.1 Size of City

 Small cities are expected to have low water consumption

 Limited demands

 Presence of Industries may increase the sewage production

2.2 Population Characteristics

 Despite fixed water supply, wide variations in water consumptions and

sewage generation have been observed in cities due

 Economic status of people (Same population - Water usage and sewage

production in posh and high valued areas of cities will be more than
suburban)

 More washing and bathing etc.

 More watering of lawns

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2.3 Industries and Commerce

 Presence of industries greatly affect the water demand and WW

generation. (large & more water using industries more WW generation)

 No Direct relation (care must be taken in assessment )

2.4 Climatic Conditions

 More water usage and thus wastage in hot season of the year

 Wastage even increase in cold areas due to usage of water at faucets to

prevent freezing of pipes

2.5 Metering

 Metered service leads to careful water usage and thus less sewage
generation

 Unmetered service careless uses of water and thus more sewage

generation

3. POPULATION FORECASTING
3.1 Population forecasting methods:

The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below. The
particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city depends
largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to the
discretion and intelligence of the designer.

i. Arithmetic Increase Method

This method is based on the assumption that the population increases at a constant
rate. This method is most applicable to large and established cities.

dP/dt = ka

Pf tf

=Ka
Dp Dt
Pi Ti

Pf-Pi = Ka(tf-ti)
Pf = Pi + ka(tf-ti) Where

Pf = Future Population
Pi = Present Population
tf = Future time at Pf

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ti = Initial (present) time at Pi
Ka = Constant
Also
Ka = (Pi-Pe) / (ti-te) Where

“Pe” and “te” are second last terms in the given data

Problem: Find out the population for year 2000 from the following data

Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 2000

Population 13000 15000 17000 20000 ? (Pf)

Solution:

Pf = ? , tf = 2000 , Pi = 20,000
Ti = 1960
Pe = 17000
Ka = Ka = (Pi-Pe) / (ti-te) (20000-17000) / (1960-1950)= 300

Pf = Pi + ka(tf-ti)

= 20,000 + 300 (2000-1960) = 32000

ii. Geometric Increase Method

This method is based on the assumption that increase in population is proportional to

population i.e. percentage growth rate is constant i.e.

dP/dt=kgP;

Pf tf

= Kg
dp/p dt
Pi Ti

lnPf - lnPi = Kg(tf-ti)

lnPf = lnPi + kg(tf-ti)

Kg = (lnPi-lnPe) / (ti-te)

This method must be used with caution, for when applied it may produce too large
results for rapidly grown cities in comparatively short time. This would apply to
cities with unlimited scope of expansion. As cities grow large, there is a tendency to
decrease in the rate of growth.

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Q. Estimate population in the year 2000 by Arithmetic method and by Geometric
method

a) Arithmetic method

Pf = ? , tf = 2000 , Pi = 310,000
Ti = 1980 te = 1970
Pe = 237000
Ka = Ka = (Pi-Pe) / (ti-te) (310,000-237000) / (1980-1970)= 7300
Pf = Pi + ka(tf-ti)
= 310000 + 7300 (2000-1980) = 456000

b) Geometric method

Kga = Kg = (lnPi-lnPe) / (ti-te) (ln310,000-ln237000) / (1980-1970)

= 0.0268512
lnPf = lnPi + kg(tf-ti)
lnPf = ln310000 + 0.0268512 (2000-1980) = 456000
lnPf 12.644328+0.5370243 = 13.181352
Pf 530382

Problem: A community has estimated population of 20 years which is equal to

35000 persons. The present population is 28000 persons and the [resent average
water consumption is 16x106 liters/day. The existing water treatment plant has a
design capacity of 5 million gallons per day (MGD). Assuming an arithmetic rate of
population growth determine in what year the existing plant will reach its design
capacity. (1 Liter = 0.264 gallons)

Solution:
Estimated population = 35000 persons
Present population = 28000 persons
Present Ave. water = 16x106 liters/day = 4.224x106 GPD
consumption
Existing capacity of WTP = 5 MGD = 5x106 gallons/day
Present Excess capacity = 5x106 - 4.224x106 = 0.77x106galon/day
Present per capita = 4.224x106/28000 = 150.86 gpcd
consumption
Population served by the = 0.77x106 / 150.86 = 5143.94
excess capacity
= 5144
Population GR = (35000 – 28000) / (20-0) = 350 person / Y
No. years to reach the = 5144/350 = 14.7 Years
design capacity
iii. Simple Graphical Method

In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data, between time and population.
The curve is then smoothly extended upto the desired year. This method gives very
approximate results and should be used along with other forecasting methods.

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iv. Comparative Graphical Method (Curvilinear Method)

This is graphical method and one city is compared with the other cities.

This method assumes that, if the curve of population increase is plotted for a number
of past decennial (10 years) periods, it may be extended by following the tendencies
apparent from the known portions. In this method, the cities having conditions and
characteristics similar to the city whose future population is to be estimated are
selected. It is then assumed that the city under consideration will develop, as the
selected similar cities have developed in the past.

It consists of plotting curves of cities (one or more decades ago) that had reached the
present population of the city being studied. As an example city “A”, the city being
studied is plotted up to 1970, the years in which it population was 51000. City “B”
reached 51000 in 1930 and its curve is plotted from 1930 on. Similarly curves are
drawn for cities “C” and “D” and “E” from the year in which they reached city “A’s” 1970
population. Now city “A’s” curve can be then be continues, allowing it to be influenced
by the rates of growth of the larger cities so far as possible the larger cities chosen
should reflect condition as that are in the city being studies.

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v. Incremental Increase Method

Growth rate is assumed to be progressively increasing or decreasing, depending upon

whether the average of the incremental increases in the past is positive or negative.
The population for a future decade is worked out by adding the mean arithmetic
increase to the last known population as in the arithmetic increase method, and to this
is added the average of incremental increases, once for first decade, twice for second
and so on

vi. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method

In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out, and
is then subtracted from the latest percentage increase to get the percentage increase
of next decade.

vii. Ratio Method

In this method, the local population and the country's population for the last four to five
decades is obtained from the census records. The ratios of the local population to
national population are then worked out for these decades. A graph is then plotted
between time and these ratios, and extended upto the design period to extrapolate the
ratio corresponding to future design year. This ratio is then multiplied by the expected
national population at the end of the design period, so as to obtain the required city's
future population.

Drawbacks:

1. Depends on accuracy of national population estimate.

2. Does not consider the abnormal or special conditions which can lead to
population shifts from one city to another.

viii) Logistic Curve Method

The three factors responsible for changes in population are:

(i) Births,
(ii) Deaths and
(iii) Migrations.

Logistic curve method is based on the hypothesis that when these varying influences
do not produce extraordinary changes, the population would probably follow the
growth curve characteristics of living things within limited space and with
limited economic opportunity. The curve is S-shaped and is known as logistic
curve.

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4. COMPONENTS OF WASTEWATERENGINEERING
Components of wastewater Engineering include followings
 Collection system (network of sewer pipes)
 Disposal Works (sewage pumping stations, outfalls)
 Treatment works (for rendering wastewater treatment prior to its disposal
into environment)

5. SOME BASIC TERMS

5.1 Sewage
It is the liquid waste or wastewater produced as a result of water use.
SEWAGE FLOW RATE ESTIMATING GUIDE
(Range and Typical are shown in gallons per unit per day)

Estimates are based on US standards for water usage and sewage strength.
Typical Wastewater Flow Rates from Commercial Sources

Source Unit Range Typical

Airport Passenger 2-4 3

Auto Service Station Vehicle Served 7-13 10

Employee 9-15 12

Bar Customer 1-5 3

Employee 10-16 13

Department Store Toilet Room 400-600 500

Employee 7-13 10

Industrial Building Employee 7-16 13

(Sanitary Waste Only)

Laundry (Self-Serve) Machine 450-650 550

Wash 45-55 50

Office Employee 7-16 13

Restaurant Meal 2-4 3

Shopping Center Employee 7-13 10

Parking Space 1-2 2

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Typical Wastewater Flow Rates from Residential Sources
Source Unit Range Typical

Apartment, High-Rise Person 35-75 50

Low Rise Person 50-80 65

Hotel Guest 30-55 45

Individual Residence

Typical Home Person 45-90 70

Better Home Person 60-100 80

Luxury Home Person 75-150 95

Older Home Person 30-60 45

Summer Cottage Person 25-50 40

Motel

with Kitchen Unit 90-180 100

without kitchen Unit 75-150 95

Mobile Home Park Person 30-50 40

Typical Wastewater Flow Rates from Institutional Sources

Source Unit Range Typical

Hospital, Medical Bed 125-240 155

Employee 5-15 10

Hospital, Mental Health Bed 75-140 100

Employee 5-15 10

Correctional Institution (Prison) Inmate 75-150 115

Employee 5-15 10

Rest Home Resident 50-120 85

School, day

w/ cafeteria, gym, & showers Student 15-30 25

w/ cafeteria only Student 10-20 15

no cafeteria; no gym Student 5-17 11

School, boarding Student 50-100 75

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Typical Wastewater Flow Rates from Recreational Sources

Source Unit Range Typical

Apartment, Resort Person 50-70 60

Cabin, Resort Person 8-50 40

Cafeteria Customer 1-3 2

Employee 8-12 10

Campground (developed) Person 20-40 30

Cocktail Lounge Seat 12-25 20

Coffee Shop Customer 4-8 6

Employee 8-12 10

Country Club Member Present 60-130 100

Employee 10-15 13

Day Camp (no meals) Person 10-15 13

Dining Hall Meal Served 4-10 7

Dormitory Person 20-50 40

Hotel, Resort Person 40-60 50

Store, Resort Customer 1-4 3

Employee 8-12 10

Swimming Pool Customer 5-12 10

Employee 8-12 10

Theatre Seat 2-4 3

Visitor Center Visitor 4-8 5

5.2 Sewer
It is a pipe or conduit which carries sewage. It is generally closed but normally not flowing
full.
5.3 Sewerage
It refers to the collection, treatment and disposal of wastewater. Sewerage works or sewage
works include all the physical structures required for that collection, treatment, and disposal.

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5.4 Population Equivalent

Population equivalent is a parameter used in the conversion of contribution of wastes from

industrial establishments for accepting into sanitary sewer systems. The strength of industrial
sewage is, thus, written as

Std. BOD5 = (Std. BOD5 of domestic sewage per person per day) x
(population equivalent)

6. TYPES OF SEWERS
6.1 Sanitary Sewer
Sewer which carries sanitary sewage i.e., wastewater originating from a municipality including
domestic and industrial wastewater.
6.2 Storm Sewer
It carries storm sewage including surface run off and street washes and any other wastes which
may be discharged into the streets or onto the ground.
6.3 Combined Sewer
It carries both sanitary and storm sewage.
6.4 House Sewer
It is a pipe conveying wastewater from an individual structure to a common sewer or some
other point of disposal.
6.5 Lateral Sewer
Itis a common sewer with no tributary flow except from house sewers.
6.6 Submain Sewer
It collects flow from one or more laterals or house sewers.
6.7 Main/Trunk Sewer
Collects flow from several sub mains as well as lateral and house sewers
6.8 Force Mains
These are pressurized sewer lines which convey sewage from a pumping station to another
main or to a point of treatment or disposal.
6.9 Outfall Sewer
It receives discharge from all collecting system and conveys it to the point of final disposal
(e.g., a water body etc)

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7. TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
There are three types of Sewer system

7.1 Separate System

If storm sewage is carried separately from domestic and industrial wastewaters, the system is
called separate system. Separate systems are favored when:

 There is an immediate need for collection of sanitary sewage but not

for storm sewage.
 When sanitary sewage needs treatment but storm sewage does not
 Construction is more it also requires extra maintenance

7.2 Combined System

It is the system in which sewers carry both sanitary as well as storm sewage. Combined
system is favored when:
 Combined sewage can be disposed off without treatment.
 Both sanitary and storm sewage need treatment
 Streets are narrow and two separate sewers cannot be laid.

7.3 Partially Combined System

If some portion of storm or surface run off is allowed to be carried along with sanitary
sewage, the system is known as partially combined system.

NOTE: In urban areas of developing countries, mostly partially combined system is

used.

8. SEWAGE FLOW / QUANTITY

Domestic and industrial sewage is derived from water supply, so it has a relationship with
amount of water consumption.
 It is generally reported that about 70-90% of the total water supplied to a
community becomes wastewater.
 Sometimes, illicit drains and water use from privately owned source produce
quantities of sewage larger than public water withdrawals.
➢ Qav=lpcd*pop*(0.7 to 0.9)

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9. INFILTRATION
It is the water which enters the sewers form ground through poor joints, cracked pipes, and
the walls of the manholes. Infiltration is non-existent in dry weather but increases during
rainy seasons.

Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) Lahore uses following infiltration rates for the design
of sewer system

Sewer Dia (mm) Infiltration

225 – 600 5 % of Average Sewage flow
>600 10 % of Average Sewage flow

10. INFLOW
Inflow is the water which enters the sewers from surface through perforated manhole covers,
roof drains connected to the sewers, and drains from the flooded cellars etc.

11. RELATION BETWEEN SEWAGE GENERATION AND WATER

CONSUMPTION
Sewage Generation is associated with water supply to the city/community. Following relation
prevails among the water supply and sewage generation.

Around 70 – 130 % of the water consumed gets into the sewers. Higher percentage of 130%
is due to the fact that industries engaged in wet processes mostly rely on their own private
water sources but discharge their effluent into municipal sewer system. Further, in case
of poor joints and pipes laid underground water table rate of infiltration is more.

Hence, relation between sewage production and water supply is not fixed. However generally
it ranges from 70 – 90 % of the water consumption. After taking into consideration the rate
of infiltration, the average rate of sewage flow equals the average rate of water consumption.

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