B1 Module 8 Aerodynamics PDF

Training Manual
PART 66 – Basic Training

Cat B1 – Module 8
Basic Aerodynamics
Basic Aerodynamics PART 66 – Basic Training
Table of Contents Cat B1 – Module 8
Table of Contents
8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ................................................. 3
8.1.1 The Atmosphere .............................................................. 3
8.1.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 3
8.1.1.2 Composition of the Atmosphere ............................................. 5
8.1.1.3 Atmospheric Pressure ............................................................ 6
8.1.1.4 International Standard Atmosphere ........................................ 6
8.1.1.5 Application to Aerodynamics .................................................. 7
8.2 Aerodynamics ....................................................................... 8
8.2.1 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics ...................................... 8
8.2.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 8
8.2.1.2 Kinetic, Potential and Total Energy ........................................ 8
8.2.1.3 Air Pressure ............................................................................ 9
8.2.1.4 Aerodynamics of the Airfoil ................................................... 11
8.2.1.5 Airfoil Contamination............................................................. 27
8.3 Theory of Flight .................................................................. 29
8.3.1 Fixed--Wing Aircraft ....................................................... 29
8.3.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 29
8.3.1.2 Forces Acting in Flight .......................................................... 29
8.3.1.3 Steady State Flight ............................................................... 31
8.3.1.4 Gliding ................................................................................... 33
8.3.1.5 Climbing ................................................................................ 34
8.3.1.6 Theory of the Turn ................................................................ 35
8.3.1.7 Load Factor, Stall, Flight Envelope and Structural Limitations
36
8.3.1.8 Lift Augmentation ................................................................. 40
8.4 Flight Stability and Dynamics ............................................ 44
8.4.1 Stability of Aircraft.......................................................... 44
8.4.1.1 Types of Stability .................................................................. 44
8.4.1.2 Static Stability ....................................................................... 47
8.4.1.3 Dynamic Stability .................................................................. 48
8.4.1.4 Degree of Stability ................................................................ 48
For Training Purposes Only Page 2 of 49

Physics of the Atmosphere Cat B1 – Module 8
8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

8.1.1 The Atmosphere
8.1.1.1 Introduction
The atmosphere is a mass of air which surrounds the earth and

extends from the earth’s surface out to several hundreds of kilometres
with no definite outer boundary. The atmosphere is the basis of all life
on our planet and a prerequisite for flight, because it allows the
generation of lift.
Gravity holds the atmosphere against the earth’s surface and forces it
to follow its rotation. Its pressure and density decrease with
increasing height.
There are five separate areas known in the atmosphere:

 the troposphere
 the stratosphere
 the mesosphere
 the thermosphere
 the exosphere.
Figure 1: Layers of the Atmosphere
Most conventional flying takes place within the troposphere.

The Troposphere in some places reaching up to 90 km, except at middle and high
latitudes in summer where it descends to heights below 80 km.
The troposphere, extends from the earth’s surface to a height of
16,800 m above the equator and up to 8,500 m above the poles. The
height difference results from temperature and gravity differences.
The Thermosphere
The troposphere represents only 1 % of the atmosphere but contains
The thermosphere begins at approx. 80 km above the earth and
75 % of its mass. All weather changes occur within this layer.
extends to a height of approx. 500 km. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
There is a constant drop in temperature of 6.5 °C for every rise in causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically
height of 1 km. charged (ionised), enabling radio waves to bounce off and be
received beyond the horizon.
Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption
The Stratosphere
of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly
The stratosphere extends to a height of 50 km above the earth’s dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2,500 °C during the day.
surface. Up to a height of approx. 20 km its temperature remains
Even though the temperature is so high, one would not feel warm in
constant at -56.5 °C. Then the temperature starts to rise again.
the thermosphere, because it is so near vacuum that there is not
Note: The higher layers of the stratosphere are a rather ’quiet’ enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat. A
portion of the atmosphere generally characterised by an absence of normal thermometer would read significantly below 0 °C, because the
weather and smooth flying conditions. energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired
from the atmospheric gas by direct contact.
The Mesosphere
The Exosphere
In the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing height.
The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause, which can The exosphere is the last layer and extends into space. It consists of
be the coldest naturally occurring place on earth with temperatures atomised hydrogen and helium, whereas hydrogen is the
below −143 °C. predominating element.
The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with
latitude and with season, but the lower boundary of the mesosphere
is usually located at heights of approx. 50 km above the earth’s
surface. The mesopause is usually at heights between 80 and 85 km,
8.1.1.2 Composition of the Atmosphere
Air is a mixture of gases in relatively uniform proportions throughout

most of the atmosphere. A given volume of dry air at sea--level
consists of
 78 % nitrogen
 21 % oxygen
 1 % inert and other gases (e.g. argon, neon, helium, carbon
dioxide, water vapour)
 various contaminants, i.e. any (mostly harmful) gases (e.g.
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2)) and particles
(e.g. soot, sand, dust, drops of liquid etc.) carried by the air.
From a height of approx. 20 km the amount of oxygen decreases at a

rate of 0.3 % per 1 km. At a height of approx. 60 km and above no
more oxygen is found.
The lower levels of the atmosphere also contain water vapour. The
amount of water vapour which the air can ’hold’ depends on the
temperature. Generally it can be said that the higher the temperature
is the more water vapour can be retained by the air.
Water Vapour
As stated before the amount of water vapour in the air depends on

the air temperature and, to a lesser extent, on the air pressure.
Example:
1 m3 of saturated air at a temperature of 20 °C contains 17.2 grams
of water vapour. If the air temperature falls to 10°C, then half of this
water vapour will be ’squeezed’ out of the air in the form of water Figure 2: Gases of the Atmosphere
droplets, resulting either in cloud formation or rainfall.
Humidity The higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the less will be the weight
of air remaining above, and therefore the less will be the pressure.
The term ’humidity’ describes the amount of water which is present in This occurs because the air mass near the earth’s surface is
the air. The term ’relative humidity’ gives an indication of how much of compressed by the air above it, and as we go higher the air pressure
its total capacity to absorb water has been taken up. becomes less. Atmospheric pressure varies also with the
temperature, the density of the air and its humidity (the amount of
water vapour).
Example:
’0 % relative humidity’ indicates that the air is ’perfectly dry’, i.e. it It can be seen that there are considerable variations in the properties
contains no water at all. This is an unlikely condition outside a of the atmosphere, i.e. in pressure, temperature, density and
laboratory. humidity.
’100 % relative humidity’ (i.e. saturated air), however, is not To allow for comparison of e.g. flight performance data which have
uncommon. It means that the air has absorbed all the water it is able probably been obtained under different atmospheric conditions a
to do. It is rather like a sponge which is ’standard atmosphere’ for reference is needed. Therefore the so--
’absolutely full’. called international standard atmosphere (ISA) has been defined by
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) which is used as
The degree of humidity affects the air density to a great extent. A high a reference for variations in the atmosphere at different latitudes and
relative humidity decreases the density of the affected air mass, low altitudes.
relative humidity increases its density.
Water vapour is considered to be the lightest component of air, thus, 8.1.1.4 International Standard Atmosphere
the greater concentration of water vapour arises the ’lighter’ (less
dens) the air will be. Meteorological records collected over many years allowed the
calculation of averages for typical atmospheric conditions for a
standard day. These values are used for universal comparison of
8.1.1.3 Atmospheric Pressure aircraft/engine performance and documented by ICAO as the
international standard atmosphere (ISA). Temperature, pressure,
The atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air over a given area. If density, temperature gradient, humidity and altitude are referred to as
we can imagine a column of air having a base area of 1 cm2 and per their ISA equivalents. The altitude ’zero’ is the water mark
stretching to the outer limits of the atmosphere then the total weight of reference of Amsterdam/Netherlands, also called mean sea level
this volume of air acts upon 1 cm2 of the earth’s surface. (MSL).

At mean sea level the international standard atmosphere is defined The following table states the standard atmospheric temperatures
by the following figures: and pressures at various altitudes as defined by ICAO.
 air temperature t: +15 °C
 air pressure p: 1,013.25 hectoPascal (hPa) Altitude (m) Temperature (°C) Pressure (hPa)
 air density ρ: 1.225 kg/m3
 temperature gradient: −6.5 °C per 1,000 m 0 15.0 1,013.25
(or: − 2.0°C per 1.000 feet) from
1,000 8.5 898.73
MSL up to an altitude of approx.
11 km 5,000 −17.5 540.15
 relative humidity: 0 %. 10,000 −50.0 264.31
11,000 −56.5 226.32
15,000 −56.5 120.44
20,000 −56.5 54.75
Above 11,000 m the temperature remains constant at --56.5 °C up to a

height of approx. 20,000 m after which the temperature begins to
increase again because of the influence of the sun.
8.1.1.5 Application to Aerodynamics
Aircraft performance and behaviour is affected by changes in air

temperature and pressure.
To determine whether or not an aircraft and its engine are performing
as the manufacturer designed them, engineers have agreed upon
conditions that constitute a so--called ’standard day’, based on the ISA.
Aircraft and engine performance can be reduced to the performance
they would have under these standard conditions.
By converting all data to this standard, the effect of variables such as
temperature and pressure can be eliminated and aircraft performance
Figure 3: Temperature and Pressure vs. Altitude
meaningfully compared.

Aerodynamics Cat B1 – Module 8
8.2.1.2 Kinetic, Potential and Total Energy

8.2 Aerodynamics
Kinetic energy is that energy which is associated with motion.
8.2.1 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics Speeding up the movement of air or any object increases its kinetic
8.2.1.1 Introduction energy.
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its

’Aerodynamics’ is the study of the interaction between the air and position or its configuration. The potential energy of air relates to its
solid bodies moving in it. It can be described as ’a rare example of the pressure, and increasing its pressure increases its potential energy.
matching together of theoretical physics, pure mathematics and
creative engineering’. The total energy of the air is the sum of the kinetic and the potential
Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action there is an energy.
equal and opposite reaction. Aircraft, helicopters, gliders and
autogyros produce their lift by pushing down on a mass of air. They Bernoulli’s Principle
are supported in the air when they force down an amount of air equal
to their own weight. This is determined basically by the density of the To explain the theory of flow, we do not say that ’a body moves
air through which they are flying and the speed with which they pass through the air’ but that ’the air flows over the body’.
through the air.
Today, ’aerodynamics’ is normally restricted to the study of dynamic
flight, i.e. the behaviour of aircraft that are heavier than air. For the
first time the idea that a heavier--than--air vehicle basically faces two
major problems was clearly defined and documented by Sir George
Cayley (1773--1857). In his papers and notes he separated the
problem of sustenation (lift) from the problem of drag which,
according to him, must be compensated by propulsion in order to
maintain level flight.
Figure 1: Airflow through a Venturi Tube

The relationship between kinetic and potential energy in the air is 8.2.1.3 Air Pressure
explained by Bernoulli’s principle. This principle states that if the total
amount of energy in the air remains constant, any increase in kinetic
energy will cause an equal decrease in potential energy as shown in
Figure 1.
According to Bernoulli’s principle the volume of air entering the tube
must be the same as the volume of air leaving it over the same given
period. Therefore the air in the center of the tube has to accelerate in
order to pass through the smaller diameter if the same volume is to
leave the tube. This acceleration through the narrow part causes a
decrease in pressure.
Note: A tube as shown in Figure 1 is called a ’venturi tube’. Such a
tube and the principle behind may be used for various purposes.
Bernoulli’s theorem for the continuity of incompressible flow can
mathematically be expressed as:
1 1
𝑝1 + 2 𝜌𝑐1 2 = 𝑝2 + 2 𝜌𝑐2 2 = constant
with:
𝑝1 = pressure at station 1
𝑝2 = pressure at station 2
𝜌 = density of gas
𝑐1 = velocity of gas at station 1
𝑐2 = velocity of gas at station 2.
Figure 2: Static Pressure and Dynamic Pressure

Static Pressure The dynamic pressure can mathematically be expressed as:
As already stated, the weight of the air in the atmosphere creates a 1

𝑝𝑑 = 2 𝜌𝑐 2
pressure. This is called the static pressure, i.e. the pressure caused
by still air. The static pressure acts equally into all directions. with:
Therefore the forces caused by the static pressure and which act on
any object are balanced. There is no resultant force at all acting on 𝑝𝑑 = dynamic pressure
the object. At sea level the ICAO standard atmosphere defines the 𝜌 = density of gas
static pressure as being 1,013.25 hPa. 𝑐 = velocity of the gas.
Dynamic Pressure Total Pressure
Air in motion possesses additional energy due to its speed. If this The total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and dynamic
moving air is brought to rest on a surface the energy released causes pressure. It can mathematically be expressed as:
an increase in pressure in addition to the atmospheric pressure. The
additional pressure registered on this surface is known as dynamic 𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑠 + 𝑝𝑑
pressure. with:
Note: For aerodynamic observations it is insignificant whether a 𝑝𝑠 = static pressure 𝑝𝑑 = dynamic pressure
body is moving through still air or the air is moving around a .
motionless body. Considering the relation between local values of p and c and those in
free stream, i.e. in an incompressible flow (p and c are then denoted
Any object in still air will experience equal pressures in all directions, by the suffix ∞), Bernoulli’s equation gives:
but an object in moving air will experience an additional pressure in
the direction of the motion of air. 1 1
𝑝∞ + 𝑐∞ 2 = 𝑝 + 2 𝜌𝑐 2
2
At low speeds the dynamic pressure is small compared with the static therefore:
pressure. However, at high speeds the dynamic pressure increases
1
considerably. 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ = 2 𝜌 (𝑐∞ 2 − 𝑐 2 )

It is useful to express the local pressure in terms of a pressure An airfoil, whether being a wing of an aircraft, a rotor of a helicopter or
coefficient cp, which is a non-dimensional measure of the difference the blade of a propeller, is a specially shaped body designed to react
between local and free stream pressure. It is defined by: on the flow of air that passes over it.
𝑝−𝑝∞ 𝑐 This reaction (or, actually: a combination of reactions) is known as

𝑐𝑝 = 1 =1−( )
2
𝜌𝑐 2 𝑐∞ aerodynamic lift and drag. It is determined to a great extent by the
shape of the surface. Figure 3 shows that the narrow part of the
Venturi tube has a shape which is similar to that of a typical subsonic
8.2.1.4 Aerodynamics of the Airfoil airfoil.
Figure 3: An Airfoil Cross--Section Compared to the Venturi Figure 4: Typical Airfoil Cross-Sections
Tube

Subsonic aerodynamics consider the airflow to be noncompressible,

and the airfoils actually used for aircraft are similar to those in Figure
4. They all have a round leading edge and a maximum thickness at
approx. one third of the distance between the leading and the trailing
edge. From that point they taper smoothly to the trailing edge.
Subsonic airfoils may be asymmetrical or symmetrical in shape. A

symmetrical airfoil has the same curve on each side of the chord line,
but the shapes of the top and the bottom of an asymmetrical airfoil
are different to each other, with the upper side being larger than the
lower.
Boundary Layer
If the surface of an airfoil could be perfectly smooth and the air

flowing over it was not viscous the air would pass smoothly without
any friction drag. But this is not the case: air is viscous and tends to
stick to anything over which it flows. At the very surface of the airfoil
the air velocity is near zero, and because of surface roughness
caused by dirt, rivets, frost etc. local turbulence is created which
causes the airflow on the surface to flow in a random pattern,
sometimes even reversing its direction.
This randomly flowing air is called ’boundary layer’ and it is important

that it is kept as thin as possible.
When the boundary layer is smooth, and the air flows in layers, it is
said to have ’laminar flow’. If the surface is rough, however, or if the
air slows down, it will no longer flow smoothly but will become
turbulent.
Figure 5: Airflow over an Airfoil

Lift can be increased by increasing the angle of attack. As a rough

guide it can be said: if the angle of attack is doubled then the lift is
doubled (likewise the drag). The angle of attack however cannot be
increased indefinitely. For most airfoils the maximum angle of attack
lies between 15° -- 20°. Above this point total separation of the
boundary layer occurs and the airfoil loses lift dramatically. This
condition is known as ’stall’ which is one of the most serious flying
conditions. If a stall were to occur during take--off or landing it will
have disastrous results.
Different Types of Drag
Drag is the force of resistance experienced by a body moving through

the air. Drag opposes forward motion through the air and is parallel to
the direction of the airflow.
There are several different types of drag for an aircraft:
 pressure drag
 skin friction drag
 parasite drag
 induced drag
 wave drag.
Pressure Drag
Pressure drag is the drag on a body moving through a fluid as a result

Figure 6: Airflow over an Airfoil at Increasing of the shape of the body. It can also be considered as the force
created by the pressure difference between the front and the rear of
the body.

When a fluid flows against a solid object, vortices are formed and
there is no longer a smooth streamline flow. The extreme example of
this type of resistance is a flat plate placed at right angles to the wind.
The resistance is very large and is almost entirely due to the
formation of vortices, the skin friction being negligible in comparison.
Experiments show that the pressure in front of the plate is greater
than the atmospheric pressure and the pressure behind is less than
that of the atmosphere. This causes a kind of ’sucking’ effect on the
plate.
The influence of pressure drag can be observed for objects with

different shapes in the airflow. The pressure drag of a flat plate is very
high. If we replace the plate by a sphere of the same diameter the
pressure drag is much lower (approx. 50 %). This is because the air
separates more smoothly round the front face of the sphere (and the
air is slowed down less). Additionally the air follows the surface of the
sphere for some way around the rear before it separates. The
turbulent wake region is thus much narrower than that behind the flat
plate.
If a streamlined shape with the same frontal area to the airflow as the
sphere is placed in the airflow at the same speed, the drag is found to
be even lower than that of the sphere. This is because the more
gradual taper on the tail allows the airflow to remain attached to the
surface almost until reaching the trailing edge before separation
occurs. This gives a very low drag and a narrow wake.
So pressure drag can be considerably reduced by streamlining.
Figure 7: Effect of Shaping on Drag

Skin Friction Drag

Skin friction drag is caused by the friction of the air with the aircraft
surface. The airflow near the surface is slowed down, and at the
surface the relative velocity of the air particles is actually zero. This
layer of air where the velocity is changed from zero to the constant
value of the free airflow is called boundary layer. This is caused by
the viscosity of the air which means that there is a shear stress or
friction between neighboured air particles moving with different
velocity.
The skin friction drag also depends of the aerodynamic smoothness
of the surface. For rough surfaces the skin friction drag is usually
higher than for smoother ones. Furthermore a rough surface causes
the transition from smooth flow to turbulence to occur sooner thereby
increasing the drag. Roughness in a region of flow which is already
turbulent will also cause an increase in drag.
The drag caused by a laminar boundary layer is lower than that of a

turbulent one. Therefore it is most desirable to keep the boundary
layer laminar over as much of the surface as possible to obtain low
drag.
Additionally, the laminar flow can be maintained over a greater
distance if the pressure gradient is favourable. When the airflow
passes the point of maximum curvature of the upper surface of the
airfoil the dynamic pressure begins to decrease and the static
pressure to increase. Because the static pressure is increasing
further back along the wing the airflow is disturbed and turbulence is
set up thereby thickening the boundary layer thickens. This is called
’adverse pressure gradient’.
Profile Drag
Profile drag is the sum of pressure drag and skin friction drag.
Figure 8: Aircraft Streamlining

Induced Drag Interference Drag
On a complete aircraft, the total drag is greater than the sum of the
drags of the individual parts. This difference is called the interference
drag.
Interference drag is caused by the interference of airstreams which

disturbs a smooth airflow and creates turbulences. This happens for
example at the intersection of wing and fuselage. Air flowing along the
fuselage collides with air flowing over the wing, which results in a
merging of the airflows. This produces interference drag.
The interference drag can be reduced by the installation of fairings,
where the two components join (e.g. wing--body fairing).
Figure 9: Induced Drag Parasite Drag
When the wing is producing lift additional drag is also caused The drag which is produced of all components that do not produce lift
proportional to the lift being produced. This drag is known as ’induced is called the parasite drag. For example, the vertical stabiliser or the
drag’. landing gear are components that produce parasite drag.
The induced drag is associated with the wing tip vortices which are Wave Drag
formed because of the pressure difference between the upper and the
lower wing surfaces. This pressure difference causes a flow of air If the aircraft flies faster than the critical Mach number additionally
around the wing tip. The existence of the vortices shows that energy wave drag occurs. The critical Mach number is the speed of the
is being lost in creating the swirling motion of air in the vortices. aircraft at which the airflow at some point of the fuselage reaches the
speed of sound although the speed of the aircraft is still below the
Therefore additional drag is associated with the formation of the speed of sound (critical Mach number < 1).
vortices. If the lift being produced is increased (this is brought about
by creating a larger pressure difference between the top and the If the aircraft moves faster than the critical Mach number the airflow
bottom surfaces) a stronger vortex is produced. The strength of the over the wings is further accelerated and reaches a speed faster than
vortex and the related induced drag caused by this vortex are the speed of sound (supersonic flow). But then further back at the
proportional to the lift. airfoil a shock wave is generated as the airflow abruptly becomes
subsonic again. Because of that the drag coefficient increases and

much more drag is generated. This additional drag is called wave

drag.
Total Drag
The sum of all drag forms of an aircraft is the total drag. Therefore the
total drag consists of
 profile drag (which is the sum of pressure and skin friction

drag)
 induced drag
 parasite drag
 interference drag
 wave drag.
Upwash/Downwash
During flight, the air just ahead of the wing has an upward
component. This is called the ’upwash’. The degree of upwash is
dependent on the angle of attack, and increases with an increase in
the angle of attack.
Similarly, the movement of the air just behind the wing has a
downward component, which is called the ’downwash’.
Figure 10: Effect of Downwash

Vortices It is mathematically impossible for a vortex line to have loose ends.

Therefore, at the wing tips the vortex spills off each wing tip.
The travelling speeds and the pressures of the air masses flowing
along the upper an bottom surfaces of the wings are different. When Each wing forms a trailing vortex (or: wake vortex) that extends for
both air streams come together again at the wing tips and the trailing miles behind the aircraft. These trailing vortices are the continuation
edges, the air masses start a circular movement. Such a bunch of air of the bound vortex.
circulating around itself is called ’vortex’. The axis around which the
air is rotating is called a vortex line.
Figure 11: Vortices
During the take--off run, a bound vortex, i.e. a mass of air which
seems to circulate around the wing, develops. The first portion of it,
the so--called starting vortex, is shed after take--off, while the bound
vortex continues to circulate behind the trailing edge. This effect is Figure 12: Wake Vortices
caused and further increased by the downwash.

Far behind the aircraft, possibly all the way back to the place where Wing Aspect Ratio
the aircraft left the ground, the two trailing vortices join up with the
starting vortex to form an unbroken vortex line.
Stagnation
Figure 13: Stagnation Point
An important line on an airfoil is the line where the airflow separates

so that some of it can pass over the top and the rest along the bottom
of the wing. This line is called ’stagnation line’.
The stagnation line runs along the leading edge and extends over the
length of the wing. Its movement is very important for warning of an
impending stall. At moderate to high angles of attack the stagnation
line is found well below and aft of the leading edge.
There is another stagnation line running spanwise along the trailing

edge. It marks the place, where the air that has passed above the
wing rejoins with the air from below the wing. Figure 14: Wing Aspect Ratio

The most important characteristics of a wing’s form are the wing A common form of wing is the tapered wing. The taper ratio is the
aspect ratio and the taper ratio. The aspect ratio is the ratio of the ratio of the wing width at the wing root (or: root chord) to the width at
length (or: span) b of a wing to its width (or: chord) C: the wing tip (or: tip chord):
𝐶𝑇
Λ = 𝑏/𝐶. 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 = .
𝐶𝑅
With all other details being equal, an increase in aspect ratio

decreases the drag, especially at high angles of attack. A glider, for A wing with a moderate taper has many of the advantages of an
example, is a high--performance sailplane with high--aspect wings so elliptical wing but is less costly to construct. Its stall characteristics are
it can operate at relatively slow airspeeds and high angles of attack. similar to those of the elliptical wing. When the taper is increased, the
stall characteristics become adverse, with the stall beginning at the tip
and progressing inboard. This progression causes the loss of aileron
Taper Ratio effectiveness, and thus a loss of lateral control, while lift is still
produced at the inboard portion of the wing.
Fineness Ration
The ratio of length to breadth (or: diameter) of a streamlined shape is

called the ’fineness ratio’ of this body. For best results it should be
approx. 4 to 1, but it actually depends on the design airspeed. The
higher the speed, the greater should be the fineness ratio. However,
experiments show that there is not much variation in the drag for a
large range of fineness ratios.
Airfoil Shape and Related Factors
Aerodynamic lift depends on the shape of the airfoil and the airfoil
surface area. Various airfoil shapes have been developed depending
on the type of aircraft and the designed speed range. To describe the
Figure 15: Taper Ratio shape of an airfoil the following terms are essential:

Mean Camber Line Mean Aerodynamic Chord
The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is that chord on a wing where,

mathematically seen, all aerodynamic and gravitational forces act
upon, i.e. the chord through the geometrical center of the wing. It is
used for aerodynamic calculations and as reference for center--of--
gravity calculations.
Figure 16: Wing References
The mean camber is a line drawn in the middle between the upper
and the lower cambers. Its curvature is one of the most important
factors in determining the aerodynamics characteristics of an airfoil.
Mean Chord Line
Refer to Figure 16
’Mean chord line’ means the geometric mean chord length of a wing.
It is always a straight line. The length of the mean chord CM can be Figure 17: Construction of Mean Aerodynamic Chord
calculated by dividing the wing area S by the wing span b.
If the mean camber and the mean chord lines are identical, i.e. if the
mean camber line is straight like the mean chord line, the wing is a
symmetrical wing.

If the wing geometry, the shape of the airfoil and the angle of The center of pressure (CP) is the point on the chord line of an airfoil
incidence remain constant over the full span of the wing, the MAC at which all of the aerodynamic forces are concentrated. The lift
can be determined geometrically as follows: vector acts from the center of pressure in a direction that is
perpendicular to the relative wind, and the drag vector acts from this
1. find the center of the chord at the wing root CR same point in a direction parallel to the relative wind. The relation
2. find the center if the chord at the wing tip CT between the lift and drag vectors determines the direction and size of
3. connect both centers by a line the resultant force.
4. add CT to CR in the aft direction
The center of pressure of a subsonic airfoil is typically located at
5. add CR to CT in the front direction approx. 30% to 40% of the mean chord line back from the leading
6. connect both ’new’ ends by a line edge.
7. the MAC is found in the point where this line intersects with
the line found in step 3. On an asymmetric airfoil, the CP moves forward as the angle of
attack increases, and backwards as it decreases.
If the wing is pointed at the tip and has a straight trailing edge (’delta
wing’) the MAC will be 2/3 of 𝐶𝑅 . On a symmetric airfoil, the CP does not move, but remains in almost
the same location when the angle of attack changes.
Center of Pressure
Angle of Attack
Refer to Figure 18
The angle of attack (AOA) is the angle between the chord line of an
airfoil and the direction of the air that strikes the airfoil. Any increase
in the angle of attack increases the lift of the airfoil.
The angle of attack can be increased until the designed airfoil--

specific critical AOA is reached. This critical AOA is typically between
15° to 20°. At any further increase beyond this point, the air ceases to
flow smoothly over the top of the wing, and the wing stalls.
Figure 18: Center of Pressure

Wash In/Wash Out Aerodynamic Lift and Lift Equation
’Wash in’ and ’wash out’ are terms referring to the angle of incidence Aerodynamic lift is the upward force induced by the airflow over the
of the wing tip versus the wing root. Wash in is a twist in the wing that airfoil. Lift directly opposes the weight of the aircraft.
increases its angle of incidence near the tip. Wash out is a twist that
decreases the angle of incidence near the wing tip.
The twisting of the wing tip typically occurs as a result of aerodynamic

forces on wings that lack torsional rigidity, such as highly swept
wings. Swept--back wings experience a wash out and a decrease of
lift at their tips, whereby forward--swept wings experience a wash in
and an increase of lift.
The wing tip twisting can also be a corrective rigging measure on a

small strut-braced aircraft that flies with a heavy wing. By shortening
the length of the rear strut the twist of the wing can be changed to
increase the wash in, in order to generate additional lift on this wing.
Thrust, Weight, Aerodynamic Resultant
In flight, with unchanged power setting, thrust increases as weight

decreases. At the same time, the amount of lift required to keep the
aircraft in level flight decreases as the weight decreases.
During normal flight, an additional centrifugal force occurs during a

turn and when levelling out after a descent. Besides the weight of the
aircraft, this force adds to the total downward force. It results from the
centrifugal force Fc and is referred to as the load factor expressed in Figure 19: Distribution of Lift over an Airfoil
multiples of the gravitational force g. During normal flight the g load
(or: g factor) equals 1. During a turn the g load increases with the As the air flows over an airfoil it speeds up when passing the upper
bank angle. The additional weight resulting from the g load has to be surface and slows down along the bottom surface. This increase in
compensated by additional lift to prevent the aircraft from descending. speed on the upper surface causes a pressure drop and the decrease
in speed along the bottom surface causes a pressure increase. It is
this pressure difference which causes the airfoil to be lifted.

The center of pressure is, for most airfoils, usually at a distance of

approx. 25 % of the chord length from the leading edge, but varies
with the angle of attack.
The resultant lift acting on the airfoil does not act vertically upwards
but slightly towards the trailing edge. If this force is split into its
vertical and horizontal components the vertical force is representing
the lift and the horizontal force the drag (or, to be more precise: the
induced drag).
The amount of lift produced by aerodynamic action is determined by

three factors:
 the surface area of the airfoil

 the lift coefficient of the airfoil
 the dynamic pressure of the air (speed of air passing over the
airfoil).
Airfoil Surface Area
This is the most obvious of the three factors: the larger the airfoil, the
greater will be the lift if all other factors remain the same.
Figure 20: Components of Resultant Lift
Lift is distributed over the whole airfoil but is largest near the leading Lift Coefficient
edge, where the air accelerates fastest because of the round edge.
The airfoil is said to achieve 65 % of the lift from the upper surface A coefficient is a dimension-less number used in a formula to express
because of the lower pressure and 35 % from the lower surface the action of a variable. The lift coefficient CL is determined by two
because of the higher pressure occurring there. variables: the shape of the airfoil and the angle at which the air strikes
the airfoil.
However, the sum of all lifting forces are considered to act upon an
imaginary point known as the center of pressure (CP). The sum of the When an airfoil is designed, its shape is mathematically conceived,
lifting forces is called the ’resultant lift’ and acts upward and and a test section is made and placed in a wind tunnel; then
backwards from the center of pressure. measurements are made of the lift and drag at various angles of

attack. The results are plotted as a family of curves. There are Applying these factors, the lift equation can be established:
hundreds of airfoil shapes. Each shape has its own set of curves.
L = 𝐶𝐿 ⋅ 1/2 ⋅ 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑉 2 ⋅ S.
The coefficient of lift for any airfoil section varies with the angle of
attack, which is the angle between the chord line of the section and Note: The lift is affected by the square of the airspeed. This means
the relative wind. that doubling the airspeed will increase the lift by a factor of four.
As the angle of attack increases, the coefficient of lift increases. At a Drag Equation
certain point it peaks out and drops. This is the critical angle of attack
because, beyond this angle the air flowing over the surface of the The induced drag is also closely related to the generation of lift on a
airfoil breaks away and no lift can be produced any longer, the drag wing. The amount of induced drag D produced by a wing depends on
increases and the airfoil stalls. the following factors:
Dynamic Pressure of the Air  the drag coefficient CD, which is a dimensionless number for
a specific airfoil at a certain angle of attack
The dynamic pressure may be mathematically calculated to  the dynamic air pressure q, which is the product of the relative
determine the mass of air the airfoil can force down. To make this air density 𝜌 and the square of the velocity V, divided by two
calculation we must consider the density of the air and the speed of  the airfoil surface S.
the air over the airfoil. This calculation is the potential lift of the airfoil,
e.g. if an aircraft wing moving through the air, forces down 1,000 kg of Applying these factors, the drag equation can be established:
air, the equal and opposite reaction will force up 1,000 kg of aircraft.
D = 𝐶𝐷 ⋅ 1/2 ⋅ 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑉 2 ⋅ S.
Lift Equation
Note: The induced drag is also affected by the square of the
The amount of lift L produced by a wing depends on the following
airspeed. This means that doubling the airspeed will increase the
factors:
induced drag by a factor of four.
 the lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 , which is a dimensionless number for a
specific airfoil at a certain AOA
 the dynamic air pressure q, which is the product of the relative
air density 𝜌 and the square of the velocity V, divided by two
 the airfoil surface S.

Polar Diagrams the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient directly over the angle of
attack the information contained in the Lilienthal polar diagram can be
shown as two separate diagrams, the lift diagram and the drag
diagram, respectively.
Stall
Refer to Figure 6 again.
The lift coefficient of an airfoil increases smoothly with the angle of

attack until the critical angle is reached. At an AOA of approx. 14° the
airflow starts to break away from the surface at the trailing edge. This
is called ’separation’.
Figure 21: Aerodynamic Diagrams
Polar diagrams are the results of wind tunnel tests performed on

individual airfoils. Each polar curve shows the performance of a
profile at certain angles of attack.
The Lilienthal polar diagram combines lift and drag coefficients to

show the lift and drag relation at certain angles of attack. The most
significant points are
 the maximum lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 max

 the minimum lift coefficient𝐶𝐿 min
 the minimum drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 min
 the best glide angle γ (by use of a tangent from the zero
point).
In order to present a clearer picture of the polar curve the drag scale
is usually 5 to 10 times larger than the lift scale. To be able to read
Figure 22: Critical Angle of Attack

At this point, the air ceases to flow smoothly over the upper surface of Despite of causing less drag than rime ice, the weight increase is
the airfoil, and lift is lost. As the AOA is further increased, the point of more substantial.
separation moves towards the leading edge until the so--called stall
point is reached. At this point, the remaining lift is no longer enough to Rime ice has a very rough surface and causes a much greater
keep the aircraft airborne. This condition is called ’stall’. increase in drag than clear ice. It is usually encountered in stratus
clouds at temperatures below --15 °C. Supercooled water droplets
The form of a wing has a pronounced effect on the stall progression. freeze instantly, but maintain their spherical shape upon impact with
By looking at some basic wing forms it can be seen how a stall the airfoil. This leads to air inclusions which causes the milky
progresses. appearance and roughness of the surface. The liquid water content is
low and accumulation usually slow. Rime ice can be removed easily
The rectangular wing has the most desirable stall progression. The with de – icing boots.
stall begins at the wing root and progresses outward, so the air still
flows smoothly over the ailerons when the wing already loses enough Mixed ice may be encountered in all icing conditions, but typically
lift to cause the aircraft nose to drop. between 0 °C and --15 °C. Formation of mixed ice is caused by small
supercooled and large cold water droplets in clouds. The rough rime
The elliptical wing has the most efficient form, because it produces ice crystals are covered by clear ice. Bizarre ice formations, called
the least amount of induced drag for a given aspect ratio. But it has ’ice crowns’, are quite common. Mixed ice weighs more than rime ice
two disadvantages that prevents its wide acceptance: it is difficult and and produces more drag than clear ice.
expensive to construct, and the stall progression is inferior to that of a
rectangular wing. Icing Factors
There are four factors determining the accumulation of ice on an

8.2.1.5 Airfoil Contamination aircraft:
Forms of Ice
 temperature
 the size of the water droplets
Clear ice is usually a product of temperature inversions at a  airfoil size
temperature range from 0 °C to --15 °C. It can also be encountered in  speed.
cumulus clouds or on the upslope side of mountains. The water
droplets remain liquid for a relatively long time and, before freezing,
Temperature and droplet size influence the type of ice formation.
spread evenly over hte aircraft surfaces without air inclusions. This
causes the transparent, smooth surface of clear ice. Clear ice usually Airfoil size is an important factor since larger airfoils are able to divide
accumulates faster than other forms of ice because of larger water the airflow between upper and lower surface ahead of the airfoil,
droplets. It is quite difficult to be removed with de--icing boots.
causing the water droplets to by--pass the airfoil rather than impacting

and freezing on it. Ice collects more efficiently on smaller airfoils. Ice
collection is usually more on tail surfaces than on the wing surfaces.
Airspeed is also a factor, since the friction between airfoil and air
causes a temperature rise. Therefore, the higher the airspeed, the
lesser the ice build--up. But it must be kept in mind that ice
accumulation will vary for any given weather situation and aircraft.
Frost Contamination
Test data indicate that ice, snow or frost having a thickness and
roughness similar to medium or coarse sandpaper on the leading
edge and upper surface of a wing can reduce the lift by as much as
30% and increase the drag by up to 40%.
The roughness of frost is the primary danger to the aircraft surface.

The frost may not look very threatening when compared to ice, but
the added drag of a thin coating of frost slows the airflow over the
airfoil and thereby degrades the lifting performance. One tenth of an
inch of evenly distributed frost on the aircraft wing may increase the
stall speed by 35%. This roughly doubles the required take – off run.
Effects of Icing
Figure 23: Effect of Ice Contamination
On general aviation aircraft the stall warning device is activated
before the aircraft reaches the critical angle of attack. With only 0.1
inch of frost contamination the lift coefficient and the critical AOA are
already lower than the preset warning value. This means the aircraft
will stall before the warning is activated.

Theory of Flight Cat B1 – Module 8
8.3.1.2 Forces Acting in Flight

8.3 Theory of Flight
The flight of an aircraft consists of various stages. First, the take--off,
8.3.1 Fixed--Wing Aircraft during which the aircraft is transferred from one medium to another.
8.3.1.1 Introduction Then the climb, during which the pilot gains the altitude at which the
level part of the flight will be made. Then a period of this steady flight
According to a today’s aviation glossary a fixed--wing aircraft is at a constant altitude, interrupted in certain cases by periods of
manoeuvres. Later the aircraft is to descend back towards the earth,
’a heavier--than--air flying machine, supported by airfoils, designed to and finally the landing.
obtain, when driven through the air, at an angle inclined to the
direction of motion, a reaction from the air approximately at right On long--distance flights the main portion may consist of a long,
angles to their surfaces’. steady climb, which is more economical than maintaining the same
height because as fuel is consumed the weight of the aircraft is
All attempts to fly with heavier--than--air machines must embody reduced.
some means of forcing the air downwards in order to provide an equal
and opposite reaction which is to lift the weight of the machine. It was Therefore it is often only a small portion of each flight during which
natural that the early experimenters tried to obtain this reaction by the aircraft may be considered as travelling in a straight and level
flapping of wings to imitate the flight of a bird. But machines flight at uniform velocity.
employing this principle, called ’ornithopters’, have never been really
successful. Yet this condition is of importance, since it is considered the ’standard
condition’ when designing an aircraft. The other conditions are
It is often argued that ’nature must know best’, and that experiments considered chiefly in so far as they differ from those of straight and
should continue on this line. But such statements are as ’logical’ as level flight.
the suggestion that ocean liners should cross the Atlantic by flapping
their rudders as a fish’s tail does, or that railway engines should be What are the forces which keep the aircraft in its state of steady
provided with legs instead of wheels. All mechanical experience has flight? First the lift, which acts vertically upwards since the direction of
tended to show the advantages of rotary motion over the motion is horizontal. The lift is to be created to keep the aircraft in the
reciprocating motion which is quite often employed by nature. This air because it acts as a counterforce opposite to the force of gravity,
should not imply that nothing has been learnt by studying the flight of i.e. the weight. But lift can only be produced if the aircraft is moving
birds. Many problems in aviation still remain unsolved where the forwards. Therefore thrust need to be provided by propeller(s) or jet
knowledge of the birds’ flight may lead to the solution. engine(s). The forward motion is opposed by the drag.

Lift
Lift is the total upward force produced by the aerodynamic reaction of

the air flowing over the airfoil surfaces, i.e. wings and horizontal tail
planes. The lift force is acting perpendicular to the relative wind. It
may be tilted by varying the amount of lift produced by each wing
panel.
Weight
The weight of an aircraft is the total pull of gravity. Weight acts

through the center of gravity directly toward the center of the earth.
Weight is the greatest part of the downward force on aircraft, but

there are also other downward forces. An aircraft’s downward tail load
Figure 1: Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight changes with the airspeed. It may be adjusted so that all downward
forces are equal to the upward forces.
Figure 1 shows the forces and moments acting on an aircraft during
horizontal flight. The combination of the downward forces moves the center of gravity
to the same location as the center of lift, and the aircraft balances
The aircraft can be said to be under the influence of 4 main forces. about its center of gravity. For the aircraft to remain at the same
These forces are: altitude, the total upward force must be equal to the downward force.
 the lift ’L’ of the main and the tail planes, acting vertically Thrust
upwards through the center of pressure
 the weight of the aircraft ’W’ acting vertically downwards The propeller or jet stream of an aircraft (and the forward vector of lift
through the centre of gravity produced by a helicopter’s rotor) provide thrust. This is a force that
 the thrust ’T’ of the propeller pulling the aircraft horizontally causes forward movement.
forwards along the propeller shaft
 the drag ’D’ acting horizontally backwards. Thrust for a glider or for an aircraft under reduced power is produced
by the forward component of lift and weight caused by the aircraft’s
downward flight path.

Drag Center of Gravity
For certain purposes it is convenient to consider the whole weight of

the aircraft acting through one point, called the ’center of gravity’
(CG), and the total of the forces created by all lifting surfaces acting
on the center of pressure (CP). The resultant of all the drag can as
well be imagined acting on one point which is called the ’center of
drag’. Its actual position depends on the relative resistance of
different parts of the aircraft (e.g. smooth or rough surfaces etc.).
8.3.1.3 Steady State Flight
An aircraft is said to be in a balanced condition when it proceeds at a

steady height at uniform velocity into a fixed direction, or, in the words
of an aviator, when altitude, attitude and airspeed are constant and no
Figure 2: Total Drag control inputs are required.
An aircraft’s drag is the sum of the forces that oppose the aircraft’s Note: In reality, lift and thrust do not always act exactly at the center
forward force of thrust. There are two basic drag forces: of gravity. For handling purposes, a slight nose--down moment is
often desirable.
 induced drag, which is produced by the same factors that
produce aerodynamic lift In the language of mechanics such a state is known as equilibrium.
 parasite drag, which is caused by all factors not producing lift. ’Equilibrium’ simply means that the existing state is remaining
unchanged, in other words, that the aircraft is obeying Newton’s first
Induced drag is affected by the angle of attack (AOA). It increases as law of motion which says:
the airspeed decreases. An aircraft flying at low speed needs a higher
angle of attack to generate enough lift, which leads to a greater ’A body remains at rest or in motion in a straight line at constant
induced drag. If the airspeed increases the AOA can be decreased speed unless acted upon by an external force’.
and also the induced drag decreases.
On the other hand, parasite drag increases as the airspeed increases.

The total drag is the sum of the induced and parasite drags. The total
drag is least at the point where induced and parasite drag are equal.

In order to maintain such a state the forces acting on the aircraft must The moment of a force acting on any point is the product of the force
be balanced: and the distance from the point perpendicular to the line of force.
As shown in Figure 3, the forces can produce the following moments:
 firstly, the lift must equal the weight (this condition will keep
the aircraft at constant height)  The thrust ’T’ acts below the center of gravity and produces a
 secondly, the thrust must equal the drag (this condition will nose--up moment.
keep the aircraft moving at the same steady velocity).  The drag ’D’ acts above the center of gravity and produces a
nose--up moment as well.
There still remains a third condition for an equilibrium: in order to  The lift ’L’ acts behind the center of gravity and produces a
maintain straight and level flight the aircraft must be prevented from nose--down moment.
rotating. This does not only depend on the magnitudes of the 4  The force on the tail plane ’P’ acts behind the center of gravity
forces, but also on the positions at which they act. If the center of as well, but it must be able to change its direction, because
pressure is behind the center of gravity, the nose will tend to drop and finally the sum of nose--up and nose--down moments are to
the tail to rise, and vice versa if the center of pressure is in front of the be zero. Therefore the force acting on the tail plane has the
center of gravity. task to produce and maintain the equilibrium of the moments.
Where circumstances permit, the forces will be arranged as in Figure

1, which is called the ’ideal distribution’. Where this is impossible, the
arrangement of the 4 forces cannot be considered as satisfactorily,
and it is necessary to look for additional devices to stabilise the
aircraft in the air.
At a considerable distance behind the main planes (main lifting

airfoils, or: wings) a small horizontal plane, the tail plane (or:
horizontal stabiliser) is fitted. Its purpose is to provide the force
necessary to counteract the behaviour of the 4 main forces.
The force at the tail plane needs to be small only because, depending
Figure 3: Forces and Moments Acting in Horizontal Flight on its leverage, even a small force is able to produce a large
correcting moment. Its direction can be upwards or downwards.
However, the center of gravity is the center of rotation for the whole
system and those forces, which do not act exactly in it, produce a In flight, the moments described above must be counteracted by the
moment. pilot using his controls or, even better, the secondary controls, i.e. the
trim systems. Every time when attitude, airspeed and power settings

are changed the aircraft needs to be trimmed, i.e. to be re--adjusted When an aircraft is travelling in a steady glide it must be kept in a
to steady--state--flight conditions. state of equilibrium by the lift, drag and weight only, because during
gliding no thrust is available. This means that the total reaction, i.e.
Note: Nevertheless it is the aim of the designers to create an aircraft the resultant of the lift and drag, must be exactly equal and opposite
which will, in the words of the pilots, fly ’hands off’, i.e. on its own in a to the weight as shown in Figure 4.
state of equilibrium.
But the lift is now at right angles to the path of the glide, while the
drag acts directly backwards, i.e. parallel to the gliding path. By a
8.3.1.4 Gliding process of simple geometry it can be seen that the angle formed
between the lift and the total reaction is the same as the angle
between the path of the glide and the horizontal.
This angle is called the gliding angle α. In mathematical terms it can

be stated:
D/L = tan α
Glide Ratio
The glide ratio of an aircraft indicates the amount of distance gained

versus the loss of altitude. A glide ratio of 1:10 means that when
descending 1,000 feet the aircraft flies 10,000 feet of distance.
The glide ratio also indicates the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft.

Common glide ratios are 1:12 for a small single--engine trainer, 1:20
for an airliner and 1:50 for a glider.
Figure 4: Forces Acting During the Glide

8.3.1.5 Climbing
Figure 6: Forces Acting During the Climb
During straight and level flight the engine (via the propeller, jet or
rocket) must produce a thrust equal to the drag of the aircraft at that
particular speed of flight. If the engine has some reserve of power and
if the throttle is further opened, either
 the pilot can push the nose down slightly, and maintain level
flight at an increased speed and decreased angle of attack, or
 the aircraft will commence climbing.

Consideration of the forces which act upon an aircraft during climb is
more difficult than the other cases which have been considered
Figure 5: Glide Ratios (Examples) before.

Assuming that the path actually travelled by the aircraft is into the When an aircraft is rolled to the right, the lift produced by the wing,
same direction as the thrust, then the forces will be as shown in which acts perpendicular to the lateral axis, now has a horizontal
Figure 6. component that pulls the nose around to the right.
However, when the left aileron moves down to increase lift on the left
8.3.1.6 Theory of the Turn wing and start the bank, it also increases the induced drag which pulls
the nose to the left.
Adverse Yaw
Figure 8: Adverse Yaw
The movement of the nose in the wrong direction at the beginning of

a turn is called ’adverse yaw’. It can be minimised by the use of
differential ailerons: the aileron moving upwards travels a greater
Figure 7: Turn Geometry
distance than the aileron moving downward. The extra upward travel

creates just enough parasite drag to counteract the induced drag

caused by the lowered aileron.
Another way to counteract adverse yaw is to use FRISE ailerons. The

hinge of this type of aileron is set back from the leading edge so that
when the aileron is deflected upwards, its nose extends below the
bottom wing surface and produces parasite drag.
8.3.1.7 Load Factor, Stall, Flight Envelope and

Structural Limitations
Influence of the Load Factor
’Load factor’ is the ratio of the total load, i.e. the load supported by the
lift produced by the aircraft’s wing, to the total weight of the aircraft.
The load factor n is expressed in ’g’ units and can be found by the
following formula:
𝐿
𝑛 =
𝑚×𝑔
Where n = load factor

L = lift
m = mass of the aircraft
g = gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/sec2
Figure 9: Load Factor

In an unaccelerated level flight the load on the wings is equal to the 𝐹𝐺

lift and the total weight. Consequently, the load factor in this situation 𝐹𝐴 cos 𝛼 = 1
𝑛 = =
is 1g. 𝐹𝐺 𝐹𝐺 cos 𝛼
During normal flight, a load factor of 1g or greater is called ’positive’. 1
Under certain conditions, an abrupt deviation from the aircraft’s 𝑛 =
cos 𝛼
equilibrium can cause inertial acceleration that in turn will cause the
weight to become greater than the lift.
where: n = load factor
For example, a sudden and forceful elevator control movement α = bank angle.
forward can cause the load factor to move into a negative region (see
Figure 9, detail b)). This will cause a feeling of weightlessness. During However, certain manoeuvres are known to invoke relatively high
a stall the load factor may be reduced towards zero as well. load factors. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked
turns, because the centrifugal force adds to the weight of the aircraft.
Load factors apply to all flight manoeuvres. In a straight and level
unaccelerated flight, there is always a load factor of 1g.
Based on the formula
𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚 × 𝑔
the load factor n during levelled turns (i.e. altitude, turn radius and
speed remain constant) can be found as follows:
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑛 × 𝐹𝐺
𝐹𝐺
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ =
𝐹𝑅
𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐴
= 1 =
𝐹𝑅 𝑛 × 𝐹𝐺
Figure 10: Change of Load Factor During Turns

Load factors become significant both to flight performance and to the

load on wing and structure as the bank increases beyond approx. 45°.
The load factor increases rapidly as the angle of bank approaches
90°.
Note: A 90°--bank constant--altitude turn is mathematically not

possible.
Structural Limitations
The amount of stress (load factor) that an aircraft can withstand

before structural damage or failure occurs is expressed as the
aircraft’s limiting load factor.
Primarily a function of aircraft design, an individual aircraft’s limiting

load factor is published in the aircraft flight manual (or: pilot operating
handbook) in terms of maximum positive or negative g.
Limiting load factors of +3.5g to +3.8g and --1.5g to --1.8g are quite
common for various single--engined general aviation and large
transport category aircraft (refer to EASA CS 23/25).
Change of Stall Speed
Stall is a condition where the lift generated by the aircraft’s wings no

longer supports its weight.
The higher load factor in constant--altitude turns caused by the

centrifugal force will also increase the stall speed. In such a turn,
therefore, the lift must be increased by a higher angle of attack.
An increased stall speed means that the aircraft stalls earlier, i.e. at a
higher speed. Therefore an aircraft has to move faster in a turn to
prevent stalling.
Figure 11: Relation Between Load Factor and Stall Speed

In fact, the stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of

the load factor. Stalls that occur with g--forces on an aircraft are
called ’accelerated stalls’.
Example: If an aircraft has a stalling speed of 55 knots at 1g,

then it will stall at twice that speed (i.e. at 110 knots) when the load
factor becomes 4g, which corresponds to a bank angle of 77°.
Effect of Turbulences
Turbulence in the form of vertical air movements can, under certain

conditions, cause severe load stress on an aircraft wing. When an
aircraft, flying at high speed with a low AOA, suddenly encounters a
vertical upward air movement, the relative wind changes to a more
upward direction as it meets the airfoil. This increases the angle of
attack of the wing. A sharp vertical gust will have the same effect on
the wing as applying sudden sharp back pressure on the elevator Figure 12: Flight Envelope (Example)
control.
All certified aircraft are designed to withstand loads imposed by
turbulence of considerable intensity.
Nevertheless, gust load factors increase with increasing airspeed.

Therefore, when severe turbulence is encountered, the aircraft should
be flown at a type specific manoeuvring speed. This is the speed
least likely to result in structural damage to the aircraft, even if full
control travel is used, and yet it allows a sufficient margin of safety
above the stall speed in turbulent air.

8.3.1.8 Lift Augmentation To achieve a low horizontal speed (e.g. for landing purposes) the
thrust must be reduced. As thrust is reduced, lift is reduced. So,
without high--lift devices the vertical velocity would increase or the
aircraft would stall. But the increase in lift produced by e.g. flaps
allows a decrease in speed of the aircraft without stalling.
Flaps are the most widely--used method for augmenting lift. Most
flaps are hinged on the trailing edge of the wings inboard of the
ailerons, but some are located on the wing leading edges.
Flaps
Flaps are movable portions of a wing that are used to alter the airfoil
shape. Lowering the flaps increases both the lift and the drag. The
simplest types are hinged on the trailing edge. They are extended to
increase the camber, thereby increasing the maximum lift coefficient
and producing a greater portion of drag at the same time.
Figure 13: Types and Efficiency of Flaps
High--lift devices are used in combination with airfoils in order to

reduce the take--off or landing speed by changing the lift
characteristics of an airfoil during the landing or take--off phase.
When these devices are no longer needed they are retracted into a
position within the wing to regain the normal characteristics of the
airfoil.

Plain Flaps
A part of the trailing edge of the wing inboard of the aileron is hinged
so that, when it is lowered, both the drag and the lift are increased.
Split Flaps
The trailing edge of the wing is split and the bottom may be lowered.
This (like the plain flap) increases both the lift and the drag. However,
because of the limited effectiveness of both the plain and split flaps
with the demands for higher performance, both types are no longer in
use on modern aircraft.
Fowler Flaps
Fowler flaps fit into the lower surface of the wing. When they are
lowered (extended), they slide outward and downward on rails. Both
the shape of the airfoil and the wing area are changed, causing a
greater increase in lift and a lesser increase in drag than any other
type of flap.
Slotted Flaps
A wing stalls, when the smooth flow of air over its upper surface is
separating (breaking off) and starts swirling. When the wing flaps are
Figure 14: Effect of Flaps lowered, the camber is increased that much that turbulences may be

generated over the lowered flap. As a result, the air is not deflected forms slots between its segments. The air flowing through these slots
smoothly, but the excessive turbulence destroys the lift. To prevent is forced down against the flap’s upper surface, which delays airflow
this turbulences, slotted flaps may be used. separation and produces additional lift.
Slotted flaps deflect the airflow over the top of the extended flap. This Other High--Lift Devices
allows a greater deflection before the airflow over the top breaks off. Slots
These act in the same way as Fowler flaps except that the air is
ducted through the slot between the flap and the wing. Then it is
blown at high velocity across the top of the lowered flap.
Slotted flaps allow greater deflection with smaller loss of lift than non--
slotted flaps.
Figure 15: Triple--Slotted Flaps (Example)
Some large jet transport aircraft use triple--slotted flaps. As this flap is
lowered, it slides out of the wing on tracks and increases the camber
and wing area in the same way as a fowler flap does. It separates and
Figure 16: International Training & Support

Some aircraft have fixed slots in the leading edge of the wing to allow Leading--Edge Flaps
for a higher AOA before the stall occurs.
At low angles of attack, the slot has no effect. If the angle is
sufficiently increased, a wing without slots will stall. But, the same In order to increase the lift of an airfoil section, the camber of the wing
wing with slots, at the same AOA, will have the air ducted over the top surface may be increased either by deflecting the trailing edge, the
surface, and it will not stall. leading edge or both. The leading--edge flap extends from the front
edge of the wing. The camber and the wing area are increased which
Wing slots are normally located in the leading edge of the wing in increases the lift coefficient CL.
front of the ailerons. Because a stall will begin at the root of the wing,
enough lift will be lost in this area to let the aircraft nose drop while
there is still a good airflow over the ailerons. This means that lateral
control can be maintained even throughout the stall.
Slats
Many high--speed jet aircraft and some of the high--performance

STOL (short take--off and landing) aircraft use movable slats in the
leading edge of the wings. At low angles of attack and cruise speed
the slats are selected ’in’ and form a normal leading edge. At high
angles of attack and slower speeds, e.g. during approach and
landing, the slats are extended. This allows a higher AOA before a
stall (i.e. an airflow separation) occurs.
Most slat systems are physically selected by the pilot and

electrically/mechanically operated.
In the early development of slats, there were experiments with

automatic systems, the slats of which automatically deployed when
the air pressure on the leading edge became less due to slower
speed and/or higher AOA.

Flight Stability and Dynamics Cat B1 – Module 8
8.4 Flight Stability and Dynamics An aircraft’s stability is expressed in relation to each axis:
8.4.1 Stability of Aircraft  longitudinal stability = stability in pitch
8.4.1.1 Types of Stability  lateral stability = stability in roll
 directional stability = stability in yaw.
Stability is the characteristic of an aircraft which enables it to be flown 
without control actions in a straight and level flight condition. Longitudinal Stability
The aircraft’s response to disturbance is associated with the inherent

degree of stability built in by the designer, in each of the three axes.
Another condition affecting the flight stability is the aircraft’s state of
trim: some aircraft can be trimmed by the pilot to fly ’hands off’ for
straight and level flight, or even for climb or descent.
Figure 2: Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal stability is achieved about the lateral (or: pitch) axis of an

aircraft. The construction of the horizontal stabiliser, its angle of
incidence in respect to the chord of the stabiliser and the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft in combination with the elevator provide
longitudinal stability.
Figure 1: Control Axes of an Aircraft and the Respective
Movements

A longitudinally stable aircraft will maintain level flight without Lateral stability is a term used to refer to both rolling and yawing
requiring the pilot to continually make adjustments to the controls. moments. Lateral stability is achieved about the longitudinal axis of an
An aircraft has longitudinal stability because of the relationship aircraft. The wings and their dihedral construction provide lateral
between its center of gravity and the center of lift (CL). This aircraft stability. The ailerons fitted on the wings provide lateral control. The
has its center of lift behind the center of gravity (CG). The nose--down same applies to high--wing aircraft because of the lower position of
rotation is counteracted by a nose--up force caused by the downward the center of gravity.
load on the tail. The nose--down force caused by the CG’s position
ahead of the center of lift is fixed and does not change with airspeed. Most aircraft wings tilt upward from the fuselage, and this upward
The tail load is speed--dependant: the higher the airspeed, the angle (called a dihedral) gives the aircraft lateral stability.
greater the downward force on the tail.
The aircraft is flying with the pilot’s hands and feet off the controls. If a
If the aircraft is trimmed for level flight with the pilot’s hands off the wind gust causes the right wing to drop, the air striking the
controls, and a wind gust causes the nose to drop, the aircraft will descending wing will increase its angle of attack, and the air striking
nose down and the airspeed will increase. As the airspeed increases, the left rising wing will decrease its angle of attack. Since lift is
the tail load increases and pulls the nose back to its level flight determined by the angle of attack, the uneven lift will bring the aircraft
condition. back to level flight.
If the nose is forced up, the airspeed will drop off, and the tail load will Directional Stability
decrease enough to allow the nose to drop back to level flight.
Lateral Stability
Figure 3: Lateral Stability Figure 4: Directional Stability

Directional stability is achieved about the vertical axis of an aircraft. An aircraft’s propeller forces air to rotate around the fuselage in a
The construction of the vertical stabiliser (fin) together with the rudder corkscrew--like manner. This causes the air to strike the vertical fin in
provide directional stability. such a way that it produces an angle of attack which results in a
sideways force.
Directional stability causes the nose of an aircraft to turn into the
relative wind when it has been disturbed from this condition. It is To prevent this yawing force, most single--engine, propeller driven
achieved primarily by the weather--vane tendency of the vertical fin aircraft have the leading edge of the vertical fin offset a few degrees.
. This places the fin directly into the relative wind when the aircraft is
When the aircraft is flying straight into the wind, the air flows evenly flying at its normal cruising airspeed, with its engine running at a
around the fin, and there is no sideways force on the tail. If a wind specific speed.
gust strikes the aircraft and forces the nose e.g. to the right, the air
striking the vertical fin gives it an angle of attack. This increases the Sweepback
lift on the right hand side and pulls the tail around until the aircraft is
heading back into the relative wind.
Propeller Slipstream
Figure 5: Propeller Slipstream Figure 6: Sweepback

The sweepback of wings, normally a measure designed to improve

high speed aerodynamics, also has an effect on directional stability.
When an aircraft with a swept--back wing is struck by an air gust that
causes the nose to yaw e.g. to the left, the right wing moves into the
wind and the left wing moves back. More air is now flowing straight
back across the right wing, producing more induced drag than the left
wing. As a result the nose is pulled back to the right.
8.4.1.2 Static Stability
Static stability of an aircraft means that the aircraft after being

disturbed from its attitude by a gust or other influences will return to
its former attitude without the help of a pilot. Static stability is
performed by construction.
If the nose of an aircraft that has positive longitudinal static stability is

forced up or down, and the controls are released, established forces
will bring the nose back to level flight.
Static stability can further be classified according to the nature of the

aircraft response to forces tending to displace it from a steady flight
path:
 Stability is said to be ’positive’ when the aircraft is able to

recover its original steady flight path without requiring
correction.
 Stability is said to be ’neutral’ when the aircraft, after
displacement, maintains the displaced attitude, i.e. it will
recover its original attitude only after correction.
 Stability is said to be ’negative’ if the disturbing forces and
moments cause the aircraft to assume an entirely different
attitude.
Figure 7: Stability Classifications

8.4.1.3 Dynamic Stability Although stability of an aircraft about all 3 axis is required, instability
or indifference is produced
Static stability is the production of a restorative force to bring an
aircraft back to a condition of straight and level flight. Dynamic  by construction
stability is the decrease of these forces with time.  by incorrect handling of the trim devices.
Dynamic stability refers to the oscillatory behaviour of an aircraft in

8.4.1.4 Degree of Stability
response to a disturbing force.
The degree of stability is a very important factor as it limits the degree
of control for any particular category of aircraft. As mentioned above,
stability is defined as the property (or capability) of a system (aircraft)
to return to (or remain in) a state of equilibrium after having been
disturbed and moved from a state of steady and unaccelerated flight.
This definition, applied to an aircraft, is read:
’An aircraft will statically be stable if it returns to its steady flight

condition, i.e. to the state of static equilibrium, as soon as the
disturbing force has stopped acting.’
Static stability is important, but will not be sufficient to ensure safe,

Figure 8: Dynamic Longitudinal Stability controlled flying.
The oscillating behaviour of an aircraft in relation to the time taken for An aircraft must have a certain level of dynamic stability in addition to
a complete recovery is a measure of dynamic stability. Complete static stability:
recovery should, of course, be possible without any pilot’s effort.
’An aircraft will dynamically be stable if it returns to its original steady
Dynamic stability of an aircraft is achieved by the help of secondary flight attitude, i.e. to the state of dynamic equilibrium, without
control surfaces which are attached or integrated into the primary undergoing large changes in pitch attitude.’
control surfaces of an aircraft. Small surfaces like trim tabs at the
ailerons, elevator and rudder will correct disturbing influences such as Refer to Figure 8 again.
different fuel capacities in the several fuel tanks in the fuselage or
wings. These trim tabs are controlled by the pilot. Some aircraft recover their original steady flight attitude without
undergoing large displacements in pitch. Other aircraft may need

large displacements. Unstable aircraft will never at all recover the

original attitude again.
An aircraft with positive static stability and positive dynamic stability

will oscillate with damped oscillations as it returns to its original
condition.
An aircraft with positive static and neutral dynamic stability will

oscillate with undamped oscillations.
An aircraft with positive static stability and negative dynamic stability

will, when disturbed, oscillate with divergent oscillations.
Summing up, static stability is an essential prerequisite for dynamic

stability. The converse is not true. This means that it is possible to
have a statically stable system without necessarily being dynamically
stable. On the other hand a statically unstable aircraft will never have
dynamic stability.
Figure 9: International Training & Support

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Training Manual

PART 66 – Basic Training

For Training Purposes Only Page 2 of 49

8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mass of air which surrounds the earth and

There are five separate areas known in the atmosphere:

For Training Purposes Only Page 3 of 49

8.1.1.2 Composition of the Atmosphere

Air is a mixture of gases in relatively uniform proportions throughout

From a height of approx. 20 km the amount of oxygen decreases at a

As stated before the amount of water vapour in the air depends on

For Training Purposes Only Page 6 of 49

Above 11,000 m the temperature remains constant at --56.5 °C up to a

8.1.1.5 Application to Aerodynamics

Aircraft performance and behaviour is affected by changes in air

For Training Purposes Only Page 7 of 49

8.2.1.2 Kinetic, Potential and Total Energy

Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its

Figure 1: Airflow through a Venturi Tube

For Training Purposes Only Page 8 of 49

Figure 2: Static Pressure and Dynamic Pressure

For Training Purposes Only Page 9 of 49

Static Pressure The dynamic pressure can mathematically be expressed as:

As already stated, the weight of the air in the atmosphere creates a 1

Dynamic Pressure Total Pressure

For Training Purposes Only Page 10 of 49

𝑝−𝑝∞ 𝑐 This reaction (or, actually: a combination of reactions) is known as

For Training Purposes Only Page 11 of 49

Subsonic aerodynamics consider the airflow to be noncompressible,

Subsonic airfoils may be asymmetrical or symmetrical in shape. A

If the surface of an airfoil could be perfectly smooth and the air

This randomly flowing air is called ’boundary layer’ and it is important

Figure 5: Airflow over an Airfoil

Lift can be increased by increasing the angle of attack. As a rough

Different Types of Drag

Drag is the force of resistance experienced by a body moving through

There are several different types of drag for an aircraft:

Pressure drag is the drag on a body moving through a fluid as a result

For Training Purposes Only Page 13 of 49

The influence of pressure drag can be observed for objects with

So pressure drag can be considerably reduced by streamlining.

Figure 7: Effect of Shaping on Drag

For Training Purposes Only Page 14 of 49

Skin Friction Drag

The drag caused by a laminar boundary layer is lower than that of a

For Training Purposes Only Page 15 of 49

Induced Drag Interference Drag

Interference drag is caused by the interference of airstreams which

Figure 9: Induced Drag Parasite Drag

For Training Purposes Only Page 16 of 49

much more drag is generated. This additional drag is called wave

 profile drag (which is the sum of pressure and skin friction

Figure 10: Effect of Downwash

For Training Purposes Only Page 17 of 49

Vortices It is mathematically impossible for a vortex line to have loose ends.

Figure 11: Vortices

For Training Purposes Only Page 18 of 49

Figure 13: Stagnation Point

An important line on an airfoil is the line where the airflow separates

There is another stagnation line running spanwise along the trailing

For Training Purposes Only Page 19 of 49

With all other details being equal, an increase in aspect ratio

The ratio of length to breadth (or: diameter) of a streamlined shape is