Materials Science and Engineering, 68 (1984-1985) 197-206
P l a s t i c Deformation under Simultaneous
L o w and Ultrasonic Frequencies
H, O. K. KIRCHNER*, W. K. KROMP*, F. B. PRINZ and P. TRIMMEL
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 (U.S.A.)
(Received December 28, 1983; in revised form July 26, 1984)
ABSTRACT
Whenever cyclic strain is superimposed on
unidirectional loading, the inherent asym-
metry of plastic deformation causes an ap-
parent decrease in the externally observable
load. This facilitation of deformation can be
spectacular at ultrasonic frequencies. Since
ultrasound is used for both materials testing
and metal forming, the actual stresses reached
within the samples must be of concern. The
stress dip might be caused by strain-induced
recovery, by microstructural changes or by
elastic stress relaxation. Aluminum alloy
samples were simultaneously exposed to
static and vibratory loading at 0.5, 1, 10, 50
and 20 000 Hz. No frequency influence was
observed at room temperature. The stress dip
is caused by elastic relaxation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The potential of ultrasonic vibrations in
materials testing and metal forming has been
discussed for m a n y years. Recently, ASTM has
started the development of standardized prac-
tices for ultrasonic fatigue-testing technolo-
gies. While the advantages of this technique
are obvious (up to 1 0 9 fatigue cycles can be
performed within a period of a few hours}, its
validity in indicating material quality needs
further clarification. This is particularly true
since ultrasonic vibrations have also been used
as a means for the facilitation of plastic flow
of metals. Microstructural changes such as
strain-induced recovery of dislocation struc-
tures due to high frequency vibrations might
*On leave of absence from the Department of Solid
State Physics, University of Vienna, A-1090 Boltz-
manngasse 5, Austria.
0025-5416/85/$3.30
197
Cyclic and Unidirectional Loading at
be attributed to the enhanced metal-forming
rate. At the same time, it could be imagined
that this rearrangement might also lead to a
misinterpretation of the ultrasonic fatigue
data in materials testing.
If metal-forming processes are performed
under superimposed ultrasonic vibration, the
mean stress level necessary to maintain plastic
flow decreases appreciably in comparison
with that for purely static deformation [1].
This apparent softening of metals during
simultaneous mechanical deformation and
high frequency loading could have important
practical applications in, for example, wire
drawing, compaction or other processes in-
volving some forming [2-4]. After cessation
of insonation the force necessary to continue
plastic flow attains the value that would have
been reached if insonation had not occurred.
The effect has been observed in single crystals
and polycrystals of zinc, aluminum, steel,
copper and tantalum [5-7]. Rather than some
physical effect such as the interaction of the
ultrasonic waves with dislocations, the simple
superposition of steady and alternating stresses
as a mechanism for causing the apparent load
decrease has been suggested [8-10]. The over-
views of Dawson et el. [10] and Eaves et el.
[11] should be consulted.
Figure 1 shows how dramatic this effect can
be. An hourglass-shaped specimen of alumi-
num (diameter, 0.25 in; approximate length,
3 in) was tested in compression at a strain rate
of 1 X 10 -4 s-1. Following the elastic line the
yield stress of 400 MPa is reached at A.
Shortly after the onset of plastic flow the
specimen is subjected at B to ultrasonic reso-
nance at approximately 20 kHz. Immediately
the stress level drops to 250 MPa (point C)
and increases only slightly as both the static
and the dynamic tests are continued. When
the ultrasonic excitation is discontinued at D,
© Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands
198

.6

or" J
(GPa)
E

/
/
/
B/

.3
G

CD

.2

.1

| i i i I $
100 s time
Fig. 1. C o m p r e s s i o n test o f an hourglass-shaped a l u m i n u m alloy 6061 s p e c i m e n . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e static loading
at a strain rate o f 1 × 10 -4 s-1 t h e s p e c i m e n is in r e s o n a n c e w i t h a d o u b l e r e s o n a t o r at b o t h ends, t h e r e b y subject-
ing it t o cyclic loading at 20 kHz. When the d y n a m i c loading is s w i t c h e d on at B, the m e a n stress m e a s u r e d
e x t e r n a l l y o n a load cell d r o p s t o C. A f t e r cessation o f i n s o n a t i o n at D the s p e c i m e n follows an elastic line t o E,
w h e r e it reaches the static s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve. A t F t h e e x p e r i m e n t is r e p e a t e d .

the specimen again follows an elastic line until
it reaches at E the stress-strain curve that it
would have followed in a purely static test
(shown as a broken line). At F the ultrasound
is superimposed again, the stress level drops to
300 MPa (point G), which lies above C exactly
the same a m o u n t that F lies above B. At H
the ultrasound is again discontinued, the
specimen follows an elastic line and, after
having reached the static stress-strain curve at
J, continues along it. It should be noted that
the mean stress level is reduced by approxi-
mately 40% from B to C and from F to G.
The question remains as to whether the ob-
served effect (a) is trivial and consists merely
in repeated unloading of the specimen, (b) is
a genuine fatigue effect that changes the dis-
location structure and thereby the plastic
flow properties, (c) merely consists in heating
the specimen or (d) in wire drawing is tri-
bological and involves the sliding of the metal
against the horn. With the appreciable interest
in ultrasonic testing that has arisen during the
last few years, it might be expected that the
application of ultrasonic techniques to manu-
facturing, especially to metal forming [2] or
compaction processes [4], would attract in-
terest as well. In order to assess potential
application a better understanding of the
physical principles involved is required first.
Quantitative investigations of the effect so
far have been impeded by the fact that it is
extremely difficult, even almost impossible,
to determine the stress level inside the speci-
 199

men which is resonating within the ultrasonic

field [12, 13]. This is because in an elastic-
plastic material with no hardening the stress
distribution within the specimen is inhomo-
geneous. Moreover, the ultrasonic frequency
exceeds the frequency response of mechanical
extensometers, so that even measurement of
the plastic strain is difficult. What can be mea-
sured is the mean overall stress, and the effect
consists precisely in the fact that the mean
load (averaged over time and specimen
volume) under static plus dynamic loading
can be dramatically lower than under static
conditions.
This seems to suggest that this type of
effect should be investigated at low frequen-
cies, where loading can be done without
driving the specimen into resonance. In servo-
hydraulic closed-loop testing machines, defor-
mation is homogeneous within the specimen
and load, strain and stress are easily monitored. Fig. 2. E q u i p m e n t for simultaneous static low and
high f r e q u e n c y fatigue loading. The specimen is
In the following we report tests on various
insonated from both ends through externally driven
aluminum alloys performed at ultrasonic piezoelectric transducers. The load cell at the top of
frequencies (20 kHz), medium frequencies the figure measures the overall load.
(10 and 50 Hz) and low frequencies (0.5 and
1 Hz).

2. LOW A N D M E D I U M F R E Q U E N C I E S

The experimental set-up [14-16] which

can be used for exposing the sample simul-
taneously to low and high frequency vibra- (a)
tions is shown in Fig. 2.
The tests were started in the static mode
with a strain rate d of I X 10 -4 s-1. After the
onset of plastic flow, sinusoidal block load-
ings of various frequencies and amplitudes
were superimposed on the static program, so
that specimens were subjected to the strain
history shown in Fig. 3(a). During and be-
tween block loadings, static tests were con-
tinued. The strain history (b)
Fig. 3. A sinusoidal strain program is superimposed
e(t) = dot + A sin(2zrvt) (I) on the static loading, which causes a discontinuity of
corresponds to the strain rate history the strain rate at the start of each loading block (in
principle, such loading sequences should be repre-
~(t) = e0 + 2~rAu cos(27rut) (2) sentative of ultrasonic insonation superimposed on
the static loading): (a) strain history; (b) strain rate
given in Fig. 3(b). history.

2.1. L o w f r e q u e n c i e s 62.5 X 1 0 -4, 125 X 10 -4, 250 X 10 .4 and 500 X

The strain rate program of eqn. (2) was 1 0 -4 and frequencies v of 0.5 and 1 Hz. This
executed with strain rate amplitudes A of amounts to temporary strain rate changes by
6.25 x 10 -4, 12.5 X 10 -4, 25 x 10 -4, 50 X 10 -4, a factor of 6.25-500. All loading blocks were
200

(]) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

o"
[ l--
[GPa)
.3

I '

100 s Time

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

p (Hz) 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.5 1

A (× 10-4) 2.5 5 5 10 25 50 100
N 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
(a)
.4
First Cycles
H H ~
(GPa)
i l

1 2 3 4 5 6 Strain (%) ~ 9
(b)
Fig. 4. (a) Stress-time curve for an aluminum alloy 6061 specimen subjected to sinusoidal loading blocks of
N = 50 cycles at the indicated frequencies and amplitudes. After each loading block the elastic line is resumed.
(b) Stress-strain curve for the same specimen and the same test, The large plastic strains accumulated during the
first quarter-cycle of each loading should be noted.

held f o r 50 or 1 0 0 cycles. A H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d h o w e v e r , t h e resulting stress-strain curves are

3 3 1 4 A f u n c t i o n g e n e r a t o r was used [ 16 ], a n d
t h e p e r f e c t o n s e t a n d o f f s e t o f t h e sine signals
were m o n i t o r e d . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t this
t y p e o f l o a d i n g p r o g r a m is similar t o t h a t en-
visaged f o r u l t r a s o n i c a t t e n u a t i o n u n d e r uni-
axial load. A t t h e l o w f r e q u e n c i e s e m p l o y e d ,
easily registered o n a c h a r t recorder. Simul-
t a n e o u s l y t h e stress h i s t o r y o(t) is f o l l o w e d on
a n o t h e r c h a r t recorder.
Figure 4(a) s h o w s t h e resulting stress his-
t o r y . T h e o n s e t a n d length o f t h e loading
b l o c k s are indicated b y arrows. In general, the
 201

m a x i m u m stress (9max reached during dynamic As can be seen more clearly in Fig. 4(b)
deformation follows the purely static stress- than in Fig. 4(a), oma~ is not reached im-
time curve, although it exceeds it slightly by mediately during the first few cycles of each
an a m o u n t equal to areas -- Ostatic (where loading block, but rather after a strain of
(/static is the static stress). During the block approximately 1% has been accumulated. This
loadings the stress follows 6 + Ao where ~ + transient of a few cycles starts, in fact, at the
Ao OmaX and 0 -- Ao = Omin (~ is the mean
= stress level that had been reached previously
stress and omin the minimum stress). After at the static strain rate e0. The results of tests
each block loading, a new elastic line starts at on rapidly solidified and compacted powder
and is followed up to the previously reached aluminum alloys 7090 and 7091 are shown in
stress level, at which the static curve is re- Fig. 5. The results are similar to those for
sumed. During the last loading block the aluminum alloy 6061.
specimen actually went into compression,
which could not be fully recorded.
The stress-strain curve of Fig. 4(b) shows
that the cycles within each loading block fol- 2.2. Medium frequencies
low elastic lines. The onsets of the dynamic The strain rate program of eqn. (2) was also
blocks are marked as before. Unlike the situa- run at frequencies v of 10 and 50 Hz but, be-
tion in the time-based chart, the remarkably cause of the decreased machine response at
large strain accumulated during the first cycle those frequencies, at slightly smaller ampli-
of each block is indicated by bars and is tudes. At these speeds the pen recorders could
clearly visible. The strain accumulated during only follow the mean stress and not the actual
the tension phase of the first few cycles corre- stress any more. The actual stress was mea-
sponds to the chosen amplitude A. During the sured on an oscilloscope. The behaviors of
unloading of the first few cycles the specimen both aluminum alloy and the rapidly solidi-
relaxes elastically to the previously reached fied powder aluminum alloys 7090 and 7091
static strains. are the same as at low frequencies.

0-~ "8

(GPa) !

.6

.4 /
tl) t~) t3) t~) t3) [07 t#) to) t';)

|/ /

I .. ..... I
1
I
2
|
3
i
4
I
5
I
6 7
I ~ i
S t r a i n (%)
i
10
111

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

u (Hz) 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.5

A (× 10 -4 ) 2.5 5 5 10 5 2.5 10 5 10
N 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Fig. 5. S t r e s s - s t r a i n curve for static plus s u p e r i m p o s e d d y n a m i c loading in sinusoidal blocks. As for Fig. 4(b) but
for rapidly solidified p o w d e r a l u m i n u m alloy 7090 and 7091.
202

1 2 3

Or
/m 7091
(GPa)

1 2 3 4 1 2 A

.4

6061

A 1 2 3 1 3 1 2 4 1 3 1 2 4

.1

1 2 3 4 5 Strain (%) 8 9

Fig. 6. Stress-strain curve for aluminum alloy 6061 and rapidly solidified powder aluminum alloys 7090 and
7091. The static strain rate is 1 × 10-4 S-I; ultrasonic strain oscillations of the indicated amplitudes in arbitrary
units are superimposed. The clip-on strain gauge can follow only the accumulating static strain; the load cell can
follow only the mean static stress.

2.3. Ultrasonic frequencies asiatic -- a in t h e m e d i u m load are t o be

A t ultrasonic f r e q u e n c i e s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
20 kHz, t h e strain c o u l d still be m o n i t o r e d o n
a clip gauge, b u t this device is n o t capable o f
resolving t h e elastic r e l a x a t i o n s a n y m o r e .
What remains visible is t h e c o n t i n u o u s l y
a d d e d strain because o f the static test c o m p o -
n e n t . T h e actual stresses p r e s e n t can no longer
b e registered, b u t t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e m e a n
stress o n t h e strain is s h o w n in Fig. 6.
3. DISCUSSION
3.1. Overshoot
T h e q u e s t i o n arises as t o h o w t h e over-
s h o o t s amax -- Gstatic and t h e decrease
u n d e r s t o o d . L e t us consider first an ideally
plastic material with n o w o r k hardening, in
which t h e plastic limit is (Fig. 7(a)) inde-
p e n d e n t o f t h e strain rate. Once this limit is
r e a c h e d b y static loading at t h e beginning o f
t h e test, t h e positive p a r t o f t h e s u p e r i m p o s e d
sinusoidal strain leads to an increase in strain
but, b y definition, t o n o additional stress.
When u n l o a d i n g is carried o u t , a new elastic
line is f o l l o w e d . With b l o c k loading a r a t c h e t -
ing p a t t e r n o f elastic unloadings develops
(Fig. 7(b)). This p a t t e r n resembles t h e results
o f Figs. 4(b) a n d 5. L e t us n e x t consider an
elastic-plastic material with n o w o r k harden-
ing in which, h o w e v e r (see Fig. 7(c)), the plas-
tic limit is strain rate d e p e n d e n t . T h e limit

/ /////
(a) (b)
•~
gQ
(e) (d)
Fig. 7. (a) Stress-strain curve of an ideally elastic-
plastic material for which the stress is strain rate
i n d e p e n d e n t ; (b) if a dynamic oscillatory load is
superimposed on the static strain which increases
linearly in time then the plastic stress c a n n o t be
e x c e e d e d in the loading cycles but is relaxed
elastically during the unloading cycles; (c) stress-
strain curve of an ideally elastic-plastic material for
which the stress is strain rate d e p e n d e n t ; (d) for the
strain-rate-dependent material of (c) a superimposed
oscillatory strain leads to an increase in stress, where-
as the specimen relaxes elastically during the un-
loading cycles as for (a).
reached during the static test corresponds to
go where say, O(go) = (/1- If we were to in-
crease the strain rate to a value of, say, el
then we would obtain a stress jump to ( / =
(/(gl), and
(/o \go!
where n is the strain rate sensitivity param-
eter. With the sinusoidal program of eqn. (2)
t h a t we employed, the specimen undergoes a
strain rate change from go to go ÷ 2~Av dur-
ing the first quarter-wave of each block load-
ing cycle. According to eqn. (3) we should
therefore expect a stress jump from o(g0) to
(/(go ÷ 21rAv). With no work hardening a
stress-strain behavior as shown in Fig. 7(d) is
to be expected. Any actual work hardening
of the specimen is superimposed on the
stress-strain curve at both strain rates. The
specimen simply follows the strain rate sensi-
tivity equation
203
5(/ _ (/max - - (/static
(/static (/static
=nln[l+ I go / (4)
The required plots are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
In view of the scatter in the small overshoots
60, the correlation seems reasonable. The n
value obtained for aluminum alloy 6061 is
4.3 × 10 -3 = 1/230 and for both the rapidly
solidified powder aluminum alloys 7090 and
7091 it is 4 × 10 -3 = 1/250. Static tests with
static strain rate changes gave n equal to
(8 + 2) × 10 -3 for aluminum alloy 6061 and
n equal to (13.5 + 2) × 10 -3 for the rapidly
solidified powder aluminum alloys. The lower
strain rate responses that we recorded in the
dynamic tests may be explained by the fact
that either the recorder or the specimen in the
loading train itself might not be able to follow
the cycle fully.
The transients observed during the first few
cycles of each loading block seem to arise be-
cause only during the first quarter-cycle of
the loading block is the specimen subjected
plastically to the new strain rate go + 27rAy.
When the same strain rate is reached again
during the second cycle, as the specimen has
meanwhile undergone an additional plastic
strain of go v, it then experiences a strain rate
of go + 27rA~, this time in an elastic condition.
The specimen starts to deform plastically only
when the e(t) curve (Fig. 3(a)) of the second
cycle surpasses the m a x i m u m of the second
cycle, where g(t) is stationary and near go.
According to the strain rate sensitivity equa-
tion, eqn. (3), the associated stress should be
near Ostatic in the second cycle.
After a plastic strain of the order of 1% has
been accomplished, apparently the stress and
the strain rate get into phase and the stress
level appropriate for the fully dynamic strain
rate go + 27rAy is attained.
3.2. Mean stress decrease
During the second quarter of the first cycle
the strain which is forced dynamically during
the first quarter of the first cycle is recovered
elastically. Because the strain achieved during
the first cycle is A + go/4v, the associated
load decrease is
204

n=4.3 x 1621/233
.05

.04 6061

d c~/o

.03

.02

.Ol

(a) I I I I I I I
10 10s 108 104 106 106 101
~ I l I I I I I
In(l+2 u #A/~o)

10

Ego

10~

10a

104

106

106

20 kHz \

( b ) lo ~

Fig. 8. L o g a r i t h m i c s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d u r i n g d y n a m i c s i n u s o i d a l l o a d i n g w i t h a m p l i t u d e A a n d f r e q u e n c y v s u p e r -
i m p o s e d o n a s t a t i c t e s t w i t h a s t r a i n r a t e e0 ( t h e s t r a i n r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y n o b t a i n e d f o r a l u m i n u m a l l o y is 1 / 2 3 0 ;
it s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e u l t r a s o n i c t e s t s lead t o s t r a i n r a t e s w h i c h are l a r g e r b y a f a c t o r o f 1 0 0 0 ) ; ( b ) t h e
d e c r e a s e in t h e m e a n s t r e s s : I, v = 0.5 Hz a n d p = 1 H z ; I , p = 10 H z a n d v = 50 Hz. T h i s f i g u r e a l l o w s t h e s t r e s s
i n c r e a s e s w h i c h are u n m e a s u r a b l e at t h o s e f r e q u e n c i e s t o be d e d u c e d f r o m t h e u l t r a s o n i c a l l y m e a s u r a b l e d e c r e a s e
in t h e m e a n stress.
 205

With eqn. (4), after division by nOstatic, we

obtain

.05 - -~ O + Ostatic - -

nOstatie nOstatie
d (Y/cY

.04
47rPnOstatic 2
As, on the left-hand side, 5o < Ostatic - -
.03 rt=3.9 x 10"--31/256 and, on the right-hand side, r / 2 -- 1
/
e x p ( 5 o / n O s t a t i c ) w e therefore have
7090,7091 /

.02
.01
//
1'0
ln(l* 2n'v~/~-.o}
Fig. 9. S a m e as f o r Fig. 8, b u t f o r r a p i d l y s o l i d i f i e d
and compacted aluminum alloys 7090 and 7091.
Ed° ~I 4Au 1
2((/m~ -- 5) = [~ + ~oo"
Figure 8(b) shows the required plot, where
for convenience we used In(1 + 2~rAu/do) in-
stead of In(1 + 4Av/go) on the abscissa. This
corresponds to a shift of the curve by In(u/2)
to the left. It can be seen that eqn. (5) is in-
deed obeyed.
3. 3. Overshoot of ultrasonic frequencies
For low frequencies, both the mean stress
level O and the overshoot
(/max -- ~ : 5 0 -~- Ostatic - - ~
are experimentally accessible. At ultrasonic
frequencies, only 5 can be measured, but the
actual stress and strain situation within the
elastic-plastic specimen is not k n o w n and
therefore the strain amplitude A is also not
known. Under the assumption t h a t there is
no frequency dependence of the effects in-
volved, combination of eqns. (5) and (6) gives
60 - - n l n { 2 ( O s t a t i c - - O)} + n
1 (9)
(/static n\E~o/
For any material the elastic modulus E, the
static strain rate go and the strain rate sensi-
tivity n can be obtained in quasi-static tests.
If the stress ostatic before ultrasonic loading
i
and the mean stress level 0 with simultaneous
,08 ultrasonic and static loading are measured,
eqn. (9) provides the possibility of computing
the stress level go + Ostatie t h a t is actually
reached.
Essentially the decrease in the externally
observable mean stress during ultrasonic at-
tenuation indicates only the elastic relaxation
of the specimen during the unloading cycles.
(5) The reason for the stress decrease is the irre-
versibflity of plastic deformation: an increase
in the strain rate slightly increases the stress,
but the following decrease fully relaxes the
specimen elastically to a much lower stress. On
average, therefore, the stress appears to be
lower.
Equation (9), together with Fig. 8, allows
us to find the m a x i m u m stress developed
during the ultrasonic test of Fig. 1. There the
stress decrease (/static - - ~ equals 0.4(/static.
Moreover, (/static = 500 MPa = E/140 on the
(6) assumption that E = 70 GPa. For a basic
strain rate eo of 1 × 10 -4 s-1 and an ultrasonic
frequency v of 2 × 104 Hz, 8((/static - - O)P]
Ei0 = 4 × 106 corresponding to a relative
stress increase do/(/of 0.07. It is concluded
that during this test a m a x i m u m stress Oma,
of approximately 1.07(/static was reached, in
spite of the fact that only the low mean stress
of 0 . 6 O s t a t i c W a s observable.

(/max -- ~ : ~(/ -~ (/static - - 3.4. Dynamic recovery

The repeated elastic unloadings, which
_ E do (2rruA + 1 + - -- (7) a m o u n t e d to a few hundred for the low and
2 21ru\ go 2 medium frequencies and to a few millions
206
for the ultrasonic tests, had no appreciable
effect on the shape of the stress-strain curve.
At room temperature for both aluminum
alloy and the rapidly solidified powder alumi-
num alloys there is little hardening in any case
and any recovery would be hardly noticeable.
However, a kind of superdynamic recovery
during superimposed ultrasonic loadings at
higher temperatures, where normal dynamic
recovery becomes noticeable, could be en-
visaged. Dynamic recovery consists of the
softening of the dislocation movement. Ob-
viously, dislocation movement is increased
markedly by the ultrasonic fatigue super-
imposed on the static tests. Whatever the pro-
cesses effecting dynamic recovery are,
whether they are pipe or volume diffusion,
they should be just as effective in response to
the additional cyclic dislocation movement.
In contradistinction to dynamic recovery pro-
duced by unidirectional deformation, this
effect might be called superdynamic recovery
but should only become noticeable in tem-
perature regions where dynamic recovery is
observed as well. This idea can be reduced to
the argument that, although hardening is pro-
portional to strain, softening could be pro-
portional to the accumulated cyclic strain,
resulting in superdynamic recovery. The en-
hanced densification rate of metal powders
with superimposed ultrasonic vibrations might
originate from such a recovery effect.
4. CONCLUSIONS
(1) The load response during plastic flow
following the application of ultrasonic vibra-
tions can be explained within the framework
of elastic-plastic behavior of the material
under uniaxial deformation.
(2) No major microstructural changes (re-
arrangement of dislocation structures) are
expected to occur in the lower temperature
(less than one-half of the melting temperature
of the material) regimes.
(3) Conclusions (1) and (2) support current
efforts in recommending destructive ultra-
sonic testing as a time-saving method for
characterizing the fatigue behavior of metals
up to extremely high numbers of cycles.
(4) Further experiments need to be per-
formed in order to understand the impact of
vibrations at elevated temperatures where
remarkable changes in the deformation re-
sistance during powder compaction were
reported.
(5) The above analysis has been carried out
only for aluminum alloys. Experiments with
other materials, especially those with a differ-
ent lattice structure, appear to be necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
H. O. K. Kirchner and W. K. Kromp are
grateful for support by the Max Kade Foun-
dation. The project was financed by the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.
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