I.

Type of rocks
Rocks are not all the same!
The three main types, or classes, of rock are sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous and the
differences among them have to do with how they are formed.

Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of material.
Together, all these particles are called sediment. Gradually, the sediment accumulates in layers and
over a long period of time hardens into rock. Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may break
apart or crumble easily. You can often see sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock, and it is usually the only
type that contains fossils.

Sedimentary rocks are named as such because they were once sediment. Sediment is a
naturally occurring material that is broken down by the processes of weathering and erosion
and is subsequently naturally transported (or not). Sedimentary
rocks form through the deposition of material at the Earth’s surface and within bodies of
water.

Sedimentary rocks are quite difficult to classify, as they have several different defining
qualities (the chemical make-up, the sedimentation process, organic/inorganic material),
but the most common classification is the following:
 clastic sedimentary rocks — small rock fragments (many silicates) that were transported
and deposited by fluids (water, bed flows). These rocks are further classified by the size and
composition of the clastic crystals included in the sedimentary rocks (most often quartz,
feldspar, mica and clay).
 conglomerates (and breccias) — conglomerates are predominantly composed of rounded
gravel, while breccias are composed of angular (sharper) gravel.
 sandstones — as the name says, it’s a rock made from many-sand-sized minerals and rock
grains. The most dominant mineral in sandstone is quartz because it is the most common
mineral in the Earth’s surface crust.
 mudrocks — again, the name says it all — they’re rocks made from solidified mud. They
typically contain very fine particles and are transported as suspended particles by turbulent
flow in water or air, depositing once the flow settles.
 biochemical rocks — you’ll probably be surprised to find out that most limestone on the
face of the Earth comes from biological sources. In other words, most limestone you see
today comes from the skeletons of organisms such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera. Coal
is another example of biochemical rock.
 chemical rocks — these rocks include gypsum and salt (halite) and are formed mostly
through water evaporation

There are also other types of specific sedimentary rocks — for example, the ones formed in hot
springs. Most of the solid surface of our planet (roughly 70%) is represented by sedimentary rocks,
but if you go deep enough beneath the Earth’s surface, there are plenty of igneous and metamorphic
rocks to be found.
Some common sedimentary rocks are:

 argillite
 breccia
 chalk
 chert
 claystone
 coal
 conglomerate
 dolomite
 limestone
 gypsum
 greywacke
 mudstone
 shale
 siltstone
 turbidite

Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks are formed under the surface of the earth from the metamorphosis (change) that
occurs due to intense heat and pressure (squeezing). The rocks that result from these processes often
have ribbonlike layers and may have shiny crystals, formed by minerals growing slowly over time, on
their surface.

These are rocks that underwent a metamorphosis; they changed. They were either
sedimentary or igneous (or even metamorphic), and they changed so much, that they are
fundamentally different from the initial rock.
There are two types of metamorphism (change) that can cause this:

 contact metamorphism (or thermal metamorphism) — rocks are so close to magma that
they start to partially melt and change their properties. You can have recrystallization, fusing
between crystals and a lot of other chemical reactions. Temperature is the main driver here.
 regional metamorphism (or dynamic metamorphism) — this typically happens when
rocks are deep underground and they are subjected to massive pressure — so much so that
they often become elongated, destroying the original features. Pressure (often times with
temperature) is the main driver here.

Metamorphic rocks can have crystals and minerals from the initial rocks as well as new
minerals resulting from the metamorphosis process. However, some minerals are clear
indicators of a metamorphic process. Among these, the most usual ones are garnet, chlorite,
and kyanite.

Equally as significant are changes in the chemical environment that result in two
metamorphic processes: mechanical dislocation (the rock or some minerals are physically
altered) and chemical recrystallization (when the temperature and pressure changes, some
crystals aren’t stable, causing them to change into other crystals).
 They can be divided into many categories, but they are typically split into:

 Foliated metamorphic rocks — pressure squeezes or elongates the crystals, resulting in

a clear preferential alignment.
 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks — the crystals have no preferential alignment. Some
rocks, such as limestone, are made of minerals that simply don’t elongate, no matter how
much stress you apply.
Metamorphic rocks can form in different conditions, in different temperatures (up to 200 °C)
and pressures (up to 1500 bars). By being buried deep enough for a long enough time, a rock
will become metamorphic. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental
collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion; they can also form when
the rock is heated up by the intrusion of magma from the Earth’s interior.
The most common metamorphic rocks are:

 amphibolite
 schist (blueschist, greenschist, micaschist, etc)
 eclogite
 gneiss
 hornfels
 marble
 migmatite
 phyllite
 quartzite
 serpentinite
 slate

Igneous
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (molten rock deep within the earth) cools and hardens.
Sometimes the magma cools inside the earth, and other times it erupts onto the surface from volcanoes
(in this case, it is called lava). When lava cools very quickly, no crystals form and the rock looks shiny
and glasslike. Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the cooling process, leaving tiny
holes and spaces in the rock.

Magma is the heart of any igneous rock. Magma is composed of a mixture of molten or semi-
molten rock, along with gases and other volatile elements. As you go deeper underground,
the temperature rises; go further and you’ll eventually reach the Earth’s mantle —
a huge layer of magma surrounding the Earth’s core.

As you probably know, when magma cools, it turns into rock; if it cools while still
underground at high temperatures (but at temperatures still lower than that of the magma),
the cooling process will be slow, giving crystals time to develop. That’s why you see rocks
such as granite with big crystals — the magma had time to cool off.
 However, if the magma erupts or is cooled rapidly, you instead get a volcanic rock –– not really
igneous, but also originating from lava. The classical example here is basalt, which can have
many small crystals or very few large ones. Volcanic rocks are also called extrusive igneous rocks, as
opposed to intrusive igneous rocks. Some volcanic rocks (like obsidian) don’t have any crystals at
all.

Not all magma is made equally: different magmas can have different chemical compositions,
different quantities of gases and different temperature — and different types of magma
make different types of rocks. That’s why you get incredible variety. There are over 700
hundred types of igneous rocks, and they are generally the hardest and heaviest of all rocks.
However, volcanic rocks can be incredibly lightweight –– pumice, for example, can even float,
and was called by ancient sailors “the foam of the sea”. Pumice is created when a volcano
violently erupts, creating pockets of air in the rock. The most common types of igneous rocks
are:
 andesite
 basalt
 dacite
 dolerite (also called diabase)
 gabbro
 diorite
 peridotite
 nepheline
 obsidian
 scoria
 tuff
 volcanic bomb

II. classification of Aggregates

Aggregates form an essential part of many construction projects, from large-scale

commercial to smaller domestic works. Whether you need aggregates to form a sub-base
for foundations or paving, decorative aggregates for driveways and footpaths – or simply
need something to fill in unsightly holes – you should know which kind of aggregates
will work best.

Classification of aggregates based on: Grain Size

If you separate aggregates by size, there are two overriding categories:
 Fine
 Coarse
The size of fine aggregates is defined as 4.75mm or smaller. That is, aggregates which
can be passed through a number 4 sieve, with a mesh size of 4.75mm. Fine aggregates
include things such as sand, silt and clay. Crushed stone and crushed gravel might also
fall under this category.
Typically, fine aggregates are used to improve workability of a concrete mix.
Coarse aggregates measure above the 4.75mm limit. These are more likely to be
natural stone or gravel that has not been crushed or processed. These aggregates will
reduce the amount of water needed for a concrete mix, which may also reduce
workability but improve its innate strength.

Classification of aggregates based on: Density

There are three weight-based variations of aggregates:
 Lightweight
 Standard
 High density
Different density aggregates will have much different applications. Lightweight and ultra
lightweight aggregates are more porous than their heavier counterparts, so they can be
put to great use in green roof construction, for example. They are also used in mixes for
concrete blocks and pavements, as well as insulation and fireproofing.
High density aggregates are used to form heavyweight concrete. They are used for
when high strength, durable concrete structures are required – building foundations or
pipework ballasting, for example.

Classification of aggregates based on: Geographical

Origin
Another way to classify aggregates is by their origin. You can do this with two groups:
 Natural – Aggregates taken from natural sources, such as riverbeds, quarries
and mines. Sand, gravel, stone and rock are the most common, and these can
be fine or coarse.
 Processed – Also called ‘artificial aggregates’, or ‘by-product’ aggregates, they
are commonly taken from industrial or engineering waste, then treated to form
construction aggregates for high quality concrete. Common processed
aggregates include industrial slag, as well as burnt clay. Processed aggregates
are used for both lightweight and high-density concrete mixes.

Classification of aggregates based on: Shape

Shape is one of the most effective ways of differentiating aggregates. The shape of your
chosen aggregates will have a significant effect on the workability of your concrete.
Aggregates purchased in batches from a reputable supplier can be consistent in shape,
if required, but you can also mix aggregate shapes if you need to.
The different shapes of aggregates are:
 Rounded – Natural aggregates smoothed by weathering, erosion and attrition.
Rocks, stone, sand and gravel found in riverbeds are your most common
rounded aggregates. Rounded aggregates are the main factor behind workability.
 Irregular – These are also shaped by attrition, but are not fully rounded. These
consist of small stones and gravel, and offer reduced workability to rounded
aggregates.
 Angular – Used for higher strength concrete, angular aggregates come in the
form of crushed rock and stone. Workability is low, but this can be offset by filling
voids with rounded or smaller aggregates.
 Flaky – Defined as aggregates that are thin in comparison to length and width.
Increases surface area in a concrete mix.
 Elongated – Also adds more surface area to a mix – meaning more cement paste
is needed. Elongated aggregates are longer than they are thick or wide.
 Flaky and elongated – A mix of the previous two – and the least efficient form of
aggregate with regards to workability.

Knowing the various aggregate classifications is a good starting point when planning a concrete
construction project. If you’re in need of specific advice for the kind of aggregates required for
your needs, it helps to talk to the pros. A reliable aggregates supplier will be able to provide the
perfect selection of aggregates for your project, ensuring they meet the quality requirements to
form an integral part of your concrete mix.

III. Weathering/Reduction into smaller sizes

IV. Types of Aggregates
Aggregates are an important part of a wide range of
construction applications, used in domestic and
commercial projects alike, and they make up a
huge part of the composition of materials such as
concrete and cement. Aggregates are, by definition,
a collection of loose materials such as sand, gravel
and crushed stone. They are sourced from
quarries, pits and even from materials taken from
the sea in some countries. Ready mixed concrete is
made from around 80% aggregates, and asphalt
consists of 95% aggregates.
 TYPE 1: GRANITE AGGREGATES

This is the best aggregate for high-grade concrete, and as it comes in a variety of shades,
like grey, red and pink, it can also be used as a decorative feature. Granite itself is
composed of feldspar, quartz and mica crystals, which dictate the colour of the stone.
TYPE 1: LIMESTONE AGGREGATES

Limestone aggregates are creating through the crushing of sedimentary rock. This type of
aggregate is one of the most commonly used in road construction and reinforced concrete
aside from granite and gravel.
GRAVEL/BALLAST AGGREGATES

Gravel aggregates are sourced by sifting quarried rock and crushing natural stone. Gravel
aggregates don’t possess as much strength as their granite counterparts, but they are often
cheaper to purchase. Another, somewhat niche, but nevertheless positive quality is that it
has a low radioactive content. Gravel aggregates are used for foundations and concretes, as
well as products made of reinforced concrete and materials used in road construction.
There are two types of gravel aggregates:
 Scrabbled stone – regular, natural or crushed
 Gravel – rounded pebbles usually from river or sea origin
SECONDARY AGGREGATES

Obtained by crushing construction waste (concrete, bricks and asphalt), secondary

aggregates are designed as an effective, low cost option to other materials. It is
approximately two times cheaper than granite, but it is not as strong as its costlier
counterpart. However, secondary aggregates have a wide range of uses: a large scale filler
for concretes with strengths of 5-20 MPa, road construction, maintenance works (used
under asphalted areas and pavements) and for reinforcing weak soils.
SAND

Sand is used to provide bulk and strength for materials like asphalt and concrete, as well as
being used for decorative purposes. Sand combines with water and other aggregates to
form the solid, durable concrete that is used in countless applications all over the world. It
also plays a key role in the binding agent in asphalt, transporting it throughout the mix.
V. Different Quality Control Test to be conducted prior to acceptance (ASTM # and AASHTO code).

Mades, N. (2015). Top 6 Important Quality Test of Concrete. Retrieved from

https://www.qualityengineersguide.com/top-6-important-quality-tests-of-concrete
Annenberg Learner (2019). Types of Rocks. Retrieved from
https://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/types.html

Easy Mix Concrete (2019). Types of Aggregates. Retrieved from

https://www.easymixconcrete.com/news/types-of-aggregates/

Hintons (2018). Classification of Aggregates. Retrieved from

https://www.hintonswaste.co.uk/news/classification-of-aggregates/

Mihai, A. (2015). The Types of Rock. Retrieved from https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-

abc/types-of-rock/