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Biochemistry Notes

Written by:

SOHAIL SARWAR BHATTi

(S.S.B)
Student:-
M.sc Botany 3rd semester

Contact info:-
0303-3957470
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(S.S.B)

ALKALOIDS
The term Alkaloid is introduced first time by German chemist “CARL
F.W Meissner in 1819.
They are basic in nature so their name is derived from alkali.

Definition=

The naturally occurring organic compounds which are basic in

nature and containing one or more nitrogen atom, having
heterocyclic ring structure and have specific physiological affect on
human or animal body.

OCCURENCE:=
Alkaloids are found primarily in plants and are especially common in
certain families of flowering plants. More than 3,000 different types
of alkaloids have been identified in a total of more than
4,000 plant species. In general, a given species contains only a few
kinds of alkaloids, though both the opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum) and the ergot fungus (Claviceps) each contain about
30 different types. Certain plant families are particularly rich in
alkaloids; all plants of the poppy family (Papaveraceae) are thought
to contain them, for example. The Ranunculaceae (buttercups),
Solanaceae (nightshades), and Amaryllidaceae (amaryllis) are
other prominent alkaloid-containing families. A few alkaloids have
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been found in animal species, such as the New
World beaver (Castor canadensis) and poison-dart
frogs (Phyllobates). Ergot and a few other fungi (like ome
aspergillus families)
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Physiological Effect=
 Atropine increases firing of the sinoatrial node
(SA) and
conduction through the atrioventricular node (AV)
of the heart,
opposes the actions of the vagus nerve , blocks
acetylcholine receptor sites, and decreases
bronchial secretions.
 Caffeine is vasoconstrictor and stimulant.it
increase blood pressure.
 Heroin use includes,
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treatment for acute pain, such as in severe
physical trauma, myocardial infarction, post -
surgical pain, and chronic pain, including end -
stage cancer and other terminal illnesses.
 Morphine is used against pain in myocardial
infarction, pain in sickle cell crisis. pain
associated with surgical conditions, pre-and
postoperatively , pain associated with
trauma,severe chronic pain, eg., cancer etc.
 Nicotine, in adrenal medulla by the release of
epinephrine ( adrenaline ) into blood causes
an increase in heart rate , blood pressure and
respiration , as well as higher blood glucose
levels.it also affect the CNS and PNS.
 Papaverine effects involved in polymorphic
ventricular tachycardia, excess sweatning at
face, constipation, arterial hypotension , mixed
hepatitis, headache , allergic reaction, chronic
active hepatitis etc.
 Solanine poisoning is primarily displayed by
gastro intestinal and neurological disorders .
Symptoms include nausea , diarrhea ,
vomiting , stomach cramps , burning of the
throat ,headache and dizziness . paralysis,
fever, jaundice, dilated pupils.
 Cannabis involved in short-term physical and
neurological effects include increased heart
rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of
psychomotor coordination, concentration, and
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short-term episodic and working memory .
Long - term effects are less clear.

Solanine=-
Introduction…
Solanine is a glyco alkaloid poison found in
species of the nightshade family ( solanaceae ) ,
such as potatoes. It can occur naturally in any part
of the plant, including the leaves, fruit, and tubers.
It is very toxic even in small quantities. Solanine
has both fungicidal and pesticidal properties, and it
is one of the plant's natural defenses. Solanine
was first isolated in 1820 by Desfosses from the
berries of the European Black Night shade ,
Solano nigrum, after which it was named.

Chemical nature:-
Chemical formula: C45H73NO15
 White crystalline solid
 Melting point 271—273C°

Symptoms=
Solanine poisoning is primarily displayed by gastro
intestinal and neurological disorders . Symptoms
include nausea , diarrhea , vomiting , stomach
cramps , burning of the throat , heart arrhythmia ,
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headache and dizziness . Hallucinations, loss of
sensation, paralysis, fever, jaundice, dilated pupils
and hypothermia have been reported in more
severe cases.

Modes of action=-
One study suggests that the toxic mechanism of
solanine is caused by the chemical's interaction
with mitochondrial membranes . Experiments show
that solanine exposure opens the potassium
channels of mitochondria, increasing their
membrane potential. This in turn leads to Ca 2+
being transported down its concentration gradient
into the mitochondria, and it is this increased
concentration of Ca 2+ in the cell that triggers cell
damage and apoptosis .

In potatose=
Solanine occurs naturally in many species of the
genus Solanum, including potatoes ( Solanum
tuberosum ) , tomatoes ( Solanum lycopersicum ) ,
eggplant ( Solanum melongena ) , and bittersweet
nightshade ( Solanum dulcamara ) .Potatoes
naturally produce solanine and chaconine , a
related glycol alkaloid, as a defense mechanism
against insects, disease, and predators. Potato
leaves, stems and shoots are naturally high in
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glycolalkaloids. Mechanically damaged potatoes
also produce increased levels of glycoalkaloids.

Uses of solanine=-
Solanine has fungicidal and pesticidal properties ,
and solanine hydrochloride ( a salt of solanine )
has been used as a commercial pesticide, but
never on a large scale . It has been used as a
treatment for asthma, as well as for cough and
cold medicines . However, its effectiveness for
either use is questionable .
Chemical nature:-
 Chemical formula:- C17H19NO3
 Molecular wieght 285.34 g/mol

Morphine =

Morphine (INN) (pronounced /ˈmɔrfiːn/)

(MS Contin, MSIR, Avinza, Kadian, Oramorph,
Roxanol) is a highly potent opiate analgesic
psychoactive drug, is the principal active
ingredient in Papaver somniferum (opium poppy,
or simply opium), is considered to be the
prototypical opioid. Like other opioids, e.g.
oxycodone ( OxyContin, Percocet, Percodan),
hydromorphone ( Dilaudid, Palladone ) , and
diacetylmorphine (Heroin), morphine acts directly
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on the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve
pain. Morphine has a high potential for addiction;
tolerance and both physical and psychological
dependence develop rapidly.
 It involved in Pain relief or analgesia
 Cough suppressance
 Anti diarrheal effects
 Side effects :
Bradycardia or decreased heart rate
Cardiac arrest, cessation of heartbeat, or heart
failure
Hypotension or decreased blood pressure.

Modes of Action:-
The human body naturally produces its own
opiate-like substances and uses them as
neurotransmitters. These substances include
endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphin, often
collectively known as endogenous opioids.
Endogenous opioids modulate our reactions to
painful stimuli. They also regulate vital functions
such as hunger and thirst and are involved in
mood control, immune response, and other
processes.The reason that opiates such as heroin
and morphine affect us so powerfully is that these
exogenous substances bind to the same receptors
as our endogenous opioids. There are three kinds
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of receptors widely distributed throughout the
brain: mu, delta, and kappa receptors.These
receptors, through second messengers, influence
the likelihood that ion channels will open, which in
certain cases reduces the excitability of neurons.
This reduced excitability is the likely source of the
euphoric effect of opiates and appears to be
mediated by the mu and delta receptors.This
euphoric effect also appears to involve another
mechanism in which the GABA-inhibitory
interneurons of the ventral tegmental area come
into play. By attaching to their mu receptors,
exogenous opioids reduce the amount of GABA
released (see animation). Normally, GABA
reduces the amount of dopamine released in the
nucleus accumbens. By inhibiting this inhibitor, the
opiates ultimately increase the amount of
dopamine produced and the amount of pleasure
felt.Chronic consumption of opiates inhibits the
production of cAMP, but this inhibition is offset in
the long run by other cAMP production
mechanisms. When no opiates are available, this
increased cAMP production capacity comes to the
fore and results in neural hyperactivity and the
sensation of craving the drug.

Theine and Caffeine :-

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The theine and caffeine are alkaloids naturally
produced in coffee and tea plants.Both are
stimulent to central nervous system (CNS).
They are mostly found in coffee beans , tea leaves
and chocolate etc.
Chemical nature:-
Caffeine is a drug chemically 1,3,7-
trimethylxanthine.it is an odourless white

crystalline powder that has ability to stimulate

CNS.

Caffeine has similar structure to adenosine

which is naturally occuring neurotransmitter in
brain.so it occupies adenosine receptor and
inhibits brain cell function so alterness
restores.
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Modes of action:-
In brain neurons are transmitting electrical energy
when activity is too high adenosine molecules stop
neuron cells from firing.caffeine blocks adenosine
receptor with its own molecule that is mimic same
like adenosine the caffeine molecule prevent
adenosine to binding with receptor, so the brain
activity remain at excited state because adenosine
unable to slow it down.the binding of caffeine to
adenosine receptor causes a shape change that
does not initiate a biochemical process, instead
neuronal activity remain same or increase.

Effects:-
 Prevent Alzheimer
 Increase memory
 Detoxes liver
 Stimulate hair growth
 Releives in pain
 Prevent skin cancer
 Heart rate and blood pressure increase
 Cause Diabetes
 Loss of sleep etc.
Theine:-
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Caffeine and theine are same substance both
are found in tea and coffee.the theine have
same affect on central nervous system (CNS).
Its chemical formula is given below:-

the effect of theine is slower than caffeine but

affect of theine is long lasting and healthier.
It is less acidic than coffee.the mode of action
of theine is same like caffeine.
Effects:-
 Act as anti oxidants
 Heart disease
 Weight loss
 Control high blood

Aflatoxin:-
Aflatoxin: A toxin produced by mold that can
damage the liver and may lead to liver cancer.
Aflatoxins cause cancer in some animals.The fungi
that produce aflatoxin grow on crops such as
peanuts (especially) and wheat, corn, beans and
rice. Aflatoxin is a problem particularly in
undeveloped and developing countries.Aflatoxin is
a naturally occurring mycotoxin produced by two
types of mold: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus
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parasiticus. Long-term exposure can have serious
health consequences!
AFB1
is known to be carcinogenic in humans; the
potency of aflatoxin to cause liver cancer is
significantly enhanced in the presence of infection
with hepatitis B virus (HBV);
‹ aflatoxins are mutagenic in bacteria (affect the
DNA), genotoxic, and have the potential to cause
birth defects in children;
‹ children may become stunted, although these
data have yet to be confirmed because other
factors also contribute to growth faltering e.g. low
socioeconomic status, chronic diarrhoea,
infectious diseases, malnutrition;
‹ aflatoxins cause immunosuppression, therefore
may decrease resistance to infectious agents (e.g.
HIV, tuberculosis)
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mechanism of Action:-
The chief site of aflatoxin action is liver cells.action
of AFB1 begin with the ingestion of contaminated
food.
System in liver metabolize aflatoxin B1.the
cytochrome p450 catalyze the epoxidation of
AFB1 to yield active forms known as AFB1-8,9
Which are of two kinds exo-epoxide and endo-
epoxide.it is the AFB1-8,9-exo-epoxide which
exerts hepatocarcinogenic affects of AFB1.
AfB1 metabolism results in formation of aflatoxins
Q1,M1,P1.These metabolites as well as other
naturally occuring aflatoxins are poor mutagenics
and less carcinogenic than AFB1.
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AFB1 attacks on DNA and affect the guanine.it
binds to N7 position of guanine and forms AFB1-
N7 guanine.this adduct in target cells.These
adduct induce DNA mutations primarily through G
to T transversion at third base of codon 249 of
protein p53 that is tumor suppressor genes in
human liver cells.it is functioning during cell cycle
and role in DNA repair.the mutation in p53 cause
permanent changes in p53 gene.this cause worst
affect on DNA and as a result tumors are formed
in liver cells that tumors are known as
hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).