w State of art report

Concrete
railway sleepers
 FIP COMMISSION ON PREFABRICATION
Chairmun: A. van Acker, Belgium Secretory: R. Charlier, Belgium
Members
M. Banic, Yugoslavia K. Gylltoft, Swkden J. Shimoni, Israel
M. J. Bare& France 0. Hegermann, Norway A. Skjelle, Norway
G. Berdichevslcy, USSR G. F. Huyghe, Belgium B. Stevens, Australia
K. G. Bemander, Sweden V. A. Jakushin, USSR A. Suikka, Finland
J. G. Bodhe, India G. F. Janssonius, The Netherlands M. C. Tandon, India
A. S. G. Bruggeling, The Netherlands A. Kajava, Finland H. P. J. Taylor, UK
N. Bunn, Canada M. Lappalainen, Finland T. Thomas, USA
J. Calavera, Spain M. Markus, Hungary H. Thonier, France
J. L. B. De A. Castanho, Brazil M. Menegotto, Italy D. Tiimler, FRG
Lu Changgeng, China F. M(innig, FRG J. N. J. A. Vambersky, The Netherlands
B. J. Corcoran, Australia D. W. Pfeifer, USA M. Vila Verde, Brazil
J. Dawani, Jordan D. Rafael Piileiro, Spain M. Vesa, Finland
J. Despeyroux, France H. Ripke, East Germany J. Vitek, Czechoslovakia
B. Engstrom, Sweden G. Rise, Sweden J. C. Walraven, FRG
F. R. Femandg Mexico H. Romanes, New Zealand F. P. D. Ward, UK
G. Gecsenyi, Hungary A. Sarja, Finland G. Zenobi, Switzerland
A. E. Goldstein, South Africa N. L. Scott, USA

WORKING GROUP ON CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS

Chairman: K. Gylltol?, Swedeu
Members Corresponding members
A. S. Darroch, England T. I. Campbell, Canada D. Tilmler, FRG
P. J. McQueen, USA G. Gecsenyi, Hungary T. Umehara, Japan
G. Tassi, Hungary A. N. Hanna, USA J. Vondrrisek, Czechoslovakia
W. J. Venuti, USA H. Kristenson, Sweden S. Westberg, Australia
J. G. White, J. Buekett, Canada K. B. Kumar, France L. A. Wildenboer, South Africa
G. Zenobi, Switzerland R. P. Sonneville, USA

Published by Thomas Telford Ltd, Telford House, 1 Heron Quay, London El4 9XF, England
First published 1987
Brjtish Library Catalofinp in Publicatio! Data:
Concrete railway &epers.-(FIP state ot art report)
1. Railro&Ties, Concrete
I. F&ration Internationale de la P&contra&e II. Series 625.1’43 T F 256.C6

ISBN 0 7277 0361 7

@ F&l&ration Intemationale de la Pr&ontminte, 198j

All rights, inclrading tranrlation, resewed. Except for fair copy& no part of this publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any mean!. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of the Publisher. Requests should he directed to the Publications Manager, Thomas Telford Ltd. Telford House, 1 Heron Quay,
London El4 9XF.

Although the F&&ration Intemationale de la PAcontra& does its best to ensure that any information it may give is accurate, notiability or
responsibility of any kind (including liability for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the FWration, its members, its servants or agents.

SetandprintedbyBellandBainLtd.Glasgow
 FOREWORD

During the past 40 years, concrete, especially prestressed concrete, has to a great
extent replaced wood as the preferred material for railway sleepers. Increased
requirements on stability of high speed rail tracks and the durability of concrete
account for this, and in some countries relative cost changes have led to a greater
cost-effectiveness of concrete sleeper track.
Development of concrete sleeper track in the past has been characterized by
various approaches to production, design, rail fastening and track-laying
procedures. Within the FIP Commission on Prefabrication it was felt that a review
of these procedures and current experience would be of great value. It was further
recognized that current design methods with regard to the response of the various
constituents of the track to the dynamic actions needed further development.
A working party was formed in 1982 to prepare this state of art report on
concrete railway sleepers. It covers the history of concrete sleepers as well as
current design considerations, rail fastening systems, manufacturing methods,
quality control and testing, track laying, field performance and ongoing research
in various countries.
The working party now plans to prepare a guide to good practice on the design
of concrete railway tracks and dynamic action on track, taking into consideration
the dynamic response of rail, rail fastening, concrete sleepers, ballast and subsoil.
The chairman of the working party is Dr Kent Gylltoft, Sweden. In addition to
the main contributions to this report which have been made by the working party,
valuable comments have been received from corresponding members of the
working group as well as individuals and companies all over the world.

K. G. Bernander
Chairman, I986
FIP Commission on Prefabrication
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction . . . . .

1.1. Concrete sleepers . . .

1.2. Historical development . .
1.3. New markets . . . .

2. Design considerations . . .

2.1. Loading conditions . . .

2.2. Design criteria . . . .
2.3. Other demands . . . .
2.4. Material and control specifications

3. Rail fastening systems . .

3.1. Functions of rail fastening .

3.2. Fastening types . . .
3.3. Fastening design criteria . . . . . . . 10
3.4. Assembly and maintenance . . . . . . . 12

4. Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.1. General . . . . 12

4.2. Production systems . . 12

4.3. Raw materials . . . 13

5. Quality control and testing . 13

5.1. Requirements . . . 13

5.2. Testing . . . . 13

5.3. Quality control methods ‘ 14

6. Installation and field performance 15

6.1. Installation methods . . 15

6.2. Field performance . . 16

4 6.3. Inspection and maintenance 17

6.4. Life expectancy . . . 17

.
7. Research and development . s 17

7.1. Work in progress . d 17

7.2. The future . . . . 18

8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 19

8.1. Advantages of concrete sleeper track systems . . . 19

8.2. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . 19

Appendix 1. Typical snecifiiation for a quality assurance scheme

covering the production of railway sleepers . . . . . 19

References . . . . . . . . . . . 21
 1. INTRODUCTION
Until the early 1940s railways generally had wooden
sleepers. However, shortage of good quality timber in
many countries meant an increasing use of concrete
sleepers and more recently these have been used on the
basis of technical superiority. Although the first
concrete sleepers were made in the late nineteenth
century, the real escalation of their production and use
in &rope coincided with the Second World War;
development has continued in countries such as the
USSR, Japan, South Africa, Canada, the USA,
Australia, China and Africa.lm3
1.1. Concrete sleepers
Over the years several types of concrete sleeper have
been developed and used in track systems. Owing to
the nature of the dynamic loading there are variations
in the pressure distribution between the ballast and the
sleeper. The sleeper may be subjected to a wide range
of bending moments, both positive and negative, and
this has led to two different design systems. In the first
system there is one rigid concrete block under each rail
and a flexible (e.g. steel) central piece between them. In
this twin-block sleeper the rail loads will be transmitted
down to the bedding support in a well-defined way.
Bending moments in the sleeper will be small even if
the bedding support is not quite uniform, but the
relative twist and inclination of the rail seats may vary.
In the-other system the sleeper consists of one single
rigid beam-the monoblock sleeper-which must resist
the larger bending moments that arise in different
sections of the sleeper. Monoblock sleepers are almost
exclusively prestressed to resist the assumed dynamic
bending moment distribution. They are normally
pretensioned although some post-tensioned types are
also produced.
These two main types of sleeper are shown in Fig. 1.
Table 1 shows where various types of sleeper were
originally developed and where they are now used.5
Some special types of sleeper are also needed in
railways for switches and crossings, bridges and so on.
Other applications of sleepers concern sidings,
tramways, rapid transit tracks, industrial tracks and
cranes. This report, however, deals mainly with
monoblock sleepers for main line tracks.
The total number of sleepers in the world is three
thousand million, of which more than four hundred
million are concrete sleepers. Two to five per cent of
this total have to be renewed every year. Concrete
sleepers currently cover more than 50% of the annual
sleeper demand in many parts of the world-in most
of Europe, in the USSR, in Japan and in some
countries in Africa. In other areas such as the USA,
Canada and Australia, concrete sleepers are used less.
The total number of concrete sleepers made each
year throughout the world is about 20 million. Table 2
shows approximate data concerning their production
and use.h
1.2. Historical development
l-2.1. UK
Trials with reinforced concrete sleepers were made at
various times up to the Second World War. Then a
timber shortage provided the impetus for an exhaustive
examination of concrete sleepers which showed that
reinforced concrete monoblock could not withstand
the dynamic loading which occurs in main line
track.‘** Pretensioned concrete monoblock sleepers
were more successful. This was probably the first
application of prestressing methods in mass production
and certainly the first application of prestressed
concrete for railway sleepers, These sleepers were made
by the long line method which was subsequently
adopted in many other countries.
Bullhead rail, which was used before the war, was
supported by cast iron chairs fixed to the sleepers by
through bolts or screw spikes in wooden plugs. With
the change to flat-bottom rail in the 1950s a major
concrete sleeper installation programme began.
Initially the sleepers were still base-plated but direct
fastenings were introduced in 1955. The original
sleepers used with bullhead rail were designated class
E and designed for a rail seat reaction of 22 t. Sleepers
for use with flat-bottom rail were designed for a higher
rail seat reaction of 28 t (760mm spacing) or 24 t
(703 mm spacing) and designated class F.
Between 1953 and 1963 thirty-three different
fastening systems were tried and eventually Pandrol
was adopted as standard because of its good
performance and compatibility with the extensive
suburban third rail electrified system. Since the mid
1960s British Rail have standardized on concrete
sleepers for all track renewals except spot replacement
in secondary lines and now have over 30 million in
track.
Trials with pretensioned concrete crossing sleepers
began in 1969 with direct fastenings glued into drilled
holes. More recently bearers with cast-in fastenings
have been introduced and are now a significant
proportion of crossing renewal work.
The Tyne and Wear metro and the London
Docklands railway use conventional ballasted track
with concrete sleepers, but Glasgow and Merseyside
metro systems use reinforced concrete sleepers set in
concrete slabs. London Transport has just started to
use concrete sleepers for its surface track,
post-tensmed)
(a) $4
Fig. 1. Basic types of‘ concrete sleeper: (a) monoblock; (b) twm-block
1
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
Table 1. Concrete sleepers: countries of origin and current use
Type of sleeper
Monoblock: pretensioned and
prestressed
Monoblock: post-tensioned
and prestressed
Twin-block
1.2.2. Germany
Since 1949 German Railways (DB) has laid more
than 44 million prestressed concrete sleepers in its
railway tracks.g-ll Early designs were all 2.30m long
and used wooden plugs for fastening the system
anchorage. The fastening system consisted of a fitted
ribbed base plate previously used for wooden sleepers.
The twin-block design was tested but discontinued
because of high ballast pressures and concern about
deflexion of the central link causing a change in gauge
and rail cant. Recent designs have been mainly post-
tensioned monoblock. Current sleepers are of type B70.
They are 2*6m long and use a progressive operation
spring tension fastener with an angled guide plate.
Older concrete sleepers are now being replaced with
the latest UIC 60 rail. The sleepers recovered are being
transferred to branch lines which still use the lighter
rail.
1.2.3. France
Between the First and Second World Wars the
French railway companies used several hundred
thousand concrete sleepers, designed by Weinberg,
Vagneux and Lefranc. These sleepers did not perform
satisfactorily on main lines, primarily because of the
rail fastening systems of that time.”
After the Second World War a shortage of wood led
the French National Railways (SNCF) to revert to
concrete sleepers. The new double elastic fastening
concept (corrugated rubber pads and RN spring steel
clips) associated with continuous welded rail was first
used with the SCOP and later with the VW
prestressed sleepers.
In 1949 Sonneville developed the SNCF/RS twin-
block sleeper incorporating the RN fastenings he
invented in 1947. The most important features of the
SNCF/RS sleeper were a steel tie-bar produced by hot
rerolling of scrap rails, floating reinforcements and
production by immediate demoulding. In the 1950sthe
SNCF considered concrete sleepers as an alternative to
wooden sleepers and they were installed primarily on
moderate rate traffic lines, where rail life exceeded that
of the wooden sleepers. The annual production of
500000 concrete sleepers enabled the SNCF to
negotiate for better wooden sleeper quality and prices.
After twenty years’ experience, during which time
improvements were made in ‘sleeper design and
employment, the SNCF confirmed its preference for
twin-block sleepers, (the Sonneville design and
Vagne x system) because of their lower cost and their
lateraJresistance in the ballast. Since 1970 twin-block
2
Originally Principal users
developed
UK Australia, Belgium, Capada, China, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, India, Iraq, Japan, Norway, Poland,
South Africa, Sweden, UK, USA, USSR,
Yugoslavia
West Gennany Austria, Finland, India, Italy, Mexico,
I Turkey, West Germany
France Algeria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, India,
Mexico, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia
‘
sleepers have been installed on nearly all main line
tracks. The new TGV (very high shed) lines are
equipped ~1% these sleepers and doubIe erastic
fastenings composed of nylon clips and spring steel
blades.
Monoblock sleepers, produced by a variety of
pretensioning processes, are in limited use (less than
10% of the SNCF concrete sleepers).13-16
1.2.4. Nordic countries
The”Nordic countries-Denmark, Norway, Sweden
and Finland-took an increasing interest in the use of
concrete sleepers in the 1950s. The reasons were
rapidly increasing prices of wooden sleepers and the
development of the prestressing technique., Concrete
sleepers provided longer service life than their wooden
counterpart and the heavier weight, coupled with the
use of long welded rail, promised improved riding
characteristics and reduced maintenance costs. ’ ’
The Danish State Railways (DSB) started tests with
concrete sleepers in 1952 using German B12 post-
tensioned monoblock sleepers and French RS twin-
block sleepers. The twin-block was adopted as
standard in 1957 mainly because of its lower first cost.
The Norwegian State Railways (NSB) first used
concrete sleepers in track in 1957. These were German
post-tensioned B55s with wooden plugs for the Hey-
back rail fastenings. Since 1966 all NSB sleepers have
been furnished with Pandrol fastenings. In 1973 a
pretensioned monoblock sleeper of Norwegian design
was standardized.
The Swedish State Railway (SJ) made a few minor
tests at the turn of the century. In 1953 four different
types of post-tensioned sleeper were tested which,
because of adverse climate and poor subsoil
conditions, were later considered inappropriate for
Swedish tracks. A perceived requirement for a flexible
sleeper resulted in the use of a post-tensioned, twin-
block sleeper using the Fist rail fastening, where the
concrete blocks were connected by a concrete filled
steel tube. In 1965 the SJ changed to a pretensioned
monoblock sleeper with Fist fastenings, and then from
1971 changed to Pandrol and Hambo fastenings. In
1977 the sleepers were lengthened and increased
prestress was applied.
The Finnish State Railways (VR) started concrete
sleeper tests in 1962 with five different sleepers:
Russian monoblock with screw fastening, Dutch twin-
block with Deenik fastening, Swedish flexible twin-
block with Fist fastening, German post-tensioned
monoblock with K or Delta fastenings and French
 INTRODUCTIO
twin-block with RN fastening, After a further three Table 2, Concrete sleepers: approximate data*
years of extended trials with the Swedish twin-block Total number
Country Annual
sleeper, the VR adopted monoblock sleepers-two- in service: production:
thirds of which are post-tensioned and one-third pre- millions thousands
tensioned. Since 1969 all sleepers have used the
Pandrol fastening. Europe
Austria 3
1.25. USSR Belgium 1 loo
Research initiated in 1947 into the potentialities and Bulgaria 15-2
advantages of prestressed concrete sleepers led to trial Czechoslovakia 8 1000-1200
Denmark 1.5-2
installation on light traffic lines in 1949. Industrial East Germany 18
production started in 1951 with the adoption of Finland 15 50
concrete sleepers on heavy freight lines.18 France 35
The successful use of concrete sleepers pretensioned Hungary 18 600
with wire was followed by further large-scale tests, Ireland 15-2 24
Italy 9 7‘50
from 1955 onwards, of sleepers of different types Norway 1 250
including bar reinforced beam types and a number of Poland 13
variations of double articulated sleepers. After these Portugal 1.5-2
extensive tests the wire pretensioned sleeper became Spain 20 320
Sweden 5 350
the standard for Soviet railways and has been in mass Switzerland 1
production since 1959. UK 31 loo0
Soviet railways used a base plate type fastening USSR 84
system, initially anchored to the sleeper by screw West Germany’ 44 940
spikes in wooden plugs cast into the sleeper, and later Yugoslavia 25
by T-headed bolts inserted into preformed cavities in
the sleeper. The current KB type of fastening has the Africa
disadvantages of complexity and a large volume of Algeria 1
metal but does provide the opportunity to shim the Senegal 1
South Africa 20 1500-2000
fastenings and allow for two pads to be used, one Tunisia 1.5-2
between rail and base plate, and the other between Zambia 60
base plate and sleeper, An elastic fastening, the GeB, Zimbabwe 2 100
has also been used without a base plate but has been
found generally inferior to the KB type.rg Asia
China 60
1.2.6. Hungary India 15-2
The production of reinforced concrete sleepers in Iran 1
Hungary dates from 1903. Prestressed concrete sleepers Iraq 1.5-2
were first introduced in 1949 and production methods Japan 22
Jordan
were improved until fully bonded pretensioned sleepers Korea 3
made by the short line system became standard in Malaysia
1958. This production system, also known as the Saudi Arabia
moving mould method, has been used to manufacture Turkey 5
13 million sleepers in Hungary and is also widely used Vietnam 1.5-2
in other eastern European countries.
North America
1.2.7, Canada Canada 3
Canadian National Railways (CNR) installed a few Mexico 6.5
reinforced concrete sleepers into track in the 1920s. In USA 3
1961 CNR started an extensive track test programme,
Initially 500 sleepers of different types, including twin- South America
block, were installed in various locations. The Brazil
definitive CNR test of 10000 UK-made pretensioned
concrete sleepers with Pandrol fastenings was Australia 7
undertaken in 1972 at Jasper, Alberta on a 6.5 km
length of their transcontinental main line with 450m *Fewer than 1 million sleepers per country in service in Holland,
and 300m reverse curves.zo CNR have now installed Botswana, Congo, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand, Cuba, Costa Rica
and Jamaica.
over 2.5 million concrete sleepers pretensioned with 26
indented 5mm wires on their main line in areas of
900m curves and tighter. The Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railroad
Canadian Pacific Rail made their first concrete also started testing concrete sleepers in 1977. The new
sleeper test installation in 1974 at Beavermouth, BC Calgary Transit System uses concrete sleepers
and after several test sections to compare rail life, exclusively and both Vancouver and Toronto Transit
fastening performance and durability with different Systems have significant installations. In July 1984 a
sleeper types, have purchased 24000 sleepers for the one in twenty experimental turnout assembly on
Rogers Pass diversion track. They are now considering concrete sleepers was fitted into the CNR main line in
a major concrete sleeper programme. British Columbia.
3
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
1.2.8. USA
In the USA the first recorded use of concrete
sleepers was in 1893 when 200 were installed by the
Reading Company in Germantown, Pennsylvania. In
1907 the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe placed 20
reinforced concrete sleepers in track.”
The first use of pretensioned concrete sleepers in the
USA was in 1960 when 500 were installed on the
Atlantic Coastline Railroad and 600 on the Seaboard
AirLine Railroad, followed by 600000 sleepers on the
combined Seaboard Coastline Railroad. Bolted
fastenings were used. The first continuous North
American installation started in 1966 on the Florida
East Coast Railway on which over 900000 concrete
sleepers with bolted fastenings have now been installed.
More recently Amtrak has installed 1.1 million
concrete sleepers on the north-east corridor using
Pandrol fastenings. Several other significant
installations have been made on the Santa Fe, Chessie,
Kansas City Southern, Union Pacific and Southern
Pacific Railroads. Concrete sleepers have also been
used on many transit systems. In 1984 a one in ten
turnout on concrete sleepers was installed in a siding
in Jacksonville, Florida by the Florida East Coast
Railway.22-25
1.2.9. Mexico
The National Railways of Mexico (FNdeM) first
installed twin-block concrete sleepers in 1959; post-
tensioned monoblock concrete sleepers were
introduced in 1966. There are now over 6.5 million
concrete sleepers in track, of which just over 25% are
the twin-block type. 26 Current practice is to use post-
tensioned sleepers in main line track and twin-block
sleepers ‘in secondary track. The RN fastening which
was introduced with the twin-block sleepers is also
used on post-tensioned monoblock sleepers.
1.2.10. South Africn
South African Railways (SAR) started testing small
numbers of proprietary concrete sleepers from 1945 to
1952.27 In 1956 deliveries of the first sleepers
manufactured in South Africa began. Of the first 4.4
million delivered, 4.2 million were twin-block. The rest
were monoblock semi-flexible sleepers.
Apart from a small test in 1957, full length post-
tensioned monoblock sleepers were not introduced
until 1963. In 1967 the production of twin-block
sleepers ended. The short line pretensioned process was
introduced to SAR in 1964 and the long line process in
1970.
As on other railways the dominance of nut and bolt
type fastenings influenced the adoption of similar
systems for concrete sleepers. Because of early failures
of nut and bolt designs, the SAR tested various elastic
clip assemblies before standardizing in 1968 on the Fist
and Pandrol systems.
1.2.11. Australia
The first major installation of concrete sleepers in
Australia was by Australian National Railways (ANR)
on their trans-Australian route which opened in 1974.
Subsequently the new standard gauge railway to Alice
Springs was built with concrete sleepers. The ANR
sleeper is similar to the British Rail F27 and uses
Pandrol fastenings.
4
Following ANR, Westrail embarked on the renewal
of their east-west main line, which links with ANR,
with concrete sleepers. These include dual gauge
(narrow and standard) sleepers with Pandrol and Fist
fastenings. Hammersley Iron-a heavy haul railway
taking iron ore to the coast--has also standardized on
pretensioned monoblock sleepers with Pandrol
fastenings for its track renewal programme. This
railway has also recently decided to standardize on
concrete sleepers for turnouts. The State Railway
Authority of New South Wales has a programme for
installing concrete sleepers in heavily used mixed traffic
lines from Sydney and also in new heavy haul lines
handling coal. This is a standard gauge system and
Pandrol fastenings are used. Queensland Railways are
the latest of the Australian lines to embark on the
large-scale use of concrete sleepers. Theirs is a narrow
gauge railway but with some heavy haul coal lines.
Fist fastenings are used.
In general the standard gauge railways in Australia
use sleeper designs derived from British practice and
narrow gauge railways have adopted South African
and Swedish practice. All sleepers are pretensioned and
made by the long line method.
1,2.12. India
The development of concrete sleepers in India began
after a series of trials during 1967-68. Initial designs
adopted 4mm or 5 mm plain high tensile steel wires as
tendons. In an effort to reduce the transmission length,
4mm crimped wire was used but its fatigue life was
found to be too short. 28 In current production 90% of
tendons use three 3mmdia. strands2”
1.2.13. Japan
Experiments in Japan with monoblock and twin-
block concrete sleepers in the 1950s led to the
adoption of prestressed concrete monoblock sleepers
on narrow lines and for new standard gauge lines.
Currently both pretensioned and post-tensioned types
are used with fastenings similar to the RN assembly.30
Of the 28000 km of narrow gauge track 39% now has
prestressed concrete sleepers and only one per cent has
slab track. Prestressed concrete sleepers were used
through almost the entire length of the first
Shinkansen standard gauge line (Tokaido). Later
Shinkansen lines have used an increasing proportion of
slab track and of the 3600 km of track now in use 44%
has prestressed concrete sleepers and 51% has slab
track.
1.2.14. China
Prestressed concrete sleepers were introduced into
China in 1954 and by the end of 1984 there were
about 60 million in use which account for about 50%
of track mileage.3’ Both pretensioned and post-
tensioned types are used with a fastening derived from
the Vossloh assembly. Broad concrete sleepers, 550mm
wide, are laid with only 50mm gaps between them.
They are used especially in tunnels, stations and freight
yards. Because of their large bearing area ballast
settlement is reduced but access for tamping can be
obtained only from the ends of the sleepers.
1.3. New markets
Tables 1 and 2 show that concrete. sleepers have
been accepted in most countries. Key markets for

.pansion are Canada, the USA, India and south-east
Lsian countries. In the first two cases cost-benefit
analysis is the key to the acceptance and expansion of
concrete sleeper usage. There is potential for growth in
more frequently used lines, assuming that new and
2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
This section deals exclusively with prestressed
monoblock sleepers and is based largely on the results
of a detailed questionnaire sent to railway authorities
in 13 countries particularly experienced in the
production and use of prestressed concrete railway
sleepers. The track is of standard gauge in most of
these countries but some narrow gauge and two broad
gauge sleeper types were also studied.
2.1. Loading conditions
Loading conditions in terms of actual wheel or axle
loads of locomotives, freight and passenger cars vary
considerably because of the different rolling stock used
in each country. Normally it is the axle loads of the
locomotives or heavy freight cars which govern the
dimensioning of the sleeper. However, passenger cars,
although substantially lighter, often run at higher
speeds. Depending on wheel and bearing conditions,
therefore, dynamic wheel-rail loads from passenger
cars may sometimes be as high as these of heavy
freight trains. Maximum static axle loads vary from
approximately 20 t to 37 t for standard gauge and from
12 t to 28 t for narrow gauge sleepers. The range of the
axle spacings normally extends from a minimum of
1.7 m to a maximum of 3 m.
2.1.1. Rail seat load
The loads acting on the sleeper depend not only on
the axle loads and spacing but also on the type of rail
(primarily its vertical stiffness) and the rail fastening
properties (primarily its vertical elasticity). Load peaks
depend to a large extent on the condition of the rolling
stock (roundness and/or wheel flats on wheels) as well
as the condition of the rail joints (horizontal and
vertical gaps) and rail surface conditions (spa&,
shellings and corrugations). Many rail types are used
but most are in the weight range 50-67 kg/m (typical
UK 60).
The condition of the rolling stock and rails of the
various railway networks considered is not known but
is normally expressed by general load impact factors
which may also take into account the elastic properties
of the rail fastening system.
2.1.2. Ballast pressure distribution
Most railway authorities assume a uniform
distribution of the pressure beneath the sleeper (at least
as one loading case), allowing pressures of O-4--
0.5 N/mm2. Often pressure is assumed to be more
concentrated towards the ends of the sleeper because
normally the centre of the sleeper does not (and should
not) rest on the ballast. Other pressure distributions
DESIGN CONSIDERATIOI
competitive sleeper and fastening systems a
developed, and for turnouts. In developing countries
with good quality aggregate and cement, concrete
sleeper production provides a cost-effective product
and many new local jobs.
are traDezoida1 or triangular relating to non-
symmetrical axle loads as They occur (Lg. in sharp
curves of the track).
2.2. Design criteria
Since the onset of mass production in the late 194Os,
pretensioned concrete monoblock sleepers have
generally had the shape of a doubly symmetrical beam
with a trapezoidal section, often variable over the
length. The underside resting on the ballast is usually
plain whereas the contours of the side faces and of the
upper face are sometimes intricate. The inclination of
the rail seats normally varies from 1:40 to 1:20
towards the centre.
Most sleeper lengths are between 2500mm and
2600mm (extremes 2300mm and 2743 mm) for
standard gauge and between 2000mm and 2200mm
for natrow gauge. The dimensional requirements for
concrete monoblock sleepers can be summarized as
follows.
(a) The area of the underside must be such that the
average ballast pressure under full load does not
exceed a certain value, normally 04-05 N/mm2.
(b) The end faces should preferably be of a size and
shape to provide maximum resistance to lateral
movement.
(c) As the prestressing tendons are straight (i.e.
parallel to the bottom surface) the cross-section
can be varied so that the geometry of a particular
section may be used to provide prestress
eccentricity to best match the bending moments,
positive or negative. Usually positive rail seat
bending moments are the maximum although
negative centre bending moments may be even
higher for broad-gauge sleepers. Consequently the
typical shape of the sleeper body is tapered from
both ends to the centre in height and sometimes
width with gentle changes of the sectional profile
to prevent stress concentrations.
The main dimensions of some typical monoblock
sleepers are shown in Table 3.
2.2.1. Service stage
The loading of the sleeper does not depend solely on
the wheel or axle loads of the rolling stock, but on a
variety of factors representing the complex elastic
system (rail/fastening/sleeper/ballast) as well as the
dynamics of the loading. However, it is difficult to
quantify accurately the various influences and so the
design parameters are based on the assumption of
safety factors resulting from long-term experience.
5
 CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
Table 3. Main dimensions of typical monoblock sleepers

Country Type Gauge: Length:

mm mm 1dim~~?m~ ./z\2‘

. At rail seat Mid-span

H w, w, H 41 w,
Australia (NSW) SRAl 1435 2500 212 250 200 165 250 200
Canada (CNR) CN6OB 1435 2542 203 264 216 159 264 226
China s-2 1435 2500 203 280 170 165 250 161
West Germany B70 1435 2600 214 300 170 175 220 150
UK F27BS 1432 251.5 203 264 216 165 264 230
Hungary LM 1435 2420 181 280 204 130 272 217
Italy FS V35 1435 2300 172 284 222 150 240 190
Japan 3H 1435 2400 220 310 190 195 236 180
Sweden s3 1435 2500 220 294 164 185 230 150
USA Amtrak 1435 2591 241 279 241 178 279 250
South Africa P2/F4 1065 2057 221 245 140 197 203 140
India BG 1673 2750 210 250 180 220
USSR 1520 2700 193 274 177 135 245 182

Considering that the axle spacing (normally 1*7-3m)
is at least two and a half times the standard sleeper
spacing (0~55--0~70m), it is normal to consider the
individual axles separately. However, the stiffness of
the rail is such that, although the sleeper directly under
the axle experiences the greatest load, there is some
distribution to the sleepers either side.
The loading case which determines the sleeper
design is defined as the maximum wheel load acting
directly above the sleeper. Modifications to this would
be an impact factor to account for the dynamic
loading (due to anomalies of rolling stock and/or rails)
including fastening and ballast attenuation effects, and
a distribution factor to account for the vertical stiffness
of the rail and the elasticity of the subsoil and ballast.
Under this loading a prestressed concrete
monoblock sleeper will be subjected to an almost
unlimited number of load cycles between zero and full
load but hopefully it will not crack.
However, many railways have found cracks from
severe overloads, if infrequently, in sleepers. These
’ cracks need not result in reduced service life so long as
full prestress is maintained at the rail seat by a reliable
tendon bond-transfer or anchorage system. As a rule
the most critical bending moment along the sleeper
body occurs at the rail seat under maximum wheel
load, causing tensile stresses at the underside. Those
positive and negative bending moments which occur in
other sections of the sleeper are usually less important.
The design and the degree of prestressing is therefore
primarily dictated by the conditions at the rail seat.
The most important parameters to affect the rail seat
bending moment are
(i) sleeper spacing
(j) axle spacing
These parameters are detailed in Tables 3-5.
If the moment capacity is defined as the supporting
moment, taking into account the prestress and
allowable concrete stresses, it must obviously be larger
than the corresponding applied bending moment
caused by external loading. This holds true for any
section along the sleeper body if cracks are to be
avoided. The uncertainty of this principle lies in the
fact that the static moment capacity can be computed
fairly accurately but that the determination of the
applied bending moment is difficult. Assumptions for
the loads acting on the sleeper depending on impact
effects and the elastic response of the rail, fastening,
sleeper and ballast system (including the ballast
pressure distribution) can lead to a variety of values
for applicable bending moments. Normally the bending
moment capacity is computed considering the
prestressing force after all losses (20-250/, due to elastic
shortening, shrinkage, creep and relaxation). The
allowable concrete tensile stress is 2-3N/mm*
(extremes zero and 6.9N/mm2) and the allowable
concrete compressive stress is 20-30N/mm* which, as
a rule, is not critical.
A comparison has been made between the positive
moment capacities a> the rail seat M,,, as indicated by
the various railway authorities and a bending moment
M, derived from the maximum axle loads and using a
very simple static model for the symmetrical loading
case shown in Fig. 2, while neglecting the distribution
capacity of the rail and all other dynamic and elastic

(a) maximum static axle loads (symmetrical) and

wheel loads (non-symmetrical due to curves)
(b) impact effects due to the condition of rolling stock
wheels and rails
(c) maximum train speed
(d) minimum track radius
(e) sleeper length
(f) the bearing conditions of the sleeper on the ballast,
especially in the centre part
4 - a & = Amax kc
(g) the relative stiffness of the rail, sleeper and ballast 2 a
(h) the elastic properties of the rail fastening system Fig. 2. Simple static model for the applied loriding of a sleeper
6
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
MI. Parawters@Iwncitqfbendingnwmemts

Railtypa

Atmtmlia (NW) SRAl so-6oo 53160 L%m 200 1.5

z W’JR) CN6OB 610 16762743 132RE/136RE 194 l-5
s2 mk%n 350 1.6
wc!!at Germany BM iE-650 min. 1800 S54pJIC 60 l-5
UK F27RS 654700 2am BSllM z 2.5 (max)
HWWY aoq 710 1800 43/48+4k&n
Italy &35 600 1m30 UIC 60 iti
1200 :::
Japan 504/6081tg/m
SWdUl i? =d25oo
USA Amtrak ii+ 2130 i&kg/m iti l-5
south At&a 700 1753 48157 kg/m 150
India r 650 MO-2E90 UIC 60 550 l-5
- USSR 500-643 1850-2700 R5O/R65/R70 350

Maximum static A@ AUOtVCd DamaluM R a t i o

axle load rail sat concrete moment 1,s
A lu: moment tensile =mtY M”
kN M,: kNm strasszN/mmz &m
Australii (NW) . SRAl 162 23-8 l-5
Canada (CNR) CN6OB 2&l ;; 306
China s2 162 139 iii
-Y B70 16-O El 189
UK F27BS 16-5 es 254 :::
Hungary 124 43 15-z 1.3
Italy &35 119 4-7 15a
3H 9.8 0 17.3 ::;
Japan
SWCdUl s3 14-7 30 150
USA Amtrak 23.3 429 :t
South Africa p2/F4 13.8 ;: 11.2 08
India BG 149 2‘0 24.3 l-6
USSR 19.5 2il 13.5 07

properties of the system. The corresponding values are
shown in Table 5 for the same typical monoblock
sleepers as in Tables 3 and 4.
For the sieeper types examined the ratio J,=M,JM”
lies between 07 and l-8. The variation of 1 reflects
differencesinthedemandsfromvariousrailwayauthorities,
which in turn are dependent on the various conditions
of the track and the rolling stock together with the
general philosophy of safety in the countries taken into
account. (In the simple model shown in Fig 2 only the
maximum static load and the sleeper length are
considered) Furthermore the differences in the
demands can be viewed from the specified values of the
allowed concrete tensile stress (see Table S), which in
addition to the demanded moment capacity is strongly
related to the safety of the track.
Nevertheless there appears to be some systematic
relationship between the rail seat bending moment M,
computed according to Fig 2, and the demanded
moment capacity M,, at the same place, expressed by
the ratio 1= M&U,, averaging approximately l-3.
The factor rl permits at least a simple and fast
preliminary design of a prestressed concrete mono-
block sleeper (before the determination of allowable
material stresses) under dynamic loading conditions.
Table 6 shows the demands t+om the railway
authorities on the bending moment capacities at both
rail seat and mid-span. The type of prestressing tendon
actually in use in one of the most dominating sleeper
types in each country is also shown.
More refined design methods must take into account
load impact factors (1-5-3-5) and elastic damping
effects of the whole system and rail distribution
capacities. However, such comprehensive design
methods are not generally in use and it is assumed
that in practice estimates are based on experience.
2.23. Fatigue
As railway sleepers are by detlnition subjected to
cyclic loading during their entire life, special care must
be taken with the fatigue resistance of all materials
involved, including that of the prestressing steel. A
crack-free sleeper body under dynamic axle loading is
desirable because cracks in the concrete caused by
bending moments lead to a large increase in the stress
range of the ‘p&stressing steel which could cause a
fatigue failure.
As long as all sections of the sleeper body remain
homogeneous (i.e. crack-free) there is normally no risk
of a fatigue failure of the prestressing steel. If cracking
were to occur, however, the fatigue resistance could be
critical. A high quality prestressing wire or strand is
apt to withstand a stress variation of only WOO/, of its
ultimate tensile strength.32 For these reasons most
railway authorities are conservative in allowing
concrete tensile stresses as the basis for the moment
7
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
Table 6. Bending nwncnt ixpncitkd ad pvrhrsstnd tendons

At mid-span

Paaitivc NCgtltiVC Positive NegtiVC

kNm kNm kNm kNm

Austmlii (Nsw) SRAI 234 - 12.1 108 -160 18 wim 5

Canada (CNR) CN6OB 3M -158 15.1 - 18.5 26 wires
China 52 134 -11.2 44wim :
west ciannanv BM 184 - 12.1 E: -12.1 8wim 69
UK - F27Bs 250 -110 144 -135 6mands 93
Hungary 15.5 - 13.3 9.2 -96 6owim 2.5
Italy E”35 15-o -189 18.0 -130 Ewires
Japan 3H 17.3 - 107 12.2 -11-E 4bm 1:
SW&II s3 150 -11 60 wired 2
USA Amtrak 424 --a 2z -339 8 smnds 93
South Mica 11.2 - 102 16 wires 4
India r 24.3 -152 160’ - 15.3 22wires 5
USSR 135 -92

aspacities and a few of them even exclude any tensile
SCreSseS.
Fatigue loading, especially if it wmes to cracking,
has a noticeable effect on the transfer length of wires
or strands anchored by bond. An increase of up to
so”/, over the static transfer length has then to be
taken into account to ensure the development of the
full prestressing force under the rail seat where the
maximum bending moment capacity is required.
223. Ultimate failure
Ultimate failure moments are occasionally specified
and then most often for the rail seat only. In the few
cases where reliable figures could be obtained, the
failure moment is 14-2.6 times the corresponding
bending moment capacity. If possible, the failure mode
should not be brittle, i.e. the compressive strength of
the concrete should allow the prestressing steel to
elongate well into the plastic range before the ultimate
capacity is reached.
2.2.4. Anchorage of prestressing steel
Concrete monoblock sleepers are prestressed either
by high-tensile wires (2-7 mm in diameter) or strands
(64-l 1.1 mm in diameter). For a reliable application of
the prestressing force the effectiveness of the end-
anchorage of the prestressing steel is of paramount
importance.
A positive end-anchorage is specified by some
railway authorities, excluding any slippage of the pre-
stressing steel and consequently any loss of prestressing
force due to anchorage deficiencies. This principle has
been successfully implemented in various ways e.g.
using button-headed wires and anchor plates. Parallel
to this, sleepers manufactured in pretensioning beds
with tendons having good bond properties have gained
wide acceptance. For the development of a reliable
bond the diameters of wires and strands must be kept
fairly small; individual wires are prefmbly provided
with an eff&ctive indentation. Furthermore the concrete
must be fully compacted in the anchorage zone and all
wires or strands perfectly embedded. The specified
concrete compressive and tensile strengths at the
transfer of the restressing force must be monitored
and maintained. R
8
Although anchorage of the prestressing steel in
concrete monoblock sleepers by bond is more delicate
in various respects than the positive end-anchorage, it
is a widely accepted method with a successful history.
23aotbrdemads
23.1. Electrical insulation
Most concrete sleepers are used in electrically
controlled signal territory so it is necessary to provide
insulation between the rails and the sleepers. This is
usually accomplished by means of plastic insulators
inserted between the spring clips and the rail
(Pandrol), insulating plastic screw inserts (HM) or
insulated pins (FIST). In all cases the pad placed under
the rail must also provide electrical isolation. A typical
value for signal insulation is the requirement of a
minimum impedance of 20000 R per sleeper when a.c.
energy of lOV, 6OHz is applied to the rail fastening
assembly.
One test to qualify components consists of soaking
insulators and pads in distilled, deionized water at
38°C for eight hours. After removing the components
from the water, a temperature of 32°C at a relative
humidity of W”/, is maintained for one hour. ‘The
components are then assembled on a sleeper and 1OV
a.c., 60 Hz is applied for 15 minutes. After 15 minutes
the impedance is measured and recorded. The
requirements of the test are met if the impedance
exceeds 2oaloR.
In cases of electric traction, insulation must also be
provided to isolate the running rails from the sleeper.
Rail fastening components which have successfully
passed the electrical isolation test specified for signal
circuits q also operating successfully in electric
traction applications. Railway electrical engineers
should be consulted for special requirements.
23.2. Durability
The concrete used for the manufacture of prestressed
concrete sleepers must be of high quality and
durability. Concrete ingredients should consist of high
quality cement, sound aggregates and a low water-
cement ratio. In cold climates where concrete sleepers
are exposed to freezing and thawing conditions, air

entrainment can greatly improve durability, Relatively
low percentages of entrained air-3-4x (in plastic
concrete 4+60/,)---tan result in an extremely durable
concrete without a marked reduction in concrete
strength. Durability tests for freezing and thawing
should be conducted using the actual mix materials to
optimize the final mix design. Caution should be
exercised in the selection of aggregates to prevent
deterioration of the concrete through alkali-aggregate
reaction with the cement. This reaction, which is often
long term, can have disastrous effects as complete
disintegration of the sleepers can result.
3. RAIL FASTENING SYSTEMS
3.1 Functions of rail fastening
The purpose of a rail fastening system is to transmit
the forces exerted by the rail on to a sleeper and to
hold the rail to gauge. These forces are primarily those
from the action of the vehicle on the rail although the
effects of the environment (e.g. temperature) also have
an influence. As well as its primary load-carrying role,
the system has important requirements from the point
of view of installation, maintenance and other
operating requirements of the railway.35*36 The
following points are important performance criteria for
a fastening system.
(4 The system must hold the rails to the correct
gauge and inclination.
(b) The system must safely transmit the rail forces to
the sleeper. These include vertical axle loads, side
forces and longitudinal creep. (All these forces are
present, even on straight track).
(4 The system must attenuate the shock loads to
prevent the sleeper from suffering vibration impact
or abrasion damage, and must not suffer from
wear caused by attrition.
(4 The fastening must have sufficient elasticity and
fatigue resistance to have a long track life.
(4 Installation and maintenance must be considered
and the system should preferably be able to be
installed easily by manual and mechanized
methods,
Electrical insulation must be good so that track
circulating may be used if desired.
The system must not permit gauge spread.
The components must be inexpensive and should
be easily and inexpensively replaceable. Otherwise
they should have a durability equal to the life of
the sleepers (e.g. cast-in components).
(9 The components must also be designed so as not
to put expensive constraints on the sleeper design
and production method.
(A The system should be vandal-proof.
3.2. Fastening types
There are two main types of fastening: rigid and
elastic. Rigid fastenings are typified by the early
development of bullhead rail in chairs, rigidly bolted to
a sleeper or flat-bottomed rail on base plates. These
R A I L FASTENING
2.4. Material and control specifications
Standard material specifications should be include
wherever possible in concrete sleeper specification
The specifications would include cement, aggregate ,
water and admixtures, specifications for prestressing
tendons and the rail fastening components. Sampling of
materials and testing in accordance with the standards
provides the means by which quality control may be
exercised. Often, a written quality assurance plan is
required which includes the quality control programme
necessary to assure the desired outgoing quality level
of the end product (see Appendix 1).
systems are expensive, do not have the required
resilience when used with concrete sleepers and have
been superseded by newer, elastic fastening systems.
Elastic fastenings have some form of spring or
sprung element and are now the natural choice fo:
modern railways. There are many ways in which a
siring may be built into the system but they fall
broadly into three main groups: sprung spikes, screw
systems and clip systems.
3.2.1. Sprung spikes
Sprung spikes are used almost exclusively on timber
sleepers (Fig. 3). They have the advantage of simplicity
but all the disadvantages of spike fastenings to
timber-fretting, wear and decay around the hole in
the timber.
3.2.2. Screw systems
Screw systems are used with concrete sleepers. They
have the advantages of being able to increase the
clamping force, and of having easily replaceable
components. It is also possible to vary rail height in
some versions. With these advantages come the
disadvantages that their successful fitting may be
operator-sensitive (e.g. to get the correct clamping
force) and that they may rust and seize up in use and
Fig. 3. Typical sprung spike
9
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS

so become difficult to dismantle. It may also be
necessary to check the torque frequently. Fig. 4 shows
the essential features of one screw system and Fig. 5
shows some of the other systems currently on the
market.
3.2.3. Clip systems
Clip systems provide elasticity with some form of
sprung clip or fastening element bearing on the rail on
one side, and fastened into some form of anchor or
insert cast into the sleeper. These systems are robust
and less sensitive to operator error as their correct
installation is readily checked by visual inspection.
They lend themselves to mechanized fastening and
release but have the disadvantage of being less
Means of adjustment
\ systems. It is important for the spring to have a large
adjustable than screw systems. Fig. 6 shows the
essential features of one clip system and examples of
others currently on the market.
33. Fastening design criteria
Elastic fastening has four main features which are all
present in one form or another in the main systems on
the market. These features are the clip or spring to
hold the rail to the sleeper, an anchor for the clip or
spring, an insulator and a rail pad between the rail and
sleeper.
3.3.1. Rail clamping force
Clamping forces vary, depending on the fastening
system and customer requirement. However, most
systems offer a clamping force within the range 75
125 kN with deflexions of lO-15mm. By their nature,
clip systems have a greater deflexion range than screw
load capacity beyond its working range as this gives a
good fatigue life. The rail clamping force requirement
comes from the rail size, vehicle weight and speed, the
nature of the track, the radii of curves, temperature
range and so on.

3.3.2. Cast-in anchor

The anchorage of the clips in the sleeper has an
important role in joining the resilient clip or spring
part of the assembly to the less resilient sleeper. A
failure of the pad or clip can result in impact loads
Fig. 4. Features of a screw system
and vibration being transmitted to the anchorage
which it must sustain without breaking the sleeper or
coming loose.
Sleeper screw
\
Anchorages for screw inserts are made of either
nylon or polypropylene plastic. Clip anchors are made

Plastic dowel . .

(a)

Screwbolt

Insulated~pad’~4J’ ’

(d)
Fig. 5. Examples of screw systems on the market: (a) Vossloh; (b) RN; Cc) R~.~ian; (d) Nabla
10
 . - (a) . .

InSUlaISd steel anchor pi

kISUlStor assembl

I
Fig. 6. Examples of clip systems: (a) Padrol: (b) Fsst; (c) Sidc~inh: (d) J-kk (4 SafM cf) Hambo

of cast iron or forged steel. It is important for an

anchor to have sufficient grip deep down in the sleeper - Head-
to give resistance to dynamic loosening and a high
torsional resistance at the top of its stem. The insert
must also be designed to transmit side forces safely on
to the concrete. Fig 7 shows a typical modern insert,
indicating how these functional requirements are met.
3.3.3. Insulator
The insulator is an important requirement where
track circuiting is used for signalling. Even if electrical
IIq and side force
resistance
insulation is not required it does have a role to play in
stopping the rail wear on’ the fastening insert. The
insulation requirements of track depend on the nature
of the signalling and other electrical systems used but a q Rag stem
dry assembly should have an infinite resistance and a for grip
wet one not significantly less than 20OOOR per
assembly. The insulator should be resistant to wear, to
degradation by ultraviolet light and to attack from
Cl
-
track chemicals. r;Flc. 7 Typical casl-h aecbor
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
3.3.4. Rail pads , defects. In France 9mm pads are used for high-speed
The main purpose of the rail pad is to spread the
contact load from the rail to the sleeper. The rail pad
also has an important role to play in attenuating
impact loads from bad joints, track irregularities and
faults in rolling stock. The pads must stay in place and
not work out in use, and, like the insulator, must not
degrade in normal use.
Pads are made typically of rubber, rubber bonded
cork, high density polyethylene (HDPE), polyurethane
and ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA). Pad thicknesses vary
between 5 mm and 10mm. Pad stiffness is typically in
the range 100 x lo3 N/mm to 600 x lo3 N/mm. On
heavy haul railways the elastic behaviour of the pad is
of less significance than for track where the speed
exceeds 100 km/h. Therefore durability is the
overriding requirement and plastic materials such as
EVA are used. HDPE becomes brittle at low
temperatures and so is not suitable for use in freezing
conditions.
On higher speed tracks the most widely used pads
are made of profiled neoprene or styrene butadiene
rubber. Recent research has shown that a pad thicker
than the normal 5mm will provide better attenuation
of the impact loads induced by rail head and wheel
4. MANUFACTURING
4.1. General
The manufacture of concrete sleepers is a highly
specialized sector of the precast concrete industry. Its
special features include
(a) demanding tolerances, typically &-3mm for overall
dimensions and reinforcement location and
kO.8 mm for the position of cast-in fastening
components
(b) for pretensioned sleepers, the development of high
early strength (35-40 MPa) at early ages (14-15 h)
by means of heat curing
(c) concrete of high durability to withstand arduous
in-track conditions, especially high frequency stress
changes.
4.2. Production systems
Manufacturing methods can be grouped under three
types: long line-for pretensioned, fully bonded,
monoblock sleepers; short line-for pretensioned, fully
bonded and end-anchored monoblock sleepers; or
instant demoulding-for twin-block reinforced concrete
sleepers and post-tensioned monoblock sleepers.
4.2.1. Long line method
The long line method was first developed in the UK
in 1943-46.37 At that time, prestressing beds were
designed to accommodate about 50 pairs of single
cavity moulds placed end to end. These were filled at a
central point and moved along the tensioned
prestressing wires to their curing positions.
Current methods generally use gang moulds with
four to eight cavities and 30-60 moulds end to end on
12
lines. However, many soft pads are less durable than
harder alternatives. In most cases, the soft and
sometimes thicker pad permits greater deflexion of the
elastic rail clips. This places the clips in a more severe
fatigue environment and may reduce long-term toe
load, which in turn reduces the longitudinal resistance
of the fastener system.
This conflict between requirements for low stiffness
against durability and longitudinal restraint is one of
the biggest challenges facing the fastener supplier.
3.4. Assembly and maintenance
Normal methods of rerailing may involve the
installation and removal of fastenings more than once,
for installation of the running rail, de-stressing and so
on. It is important, therefore, for the system to be
capable of assembly and removal by a mechanized
process.
In service, occasional maintenance will be necessary
and for this an assembly in need of maintenance must
be visible and displaced insulators and a new clip or
spring must be capable of being inserted by the track
man using light hand tools. The testing of fasteners is
described in reference 34.
each bed. The prestressing wires or strands are
anchored with tapered wedges and tensioned in groups
corresponding to a line or a complete bed using large
double acting hydraulic jacks, which are also used for
detensioning. The end of each mould is closed by
means of plates or bars, which can be removed before
the transfer of prestress, and these also maintain the
correct location of the wires or strands’ in the moulds.
The moulds are positioned on the bed before
concreting usually by a special purpose machine which
may incorporate internal vibrators or make use of
external vibrators on the moulds.
Heat curing using free steam is giving way to steam
or hot fluid enclosed in pipes under moulds, which is
more efficient and capable of automatic control by
monitoring concrete temperature. Electrical curing is
also used3s-a low voltage alternating current is
passed through the concrete between the mould and
the prestressing wires or strands (direct electric curing).
Itis essential to cover the concrete during heat curing;
thermally insulated covers improve the efficiency.
Heat curing enables production to proceed on a 24
hour cycle with the main activity during the day and
heating overnight. After the gentle transfer of prestress,
the wires or strands are cut with abrasive discs or with
oxy-acetylene torches, and the sleepers are lifted from
their moulds and stacked for dispatch without further
curing. In some factories the moulds are pushed off the
sleepers before detensioning; this avoids the need to
allow for elastic shortening in the moulds. Before
dispatch, rail pads are sometimes fixed to the sleepers
with an adhesive which permits them to be peeled off
for later renewal.

4.2.2, Short line method
The short line method is used for bonded wire and
end-anchored pretensioned sleepers, the prestressing
wires being tensioned against the end of the moulds.
Moulds with one to six cavities can be used, and for
fully bonded sleepers there may be several moulds end
to end in a structural frame. Fixed stations are used
for each operation (tensioning, filling, curing, de-
tensioning and demoulding), and the moulds are
moved between them. Curing is in an insulated
enclosure, generally using free steam heating.
Wire is used for prestressing, and positive end-
anchorage such as button heading is preferred to avoid
the loss in tension caused by wire slip which could be
significant with wedge anchors over short lengths. In
end-anchored sleepers, a steel plate used as a reaction
for the button-headed wire is cast into the sleeper. A
24 hour production cycle is common, but the short line
method can also be operated on a continuous shift
system with shorter or longer curing periods.
i hardened concrete is a recommended minimum level.
4.2.3. Instant demoulding method
The instant demoulding method is used for
reinforced concrete twin-block sleepers and post-
tensioned monoblock sleepers. With twin-block
sleepers, the reinforcement is preassembled into cages
and is located with the tie-bar in single cavity moulds.
Low workability concrete is then placed in the mould
and compacted on a vibrating table. When compaction
is complete the sleeper is removed by inverting the
mould and transferred to a curing chamber where
moist heat is used to avoid premature drying of the
exposed concrete surface.
With post-tensioned monoblock sleepers, the casting
procedure is similar to twin-block sleepers except that
longitudinal holes (usually four) are formed in the
sleeper. After curing and when the concrete has
achieved the required strength for prestressing, the
high tensile hairpin-shaped bars are inserted into the
holes and tensioned by running nuts along the
threaded ends of the bars. When prestressing is
complete the holes are tilled with cementitious grout to
protect the steel.
5. QUALITY CONTROL AND TESTING
5.1. Requirements
The fundamental reason for any quality control and
testing procedure of a manufactured product is to
ensure that the product is made to its proper
specification. In a concrete element this requires an
inspection and testing regime throughout the whole
process of the selection and control of materials, and
the control of the manufacturing process, right up to
the point of delivery.
In any manufacturing procedure the resulting
products will have varying characteristics in meeting
specification levels, e.g. concrete strength will vary.
There is therefore a risk that on one hand substandard
products will be delivered to the client, and on the
QUALITY CONTROL
4.3. Raw materials
4.3.1. Cement
For pretensioned sleepers, high early strength
Portland cement is normally used, sometimes specified
with a low alkali content. Post-tensioned and twin-
block sleepers can be made with ordinary Portland
cement as early strength is less critical.
4.3.2. Aggregates
The main requirement is for well-graded materials
with a proven durability record especially in relation
to abrasion resistance, frost resistance and freedom
from alkali-aggregate reaction. The latter is important
in the context of the high cement contents and heat
curing used in production.
4.3.3. Admixtures
Water reducing admixtures are widely used to
facilitate high early strength development. In frost
zones, air entrainment is essential-35% air in the
The use of heat curing means that partial replacement
of cement with fly ash is possible without serious effect
on early strength.
4.3.4. Prestressing wire and strand
A short transmission length is an essential feature of
pretensioned sleepers. 5mm wire and 903mm seven-
wire strand are the most widely used tendons; smaller
diameter wires (down to 2.11 mm) and three-wire
strand (down to 6+3mm) are also used in certain
countries. For fully bonded systems the wire should be
indented with the Euronorm or a similar pattern, and
strand is also frequently indented. For end-anchored
sleepers 7mm wire is mainly used. It is important that
after indenting and button-heading wire and strand
retain adequate tensile strength and fatigue life.
Crimped wire may not have the required fatigue life.
4.3.5. Steel bars
The typical hairpin-shaped prestressing steel used in
post-tensioned sleepers is 11 mm high tensile bar with
threaded ends.
other hand that products will be made to too high a
specification and be uneconomical. The quality control
and testing regime must ensure that these risks are
acceptably small. A narrow band of product properties
is also desirable to ensure consistency of behaviour in
use.
5.2. Testing
A variety of types of testing are required in railway
sleeper manufacture. These fall into three main areas:
testing of the basic design to confirm its acceptability,
testing of the materials and testing of the finished
product to confirm acceptability to the specification.
13
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
5.2.1. QualiJication testing
Qualification testing is carried out on the first
prototype sleepers to ensure their basic design
acceptability. These tests to destruction vary between
authorities but usually involve structural tests on the
sleeper itself with short-term, long-term and repeated
loading. This usually involves testing the flexural
strength of the section beneath the rail and that of the
mid point of the sleeper, a bond test to failure, a
torsion test and fatigue testing of the section beneath
the rail seat.
Qualification tests are also required on the fastening
assembly to measure pull-out strength, torsion
strength, toe load and resistance to side forces,
longitudinal creep force and repeated loading. It is also
common to have initial qualification tests on the
materials and aggregate and sand that are to be used.
Qualification testing on materials is important. The
aggregate must be examined petrologically to check its
durability including susceptibility to alkali-aggregate
reaction and, if there is any risk, appropriate measures
must be taken in the mix design and choice of cement
supply. Cement must be monitored throughout the
production period to ensure that alkali levels are
within approved limits. The abrasion resistance of the
aggregate--coarse and tine fractions-is important and
should be checked at the qualification stage.
Qualification testing is usually accomplished at the start
of the sleeper manufacture contract and sometimes
before the contract has been awarded.
5.2.2, Materials testing
During the manufacture of the sleepers there must
be a continual programme of testing and inspection of
the materials being used. These tests are similar to
those carried out for any structural precast prestressed
product.
5.2.3. Indirect materials testing
Indirect materials testing consists of the inspection
of moulds, before they are first used, and routinely’
throughout their life. This inspection is to guarantee
the production of sleepers of the correct finish and
dimensional tolerances. Substandard moulds are
removed from the production line and are repaired or
scrapped. Other inspection carried out in the
production process involves the inspection of plastic
concrete, checking prestress levels, the position and fit
of any cast-in inserts and checking that they are not
contaminated with mould oil.
5.2.4. Sleeper testing
Sleeper testing requires that the finished sleepers
have structural strengths and dimensional properties
within the specification. Often a simple structural test
is used as part of the acceptance criteria. This is
usually a three-point bending test at the rail seat to
ensure that there is no cracking under a specified
moment or to record the load at the first visible crack,
This moment or load is usually calculated on the
assumption that some tension exists in the outer fibre
of the sleeper. In some countries this rail seat test is
not carried out and is replaced by a centre bending
test. The acceptance criteria often involves some form
of control procedure with simple rules so that if a test
14
failure occurs the amount of testing is increased until
the underlying problem is rectified.
Sleeper testing also involves continuous dimensional
checking of the completed sleepers to predetermined
sampling rates to ensure that tolerances critical to the
final gauge, the correct operation of the fastening
system, and any automated handling systems are all
satisfied. Important dimensional aspects of the sleeper
that are checked are height, insert position, rail seat
flatness and twist, and track gauge.
In the stacking yard and before delivery there is
usually a tinal back-up inspection to reject any sleepers
suffering from physical damage and to ensure that all
aspects of the rail fastening system (e.g. cleanliness of
holes) are in order.
5.3. Quality control methods
The traditional method of quality control in the
precast concrete industry is for the concrete
manufacturer to have his own testing and inspection
department and to have outside surveillance from the
client. The amount of client involvement will depend
on the complexity of the work being carried out and
the level of confidence he has in the precast concrete
manufacturer. From experience in the defence industry
methods of self-certification (quality assurance) have
been developed.
5.3.1. Inspection by client
In railway sleeper production the level of client
inspection is usually high. A visit of the client’s
inspector is usually made on a weekly, if not daily,
basis. The inspector will review the materials and
sleeper test records for the intervening period, patrol
the factory and sometimes carry out some of the
routine sleeper tests. This method is expensive for the
client.
5.3.2. Quality assurance
Quality assurance is a formalized quality control
method based on written production procedures
carried out by the manufacturer. The method being
carried out by the supplier has the advantage of saving
inspection costs usually borne by the purchaser.
Observance of the procedure is audited either by the
client or by an appointed agency. A quality assurance
system has a number of essential features.
(a) The responsibilities for production and quality
must be separated within the manufacturer’s
organization.
(b) The system must be operated by appropriately
qualified and trained staff who are familiar not
only with the tasks that they are carrying out but
also the whole concept of quality assurance and
the end use of the product.
(c) There must be a quality manual defining
procedures .of material acceptance and testing,
production method and finished product testing.
This manual may name individuals who are
trained and authorized to carry out specific tasks,
e.g. stressing and testing.
(d) The system must ensure traceability of materials
from acceptance to delivery and have self-
certification to ensure that the work described in
the manual is carried out correctly.

(e) There must be a system of audit carried out in-
house to ensure that procedures are being adhered
to, that paperwork is up to date and that changes
in the production procedures are recognized, with
the system being modified to accommodate them.
(f) There must be an external audit of the system
carried out by the client or his test authority.
(g) The system must ensure that failure to meet
predetermined quality levels results in an
6. INSTALLATION AND FIELD PERFORMANCE
6.1. Installation methods
The installation of concrete sleepers can be divided
into five basic systems, which in order of capital cost
are single sleepers, lifting frame, panel, gantry system
and track-laying train or machine. Each method is
appropriate for specific locations, quantities and
infrastructure development.
6.1.1. Single sleeper installation
Single sleeper installation is most appropriate when
capital costs of specialized equipment have to be kept
to a minimum, because the equipment used is generally
available within the maintenance team of most
railways. Labour cost per sleeper installed is high and
the rate of progress is limited. This system is often
used for individual sleeper replacement or for small
test locations. Types of equipment used include sleeper
inserters, sleeper knock-out machines, scarifiers and
cranes.
6.12 Lifting frame system
The lifting frame system is often used for new track
construction. The lifting frame can handle between
four and twelve sleepers, the actual number being
dependent on the capacity of the crane used to lift the
frame and sleepers.
Attachment of the frame to the sleepers can be by
chain and hooks through the eyes of the shoulder or
fastening system. A more elaborate system uses
hydraulically controlled end clamps, but these can
become mechanically complex (if only to ensure safety
of attachment) and add dead weight to the frame,
reducing the number of sleepers which can be lifted.
Chains are simple, low-cost, reliable and light. The
chain and hydraulic clamps normally have the same
spacing as the sleepers in the track, or at half the
centres, in which case every other sleeper is set down
at the first set down area.
6.1.3. Panel system
In the panel system, track is pre-panelled using 12m
or similar service rails which are later removed, and
replaced by continuous welded rail (CWR) once the
panels have been set in place. Simple panel assembly
plants can be set up adjacent to the point of use and
panels delivered to site on flat cars.
A rail-mounted mobile crane sandwiched between
two flat wagons can be used to set the panels down on
an adjacent grade. In Russia, packets of panels are
pulled under a cantilever gantry and set down on the
INSTALLATION
automatic and progressive increase of inspection
which is only relaxed when the target is met;
Quality assurance has developed from initiatives in
the defence and aerospace industries. The standards for
these initiatives have been source documents from
which more general national standards have been
developed. The basic requirements of a sleeper quality
assurance scheme are presented in Appendix 1.
grade ahead of the track-laying train. Working from
an adjacent track British Rail has used twin side boom
cranes. Panels can also be placed by the gantry system.
61.4. Gantry system
The gantry system is a medium production rate
system used where the rail is jointed, or where worn
out CWR can be cut to length. CWR is set at a
constant wide gauge of 2.45-3m on the ballast
shoulder-either on special chairs or on a ploughed
level area in the shoulder ballast. Two gantries
straddling the rail cars with a lifting beam between run
on the .wide track and raise 12m or 24m panels of old
sleepers and rails and move them to a flat wagon on
the old track.
The gantries then pick up either 39 or 78 individual
concrete sleepers or complete panels of sleepers and
service rails and set them down in the gap created by
removing the old track. A rail threading machine
running on the new track threads the CWR on to the
sleepers. This is followed by clip application and so on.
The rate of progress is about 1100 sleepers per day.39
This system is used extensively in the UK, Europe and
Australia.
6.15. Track-laying train or machine
Several track trains are on the market which can
renew track or install new track. A typical track train
consists of a self-propelled track-laying machine, with
12-25 special sleeper wagons pushed ahead of the
machine. The sleeper wagons are fitted with bridges
between them to allow two or three crab-like gantries
to traverse the whole length of the train to deliver
concrete sleepers to the machine and remove the
displaced wooden sleepers.
A large articulated beam spans the front and rear of
the track-laying machine. The sleeper conveyors (new
concrete and old wood), concrete sleeper placing, wood
tie removal equipment and the rail change-out
equipment are all supported from this beam. At the
front the old rail is spread out to allow a pair of forks
to dig under the wooden sleepers and remove them. A
plough immediately levels the ballast. Concrete
sleepers are then placed. Pads are placed on the
sleepers by hand. Either the old CWR or the new
CWR is then threaded on to the sleepers and the rear
end of the machine runs on the new track before the
rail is clipped. Clips and insulators are applied behind
the machine. Later the ballast can be undercut if
required, the rail de-stressed, more ballast applied and
15
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
the track realigned, lifted and tamped. The average and old wooden sleepers incIuding fastening assemblies
rate of production is 2500 sleepers in an eight-hour has been tested.46 Resistance values have been
possession.3g determined for different environmental conditions
The machines can be purchased in dillbmnt ranging from dry and clean to saturated wet states.
configurations for use on new construction or track Test results indicate that the rail to sleeper/ballast
renewal and with or without rail renewal facilities. This interface resistance can vary a great deal depending on
system is used in Europe, Canada, the USA and environmental conditionq particularly moisture
Australia. content. It may increase by one to two orders of
magnitude, going from a saturated to a comp\ette\ydry
6.2 Flebl perfomlana! state. The concrete sleeper assembly exhibits an
The primary function of a sleeper, whether it is electrical resistance comparable to or better than
made of concrete, steel or wood, is to hold the rail to wooden sleepers except when the sleepers are
the gauge, and to transmit train loads into the ballast saturated.
and sub-ballast. Secondary functions of a sleeper Other work4’ suggests that the predominant factors
include prevention of lateral track displacement, affecting the leakage resistance through the sleepers in
prevention of longitudinal rail movement (in a track circuit are
conjunction with the fastening system), maintenance of
the line and level of the rails and provision of the (a) the rail fastening system design
designed rail cant. The performance of any track (b) the insulation pad pattern
system must therefore be evaluated in this context. (c) the length of the conduction path from the rail to
the sleeper
62.1. lhck and train dynamics (d) the amount of foul ballast, dust and iron filings
Theories have been developed to show the around fastenings
relationship between the static wheel load and the (e) separation of the rail from the ballast.
dynamic forces referred to as Pl and P2. In this
context wheel flats are considered to have a similar 623. Rail corrugations
effect to low welds or joints, but the effects of soft Short-wave and long-wave corrugations have
spots in ballast or formation have not been ,anaIysed. become more apparent since the mid 1970s where a
P2 force is particularly sensitive to the unsprung mass substantial portion of traffic is carried in 120 t gross
bouncing on the track. The forces experienced by the weight wagona, particularly in unit train
track occur over a wide range of frequencies up to configuration.4* Operating on corrugated rail requires
2OOOHz. At low frequencies (IOHz) the nature of the more frequent cycles of lining and lifting and this
track is relatively unimportant and suspension forces shortens sleeper life. Unless remedial measures are
caused by vehicle and bogie motions predominate. At taken, the corrugation will accelerate. The immediate
medium frequencies (20-IOOHz) the track system and palliative is rail grinding
vehicle unsprung mass with its primary suspension are Studies have shown that the principle causes of
most important (i.e. P2 forces). At the higher corrugation on wooden sleepers are due to dynamic
frequencies (200-2OOOHz) impact- and impulsive gauge widening caused by soft or spike-killed sleepers
loadings (Pl forces) dependent on track and wheel-set and uneven hardness of the rail head metal. Concrete
masses and the elasticity of the wheel/rail contact zone sleepers minimize corrugations because of their
predominate.40v41 superior gauge holding characteristics. The
When resilient pads are used, the forces measured introduction of alloy steel rails*s and the correct
are less than the mathematical formula would profiling of the rail during grinding provide correct
indicate-particularly over 65 krnb Further work4’ wheel to rail contact which reduces curving forces and
has shown that the longer duration of the P2 force rail head stresses. .
(20ms) allows it to be transmitted into the sleeper and Concrete sleepers are sometimes blamed for
ballast, whereas the Pl force, which has a steep rise increasing the incidence of rail corrugations but there
time and short duration, mainly affects the rail. is no evidence that there is any significant difference
At higher speeds there is a higher frequency sleeper between wooden and concrete sleeper track in this
stress component superimposed on the quasi-static respect.4*~49
response to the P2 force. This can lead to fairly high
tensile stresses in sleepers and has led to problems of 62.4. Sleeper cracking
concrete ties cracking in Europe’ and in the USA.43*44 The most likely locations for sleeper cracks are at
This higher frequency response occurs at up to the top or the bottom of the rail seat area and on the
12OOHz and, although attributed to wheel defects, is top of the sleeper at the centre. Rail seat positive
not yet well understood. It may have been overlooked cracks, i.e. those at the bottom of the sleeper, generally
in earlier measurements which use lower frequency result from infrequent high impact loads caused by
wheel and rail defects,43 or by high speed passenger
filters to eliminate noise. Current research is directed
trains with locomotives with high unsprung weight.
towards reducing the peak sleeper stresses by means of
Rail seat positive cracks are not uncommon, but
more resilient pads but there is evidence that thicker
pads may be necessary to achieve any worthwhile although sleeper life may be reduced the sleeper is still
beneflts.43*45 capable of carrying out its primary functions of
holding the rail to the gauge and transmitting load
622. Electrical properties into the ballast.
The rail to sleeper/ballast interface electrical Rail seat negative cracks are more serious and less
resistance of concrete sleepers, new wooden sleepers understood. The dynamics of the concrete sleeper
16

system and the train can cause break-up of the rail
seat, which can result in premature sleeper failure.
Fortunately these cracks are rare.
Centre negative cracks in the top of the sleeper are
caused by centre binding of the track. They may be
cured simply by removal of the cause of the centre
binding Splitting of sleepers can be caused by
incorrect fastening application or too many
prestrcssing tendons placed in one layer.
62.5. Sleeper damage
Dragging equipment or a broken axle can cause
sleeper damage, irrespective of sleeper material. If the
cribs are kept full to the top of the sleeper, damage to
the sleeper will be minimixed. Fastenings which extend
beyond the foot of the rail by more than 5O-75mm are
more vulnerable than those which shelter under the
head of the rail.
Although sleeper life may be curtailed it is only
necessary to replace seriously damaged sleepers
immediately if they cease to perform their primary
functions of holding the rail to the gauge and
transmitting load into the ballast.
6.2.6. Lateral stability
Sleepers also help to maintain track alignment. The
main factor involved in lateral stability is friction
between the sleeper softit and the supporting ballast.
7Betu is also a significant contribution from
compacted ballast shoulders at the sleeper ends and
compacted ballast in the cribs. Sleeper spacing is
therefore important in maintaining track alignment
and is sometimes reduced in curves. Typically a
660mm sleeper spacing might be reduced to 610mm in
curves of less than 800m radius.
On some systems there is reluctance to use concrete
sleepers in tight curves but this relates more to the
increased loading On some heavy haul railways,
however, concrete sleepers have been prefer& in tight
curves because of the generally improved track
stability obtained and the corresponding reduction in
rail wear.so
63. Inspection and maiWenance
Current track geometry and track inspection cars
have simplified routine inspections of overall quality of
line, level, cross level, and gauge of both concrete and
traditional track systems. However, these inspections
are no substitute for low-speed inspection by
competent track maintainers. One of the distinct
advantages of modem elastic fastening systems without
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
7.1. Work in pogws
A sample of research and development in progress
on prestressed concrete sleepers worldwide is presented
in this section. The absence of references to work in a
given country is no indication that work is not in
progress or has not been conducted. Much general
work (e.g. improvements of the production process or
RESEARCH
bolts is that a low-speed visual inspection will indicate
whether or not the fastening system, pads, insulators or
clips are in position. If fasteners are in position they
are in working order.
Inspections should check
(a) that clips are in position or bolted fastenings have
the correct torque
(b) that the insulator is in position and not distorted
(c) that pads are in position and not working free
(d) signs, for rail running and for indication of loss of
toe load caused by pad deformation and clip
distress
(e) for centre negative cracks which are a sign of the
centre binding of the track
(f) for rail seat negative or positive cracks
0 for damaged sleepers caused by dragging
equipment or bad maintenance practices
(II) for corrugations which can be detrimental to the
track system.
Although concrete sleepers should last 40-50 years,
it is unlikely that insulators and pads will last that
long Most railways budget to replace pads and
insulators at rail change-out or replacement.
Maintenance of the sleeper/fastening unit is therefore
both simple and infrequent. It will be directed mainly
towards surfacing and lining the system and grinding
out rail corrugations. Experience has shown that with
the exception of rail grinding the period between
maintenance cycles can be longer than with a
traditional wooden sleeper track system.
6A Lifeexpedancy
Life expectancy is a key component for any
economic analysis. In North America and in some
other areas concrete sleepers are more expensive than
wooden ones, but in Europe and areas where concrete
sleepers are cheaper at first cost, life expectancy is less
important.
In countries where significant numbers of concrete
sleepers have been removed the reasons have usually
been fastening obsolescence or a change to a heavier
rail with a larger base which would not fit on the
original sleeper and faste&ng system. In one country a
large number of sleepers were removed because of
alkali-aggregate reaction, which is an intrinsic concrete
failure rather than a structural failure. There is no
history of correctly designed and manufactured
concrete sleeper track systems under 50 years old
suffering from premature failure.
developments of new sleeper designs) is in fact in
progress in most countries.
7.1.1. U K
Developments in the UK have been concentrated on
the production process and mould design. Research on
new sleeper designs, including sleepers for switches and
17
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
crossings, is also being carried out by British Rail.
Research into the performance of fastening systems
and the effect of pad materials on sleeper trains is also
active.
7.1.2. France
Work is going on in France to find solutions to the
problems generated by lines with sharp curves used by
very heavy trains, and the application of ballastless
track systems on bridges. l6 SNCF is in the process of
installing concrete sleepers on a concrete slab in a
1400m long tunnel on the new TGV line between
Paris and Tours. However, to reduce vibrations in a
winery above the track, 22mm rubber pads will be
placed between the slab and sleepers. Also 4*5mm
rubber pads will be placed at the rail seat.
7.1.3. Sweden
More flexible sleepers are being developed in
Sweden. The bond capacities of strands and wires are
also being studied. The fatigue resistance of the
sleepers is being studied at Luled University of
Technology and by SJ.‘i The development of
prestressed concrete sleepers for switches started in
Sweden in 1970. Since then 500 sets of switch sleepers
have been installed successfully.
7J.4. kinland
Disintegration of the concrete by frost has been
observed in sleepers in Finland. This problem has been
examined by the Technical Research Centre of Finland
and others. The main cause of the damage seems to be
improper heat curing which has caused hair-line
cracks, either physically or chemically (ettringite).
7.1.5. Czechoslovakia
Development of fastening systems with larger
flexibility is in progress in Czechoslovakia. Static and
dynamic stress relations in the end-anchoring zones
depending on the diameters and the properties of the
wires have been studied.52*s3
7J.6. Hungary
In Hungary the first switches with concrete sleepers
were installed in 1984; laboratory experiments and in-
track measurements are now being conducted.
Recently developed sleeper types and fastening types
are also being tested and examined.54* 55
7.1.7. Canada
The performance of sleepers under heavy work-loads
is being studied with specific emphasis on impact
attenuation by pads of different materials and
thicknesses. Research is in progress on the
development of prestressed concrete sleepers for use on
open deck railway bridge structures,56 and on sleepers
for switches.57 Concrete material research is being
carried out as a result of the effects of aggressive
environments compounded with dynamic loading
regimes on concrete sleepers.
Canadian Pacific Rail is testing a 300m length of
slab track predominantly for freight traffic. The
structure of cast in place reinforced concrete
foundations is designed to replace ballast and sleepers.
It is expected that derived benefits will be increased
18
safety, reduced maintenance costs and improved riding
characteristics. It is unique in that it is designed to
carry 32 t axle loads. The slab track carries 60 kg
continuous welded rail placed on a continuous 6mm
thick rubber compound pad.
7.1.8. USA
In Colorado, near Pueblo, there is a special 8 km
long railway track for testing-the FAST track (facility
for accelerated testing). The track was designed to test
simultaneously rolling stock, track structures, rail,
sleepers, ballast, fasteners, switches, safety equipment
and maintenance methods.22
As the result of clip fall-outs on concrete ties and
some flexural cracking of concrete ties in the north-
east corridor (track between Boston and Washington
DC), several performance issues have been raised
concerning the criteria for assessing the safety of
concrete tie track. Two primary issues are tie integrity
(at what point a tie is considered to have failed) and
clip performance (how many clips are off and what
patterns can result in a wide gauge or rail buckling).
To address these issues, tests by the Federal Railway
Administration in collaboration with the Battelle
Laboratories are being conducted to determine tie
strength, tie failure modes and the vertical and lateral
strength of track. The results should provide enough
information to define the minimum safe limits of
concrete tie and fastener performance in the north-east
corridor.
The Florida East Coast Railway is experimenting
with concrete sleepers in service on an open deck
bridge. They have also installed concrete switch
sleepers on a number ten turnout near Jacksonville,
Florida.
7.1.9. South Africa
A wing sleeper has recently been developed for use
in situations where additional lateral resistance is
required, e.g. sharp curves and long bridges. Testing of
sleepers for switches is in progress with a project
concerning the use of more resilient rail pads for high-
speed trains.
7.1.10. India
An investigation was conducted by the Structural
Engineering Research Centre (SERC) in Madras to
determine the transmission length, the loss in
prestressing force, the optimum steam curing cycle, and
the cracking, ultimate and fatigue behaviour of
prestressed concrete sleepers with different prestressing
steels. In an investigation by SERC and the Research,
Design and Standardization Organization of Indian
Railways (RDSO) it was concluded that stirrups were
not needed.28
7.2 The future
Perhaps the greatest opportunity for the sleeper
producer operating the long line process is to reduce
the curing time of concrete and to cast twice daily
instead of once, thereby reducing by half the size of a
plant needed and improving return on investment. In
most places continuous work will be in progress to
develop more effective and economical production
methods. The dynamic response of the entire track
system is still not fully understood. Work should be
done to optimize the mass of the system with fastening
response to impact loads. More work is still required
to improve pad characteristics.
Concrete crossing and switch sleepers have been
tested in Sweden, the UK, West Germany and
Australia, and are being tested in Canada and the
USA. The advantages of a concrete crossing and
switch sleeper are a constant track modulus and
accurate factory set geometry. Development work is
required on frog design and geometry to reduce impact
loads and manufacturing costs.
8 CONCLUSIONS
8.1. Advantages of concrete skeper track tpdems
Recent developments show that concrete sleeper
track will not only perform under heavy axle loads but
also show distinct cost benefits in curved, high tonnage
territory and in high-speed passenger lines.3gv40 In
many countries (e.g. in Europe) the cost of a concrete
sleeper track is lower than that of a wooden sleeper
track even on the first-cost basis. Other advantages of
concrete sleeper track over wooden sleeper track fall
into four categories.
Sleeper-related advantages of concrete sleeper track
that concrete sleepers should last for 50 years
that shoulders are either cast into the sleeper or
pre-formed, so there is consistent gauge holding
and a consequent reduction in dynamic wide
gauge problems
(4 that there is no plate cutting caused by high lateral
loads, which leads to static and dynamic wide
gauge with loss of rail life on wooden sleepers
(4 a higher vertical and lateral stiffness than with
wooden sleeper track due to the greater mass of
concrete sleepers and the more determinate-yet
resilient-fastening system
(4 that longitudinal restraint is built into the system
continuously
W that there is no spike kill during rail changeout
and transposition
k) that a consistent and reproducible quality is
achievable
(h) that fewer concrete sleepers per kilometre are
required (1640 concrete sleepers as against 1930
wooden ones).
Rail-related advantages are
(a) easier and quicker rail transposition, which is very
important in high tonnage areas with short rail life
APPENDIX 1. TYPICAL SPECIFICATION FOR A QUALITY ASSURANCE SCHEME COVERING THE
PRODUCTION OF RAILWAY SLFBPERS
Qlnwyw-n
The supplier shall establish, document and maintain an
inspection system capable of $roducing objective evidence
that the sleepers conform to the specified requirements,
whether wholly manufactured or processed by the supplier or
produced by subcontractors. The supplier shall ensure that
essential inspection requirements are determined and satisfied
throughout all phases of the work.
All new developments must be tested for durability
to satisfy the requirements of climate and ever-
increasing loads. It must be ensured that there are no
unforeseen problems before installation, despite the fact
that there is no way of reproducing the track
environment in a laboratory.
Related to sleeper track is concrete slab track. Such
a track is about 24-3 times the base cost of an
ordinary sleeper track, but a growing interest can be
attributed to ever-increasing train speeds, train
frequency and higher labour costs.
(b) increased rail life-the achievement of this rail life
is a function of the complete track structure, not
just concrete sleepers; important contributions to
this increased life are good rail lubrication,
correctly profiled rail grinding and a consistent
giNlgkP
Maintenance-related advantages of concrete sleeper
track are
(4 more uniform settlement than with wooden sleeper
track which provides a smoother, safer ride for
passenger comfort43
(4 extended surface and alignment cycles which can
be reduced by one full cycle in a five-year periodJg
(4 reduced derailment frequencyJg
(4 that there is more time to run revenue trains-the
primary objective of a railway
(4 improved ride quality due to improved track
geometry.43
Another advantage is that the increased track
modulus of concrete sleeper track and the reduction of
the procession wave in the rail ahead of each wheel set
(and therefore a reduction in rolling resistance) reduces
energy consumption by a minimum of 2-3x depending
on traffic mix and tonnage.
82 conchldillg renlarkll
The large-scale use of concrete sleepers in railways
began in the 1940s. Nowadays they are used
successfully all over the world. There are still, however,
great possibilities for developing and extending the use
of concrete railway sleepers. Such progress will rely to
a considerable extent on experience in countries where
concrete sleepers have been in use for a long time,
although special consideration must always be given to
local conditions in different parts of the world.
orgallktloa
The supplier shall appoint a management qnesentative,
preferably independent. of other functions, to be responsible
for all inspection matters. He shall have the necessary
authority to execute such responsibility to the satisfaction of
the purchaser or his representative, hereinafter referred to as
the purchaser’s representative. .
CONCRETE RAILWAY SLEEPERS
Review of the quality system - Receiving
The inspection system shall be periodically and
systematically reviewed by the supplier to -ensure its
continued effectiveness. Records of the review shall be
maintained and be available to the purchaser’s
representative.
Documentation
Inspection and test procedures
The supplier shall establish and maintain clear, complete
and current written inspection and test procedures for each
inspection operation, including those relative to the
assessment of the adequacy of process controls. (Exceptions
will be allowed when such procedures form an integral part
of detailed manufacturing or process control documents, or
when a lack of written procedures will not adversely affect
product quality.)
The supplier shall identify to the purchaser’s
representative, on request, those inspection operations for
which no written procedures are provided. Criteria for
approval or rejection shall be included in all written
procedures. Inspection equipment to be used shall be
identified and its uncertainty of measurement stated.
Records
The supplier shall maintain records of all inspections and
tests performed to substantiate conformity with specified
requirements. Pertinent subcontractor records are an element
of these data. Records shall include, as appropriate,
identification of the item, the lot or batch, the nature and
number of observations made, the number and the type of
deficiencies found, the quantities approved and rejected and
the nature of any corrective action taken. Records that
substantiate conformity with the specified requirements shall
be retained for an agreed period and made available on
request.
Technical data and changes
The supplier shall ensure that the pertinent issues of
appropriate documents, including authorized changes
thereto, are available at all locations where operations
essential to the effective functioning of the inspection system
are performed.
Inspection equipment
The supplier shall be responsible for providing, controlling,
calibrating and maintaining inspection, measuring and test
equipment and services to the specified requirements.
Equipment shall be used in a manner which ensures that the
measurement uncertainty is known and is consistent with
required measurement capability. Such responsibility shall
include, as necessary, the validity of the subcontractor’s
measurement system.
Inspection of purchased material
Purchasing
The supplier shall ensure that all purchased material
conforms to specified requirements. When evidence of
conformity depends solely on inspections performed by the
subcontractor, the. supplier is responsible for ensuring that
such evidence is satisfactory and that appropriate records are
maintained. All purchasing documents and reference data
shall be available for review by the purchaser’s
representative.
Purchasing data
Each purchasing document shall contain a clear
description of the material ordered, including, as applicable,
the type, class, grade or other precise identification, and the
title or other positive identification and applicable issue of
specifications, drawings, process requirements, inspection
instructions and other relevant data.
20
inspection
The supplier shall ensure that no incoming material is used
or processed until it has been inspected or otherwise verified
as conforming to specified requirements. In determining the
amount and nature of receiving inspection, consideration
shall be given to the control exercised at source and
documented evidence of quality conformity provided.
Verljication of purchased material
The purchaser’s representative shall be afforded the right
to verify at source or after receipt that purchased material
conforms to specified requirements. Verification by the
purchaser’s representative shall not relieve the supplier of the
responsibility to provide acceptable material nor shall it
preclude subsequent rejection. When the purchaser’s
representative elects to perform verification at source the
supplier shall include, in his purchasing document, a
statement that stipulates such requirements, as directed by
the purchaser’s representative.
Workmanship
The supplier shall establish criteria for acceptable
workmanship through written standards or representative
samples. Where applicable, the supplier’s proposed standards
shall be satisfactory to the purchaser’s representative.
Corrective action
The supplier shall establish and maintain documented
procedures to provide for
(a) a continuing analysis of concessions granted and of
material scrapped, reworked, modified or otherwise
repaired to determine the cause and the corrective
action needed
(b) a continuing monitoring of processes and work
operations and analysis of records to detect and
eliminate potential causes of nonconforming material
(c) the initiation of appropriate action with subcontractors
on receipt of nonconforming material
(d) an assurance that corrective actions are effective.
Completed items inspection and test
The supplier shall perform all inspections and tests on the
finished product necessary to complete the evidence of full
conformity to specified requirements. Procedures for final
inspection and test shall ensure that inspections and tests
that should have been conducted at earlier stages have been
performed and that the data are acceptable.
Sampling procedures
Sampling procedures used by the supplier shall be in
accordance with the specified requirements or shall be
subject to agreement by the purchaser’s representative.
Control of nonconforming material
The supplier shall establish and maintain procedures for
controlling material that does not conform to the specified
requirements. These procedures shall include provision for
identification, segregation and disposition, as appropriate. All
nonconforming material shall be clearly identified to prevent
unauthorized use, shipment or mixing with conforming
material.
Holding areas or procedures, mutually agreed between the
supplier and the purchaser’s representative, shall be provided.
Repair, rework or concessions or nonconforming material
and reinspection shall be in accordance with documented
procedures. Adequate records, clearly identifying the
material, the nature and extent of nonconformity and the
disposition, shall be maintained.
Indication of inspection status
The supplier shall establish and maintain a system for