metals

Article
Characteristics of Metal Magnetic Memory Testing
of 35CrMo Steel during Fatigue Loading
Zhibin Hu 1 , Jianchun Fan 1, *, Shengnan Wu 1 , Haoyuan Dai 1 and Shujie Liu 2
1 College of Mechanical and Transportation Engineering, China University of Petroleum-Beijing,
Beijing 102200, China; 2015314032@student.cup.edu.cn (Z.H.); wushengnan@cup.edu.cn (S.W.);
daihaoyuan@hotmail.com (H.D.)
2 China National Offshore Oil Corporation, Beijing 100029, China; 18811386724@163.com
* Correspondence: fanjianchun@cup.edu.cn; Tel.: +10-8973-3861

Received: 29 December 2017; Accepted: 4 February 2018; Published: 8 February 2018

Abstract: The fatigue fracture of a drillstring could cause drilling disturbances and some negative
impacts (e.g., economic loss) will be brought when restoring the drillstring to functionality. In order
to evaluate the effects of the fatigue damage of the drillstring during drilling, a new apparatus,
which could monitor the load level in real-time, was built to perform the four-point bending fatigue
test on 35CrMo steel, a typical material of drillstrings. Such an apparatus is based on metal magnetic
memory (MMM) technology and can acquire the tangential and normal components of MMM signals.
Based on the analysis of the change of surface morphology and MMM signals, it was concluded
that the variation of MMM signals could be divided into four stages, which are used to accurately
describe the fatigue damage process of the drillstring. Additionally, the MMM signal characteristics
are introduced to especially evaluate the fatigue damage of the drillstring, including crack initiation.
Furthermore, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results demonstrated that morphologies of
fatigue fracture were related to the variation of MMM signals. Linear fitting results indicated that
fatigue crack length had a good linear relationship with the characteristics, so it is feasible to monitor
fatigue damage and predict the residual life of a drillstring by using MMM technology.

Keywords: fatigue fracture of drillstring; four-point bending fatigue test; surface morphology; MMM
signal characteristics; SEM

1. Introduction
A drillstring is a long, hollow tubular structure used to drive the drill bit from the surface to
the oil and gas area [1]. The drillstring is made up of numerous drill pipes by means of tapered
threaded connections. During the drilling process, the drillstring often suffers from early failure under
large stress mutation caused by alternating loads [2]. Most of its failures are in the form of fatigue
damage [3,4]. Investigation shows that 14% of oil and gas wells experienced underground fracture
accidents of drillstrings to different degrees [5], and the average costs of a drilling accident caused
by drillstring fracture is as high as $250 million [6,7]. Therefore, monitoring stress concentration or
microcracks at the early stage during drilling and promptly taking precautions before crack propagation
is of great significance to prevent fatigue failure of drillstrings.
The metal magnetic memory (MMM) method is a kind of non-destructive testing technology
which can monitor stress concentration and early damage of a drillstring to effectively further prevent
the occurrence of fracture accidents [8–11]. Different from the traditional non-destructive testing
methods, the MMM method can detect the residual magnetic field induced by the mechanical stress
and the geomagnetic field, and the object can be directly detected without artificial magnetization.
It has shown good prospects of development and application in the fatigue damage detection of
ferromagnetic materials [12]. In addition, the sensor, based on large magneto-resistance effects,

Metals 2018, 8, 119; doi:10.3390/met8020119 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2018, 8, 119 2 of 15

has the characteristics of small volume, high sensitivity, small structure, and high reliability [13,14],
which facilitates the detection of drillstring fatigue.
Experimental studies based on MMM signals have been carried out to investigate fatigue damage
of ferromagnetic materials [15–25]. Li et al. [20] measured the variation of Hp (y) signals during rotary
bending fatigue experiments, and the results showed that magnetization under tensile stress was
different from that under compressive stress. Leng et al. [21] measured the Hp (y) signals on the
specimen’s surface at different fatigue stages and found that the surface magnetic fields generated
contain reversible and irreversible processes prior to failure, while there was a substantial increase
just before fracture. Shi et al. [22] found that the stress concentration factor extremely affects the
variation of Hp (y) signals through dynamic tension fatigue test. Dong et al. [23] extracted the
∆Hp (y) value, peak-to-peak value of Hp (y), during tension–tension fatigue tests and an approximate
linear relationship was found between ∆Hp (y) and the fatigue crack length. Huang et al. [24,25]
studied the variation of Hp (y) and its maximum gradient Kmax under the dynamic bending load and
found that Kmax was potentially a very useful indicator to monitor the fatigue crack propagation for
a ferromagnetic structural steel.
In short, based on the literature review, the main limitations mentioned above are summarized
as follows: Most studies have focused on the variation of Hp (y) signal of ferromagnetic materials
during the fatigue process [20–25]. Several issues, however, need to be further investigated when
it is applied to assess the fatigue state of a drillstring. The morphology of the specimen’s surface
corresponding to the variation of the MMM signals is ignored. In fact, the change of the magnetic
field on the surface of specimen is mainly caused by the change of the microstructure. Additionally,
Hp (x) is considered as a key indicator for fatigue damage evaluation due to the same important role
in MMM signals compared with Hp (y). The results of MMM detection are affected by the material
type and load type [17,20], and missing detection may occur if the detection results are obtained only
from the Hp (y) signal. Thus, the combination of Hp (x) and Hp (y) signals may reduce the probability of
missing detection.
Therefore, the objective of the current work is to analyze the change of Hp (x) and Hp (y) signal
during a four-point bending fatigue test, which corresponds to the results of the morphology on the
specimen’s surface by a CCD (charge coupled device) camera. Meanwhile, the SEM of the specimen’s
surface and fracture is analyzed and the crack mechanism is studied by metallographical structure
observations. The possible reasons for the variation of MMM signals, Hp (x) and Hp (y), with their
characteristics, Hp (x)min , K(x)max , and K(y)max , are discussed.

2. Experimental Procedures

2.1. Experimental Instrument

All fatigue tests were carried out on a homemade four-point bending fatigue testing machine.
Figures 1 and 2 are schematic diagrams of the experimental apparatus and loading, respectively.
A constant amplitude fatigue test could be conducted on the test machine, whose eccentric wheel is
driven by the motor, pushing colliding sphere to reciprocate back and forth. The indenter applied
a load on the specimen under the action of a push rod. A pressure sensor was installed to monitor the
pressure variation. The parts of the testing machine were made of non-magnetic materials to avoid
interference from external magnetic field. The stress ratio “R” was zero, and frequency “f” was 5 Hz
during the fatigue test.
Tangential and normal components of MMM signals, Hp (x) and Hp (y), were measured by large
magneto-resistance sensors [13,14] along the south–north direction. The sensors were fixed on a 3D
electrical scanning platform made of non-magnetic materials. The lift-off value between the sensors
and the surface of specimen was 2 mm. During the detection, the moving velocity of the electric
machine was 10 mm/s, and the sampling frequency was 500 Hz.
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Figure
Figure 1. Schematic
1. Schematic diagramofofthe
diagram thefour-point
four-point bending
bendingfatigue
fatigueexperiment apparatus.
experiment apparatus.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the four-point bending fatigue experiment apparatus.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the four-point bending fatigue experiment apparatus.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the load (Unit: mm).

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the load (Unit: mm).
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the load (Unit: mm).
2.2. Specimen Preparation Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the load (Unit: mm).
2.2. Specimen Preparation
2.2. Specimen The Preparation
specimen was directly cut from a new full-size API five-inch drill pipe which was made of
2.2. The specimen
Specimen was directly cut from a new full-size API five-inch drill pipe which was made of
Preparation
35CrMo
The steel.
specimen As a typical
was material
directly cut fromof drill pipe, full-size
a new 35CrMo steel API not only hasdrill
five-inch high yieldwhichstrength andmade
35CrMo steel. As a typical material of drill pipe, 35CrMo steel not only has highpipe yield strength was
and
ultimateThe strength,
specimen but also has a good impact toughness value. Its chemical composition and
of 35CrMo
ultimate steel. As a was
strength, but directly
typical hascut
alsomaterial a from aimpact
newpipe,
of drill
good full-size API five-inch
35CrMo
toughness Itsdrill
steel not
value. pipehas
only
chemical which
high was made
yield
composition of
strength
and
mechanical
35CrMo properties
steel. As a are given
typical materialin Tables
of 1 pipe,
drill and 2,35CrMo
and thesteelmechanical
not only properties
has high are represented
yield strength andat
mechanical
and ultimate properties
strength, butare given
also hasinaTables
good 1impact
and 2, and the mechanical
toughness value. properties
Its chemical are represented
composition at and
aultimate
room temperature
strength, but of 20 ± 4has
also °C. aThe
goodgeometry
impact of the specimen
toughness is presented
value. Its chemical in Figure 3. A small
composition and
a room properties
mechanical temperature of given
are 20 ± 4 in
°C.Tables
The geometry
1 and 2,ofandthethe
specimen is presented
mechanical propertiesin Figure
are 3. A small
represented at
precut artificial
mechanical notch, which
properties wasin2 Tables
are given mm wide 1 andand2,1.5andmm thedeep, was carefully
mechanical propertiescut by
areaarepresented
linear cutting at
a room precut artificial
temperature notch, which ◦was 2
of 20 ±of4theC.specimen.mm wide
The geometry and 1.5 mm deep, was carefully cut by linear cutting
machine
amachine on the surface
room temperature of 20 Testingof the “S1”
path specimenpassed isthe
presented
top of the innotch
Figure and3. was
A small
on the surface of±the
4 °C. The geometry
specimen. Testingofpath the specimen
“S1” passed is presented
the top ofinthe Figure
notch3.and A small
was
precut artificial
parallel
precut to notch,
the which
center line. was
The 2 mm
effective wide
testingand 1.5
distance mm deep,
“L” was was
15 carefully
mm. In cut
order toby a
providelinear cutting
more
parallelartificial notch,line.
to the center whichThe was 2 mm wide
effective testing and 1.5 mm“L”
distance deep,
waswas15 carefully
mm. In ordercut bytoa provide
linear cutting
more
machine on
realistic
machine the
data surface
on thefor MMMof the specimen.
technique whichTesting
was path
applied “S1”
to passed
the damage the top
of theof the notch
drillstring, and
the was
specimenparallel
realistic data for surface of the specimen.
MMM technique which was Testing
applied pathto “S1” passed of
the damage thethetop of the notch
drillstring, and was
the specimen
to themaintained
center
parallel line.
to the
the Theoriginal
center magnetic
effective
line. testing
The field
effective during
distance
testing the
“L”
maintained the original magnetic field during the fatigue test.
fatigue
was
distance 15 test.
mm.
“L” wasIn order
15 mm. toInprovide
order tomore
provide realistic
more data
for MMM technique
realistic data for which was applied
MMM technique whichto the
wasdamage
applied to of the
thedamage
drillstring, the
of the specimenthe
drillstring, maintained
specimen the
maintained
original magnetic thefield
original
duringmagnetic field during
the fatigue test. the fatigue test.

Figure 3. Geometry and dimensions of the specimen (unit: mm).

Figure 3. Geometry and dimensions of the specimen (unit: mm).

Table 1. Chemical components (%) of the specimen material.

Figure 3. Geometry
Figure
Table and
3.1.Geometry
Chemical dimensions
and (%)of
dimensions
components the
ofthe specimen(unit:
thespecimen
specimen (unit: mm).
mm).
material.
Material C Si Mn P S Cr Mo
Material C
Table Si components
1. Chemical Mn (%) ofPthe specimen S Cr Mo
Table
35CrMo 0.32~0.40 1. Chemical components
0.17~0.37 0.40~0.70(%) ≤0.035 ≤0.035 material.
of the specimen material.
0.80~1.10 0.15~0.25
35CrMo 0.32~0.40 0.17~0.37 0.40~0.70 ≤0.035 ≤0.035 0.80~1.10 0.15~0.25
Material C Si Mn P S Cr Mo
Material
35CrMo C0.32~0.40 Table 2.SiMechanicalMn P
properties of≤0.035
the specimen Smaterial. Cr 0.15~0.25 Mo
Table 2.0.17~0.37
Mechanical0.40~0.70 ≤0.035
properties of the specimen 0.80~1.10
material.
35CrMo
Material 0.32~0.40 0.17~0.37
Yield Strength σs (MPa) 0.40~0.70
Ultimate ≤σ0.035
Strength b (MPa) ≤0.035
Impact 0.80~1.10
Toughness Value аkv0.15~0.25
(J/cm2)
Material Yield Strength σs (MPa) Ultimate Strength σb (MPa) Impact Toughness Value аkv (J/cm2)
35CrMo Table 2. Mechanical properties
≥835 ≥985 of the specimen material. ≥78
35CrMo ≥835 ≥985 ≥78
Material Table 2.σsMechanical
Yield Strength (MPa) properties
Ultimate Strengthof
σbthe specimen
(MPa) Impactmaterial.
Toughness Value аkv (J/cm2)
35CrMo ≥835 ≥985 ≥78
Material Yield Strength σs (MPa) Ultimate Strength σb (MPa) Impact Toughness Value akv (J/cm2 )
35CrMo ≥835 ≥985 ≥78
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2.3.2.3.
Arrangement
Arrangement
2.3. Arrangement
In In
order
orderto observe
to observe
observe the the
accumulation
accumulation of plastic
of plasticdeformation
plastic deformationand crack propagation
and crack
crack on the
propagation onsurface
the
In order to the accumulation of deformation and propagation on the
of the specimen
surface of the clearly,
specimen the surface
clearly, of
the the specimen
surface of the was polished
specimen was with 1200
polished SiC
withpaper
1200 and
SiC cleaned
paper andwith
surface of the specimen clearly, the surface of the specimen was polished with 1200 SiC paper and
ethanol
cleaned and acetone
with ethanol prior
andtoacetone
testing.prior
acetone The to experiments
testing. TheThewere performed
experiments wereunder the room
performed temperature
under room of
the room
cleaned with ethanol and prior to testing. experiments were performed under the
± 4 ◦ C with an
20 temperature of ambient
20 ± 4 °C relative
with an humidityrelative
ambient of about 20 ± 5%.
humidity of At the 20
about beginning
± 5%. At of the
the test, the of
beginning number
the
temperature of 20 ± 4 °C with an ambient relative humidity of about 20 ± 5%. At the beginning of the
of test,
cycles thefor detection
number of was 1for
cycles and 300. After
detection was the
1 fatigue
and 300. cyclesthe
After reached
fatigue 1000,
cycles the interval
reached cycles
1000, the of
test, the number of cycles for detection was 1 and 300. After the fatigue cycles reached 1000, the
detection
intervalchanged
interval cyclesof
cycles to 2000. The
ofdetection
detection changedmorphology
changed to2000.
to 2000.The of the
The specimen’s
morphology
morphology surface
ofthe
of was observed
thespecimen’s
specimen’s surfacewas
surface withobserved
was an optical
observed
with
microscope an optical
and a microscope
CCD camera. and a CCD
Meanwhile, camera.
MMM Meanwhile,
signals of MMM
the
with an optical microscope and a CCD camera. Meanwhile, MMM signals of the specimen surface signals
specimen of the
surface specimen
were surfaceby
detected
were
sensor detected
which can by
do sensor which
reciprocating can do
motion reciprocating
by use of motion
control by use
cabinet,
were detected by sensor which can do reciprocating motion by use of control cabinet, as shown of
as control
shown incabinet,
Figure as
4. shown
The in
fatigue
in
Figure
crack length
Figure 4. The
4. Thewas fatigue
measured
fatigue crack
crackby length was
the same
length measured
scale. After
was measured by
by thethe same scale.
the completion After the
of thethe
same scale. After completion
test, the crackof
completion of the test,
propagation
the test,
paththe crack
was propagation
analyzed by path
scanning was analyzed
electron by scanning
microscopy electron
(SEM). microscopy
Additionally,
the crack propagation path was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Additionally, in(SEM).
order Additionally,
to study the crackin
in
order to
mechanism,
order to study
study the crack
crack mechanism,
the metallographical
the mechanism,
structure the of
the metallographical
the specimen surface
metallographical structure
wasof
structure ofobserved.
the specimen
the specimenBefore surface was
observation,
surface was
observed.
theobserved.
surface near Before
Before observation,
theobservation,
notch was the the
etchedsurface
in 4%
surface near
nearnitalthe notch
thesolution
notch waswas etched
at etched in 4%
a roomintemperaturenital solution
of 20 at
4% nital solution at a room
◦
± a4 roomC after
temperature of
temperature of 20
20 ±± 44 °C
°C after
after polishing
polishing and and then
then observed
observed under
under an an optical
optical microscope.
microscope.
polishing and then observed under an optical microscope.

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of plastic deformation observation and MMM signals detection.
Figure
Figure 4.4.The
Theschematic
schematicdiagram
diagram of
of plastic
plastic deformation
deformationobservation
observationand
andMMM
MMMsignals detection.
signals detection.
3. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
3. 3.
Results and Discussion
Three specimens
Three specimens were
were tested,
tested, and
and the
the results
results of
of them
them were
were similar.
similar. One
One ofof them
them was
was taken
taken for
for
Three specimens
instance, and a crackwere
was tested,
initiated andat the results
7000 cycles. of them
The were similar.
variation of maximumOne loading
of them value
was taken
“F” atfor
instance, and a crack was initiated at 7000 cycles. The variation of maximum loading value “F” at
instance, andfatigue
different a crackcycles
was initiated
is shown
shown atin7000 cycles.
Figure Thethe
5. At
At variation of maximum
beginning fatigue loading
of fatigue “F”value
test, “F” “F”
was stable. at different
stable. After
different fatigue cycles is in Figure 5. the beginning of test, was After
fatigue
7000 cycles
cycles,is fatigue
shown in Figure
crack 5. At the
initiated beginning
and fatigue of fatigue test,
specimen had “F” was stable.
obvious After 7000
irreversible cycles,
bending
7000 cycles, fatigue crack initiated and fatigue specimen had obvious irreversible bending
fatigue crack initiated
deformation.Under
Undertheand fatigue
thecondition
conditionofspecimen
ofconstant had obvious
constantdisplacement irreversible
displacementloading,
loading,“F” bending
“F”value deformation.
valuebegan
beganto toreduce. Under
Withthe
reduce.With
deformation.
condition
the crack
the crackofpropagation,
constant displacement
propagation, the downward
the downward loading,
trend“F”
trend value
of the
of “F”began
the “F” valueto
value reduce.
became
became With the
apparent,
apparent, crack
and
and thepropagation,
the “F” value
“F” value
decreased
thedecreased
downward in an accelerated
trend of the manner
“F” value when
became the fatigue
apparent, specimen
and thewas
“F” approaching
value fracture
decreased
in an accelerated manner when the fatigue specimen was approaching fracture after 19,000 in after
an 19,000
accelerated
cycles.when the fatigue specimen was approaching fracture after 19,000 cycles.
manner
cycles.

Figure 5. Thevariation
variation of max loading
loading value “F” at different fatigue cycles.
Figure5.5.The
Figure The variation of max loading value“F”
value “F”at
atdifferent
differentfatigue
fatigue cycles.
cycles.
Metals 2018, 8, 119 5 of 15

3.1. Morphology of the Specimen’s Surface

During the fatigue process, the results of the CCD camera at different cycles are shown in Figure 6.
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
A picture was taken as a reference before the test (Figure 6a). It can be seen from Figure 6 that the
variation ofMorphology
3.1. morphology of theon the specimen’s
Specimen’s Surface surface during the whole fatigue process could be divided
into approximately three stages:
During the fatigue process, the the initial stage
results (before
of the 300 cycles),
CCD camera the steady
at different stage
cycles are (300intoFigure
shown 7000 cycles),
and the6.crack propagation stage (after 7000 cycles). In the initial stage, plastic
A picture was taken as a reference before the test (Figure 6a). It can be seen from Figure 6 that the deformation appeared
and intensified
variation of significantly
morphology on asthethe numbersurface
specimen’s of fatigue
duringcycles
the whole increased (Figure
fatigue process 6a–c).
could Dislocation
be divided
into
densities had approximately
an approximate three stages:
linear the initial stagewith
relationship (before
the300 cycles),
plastic the steady stage
deformation (300so
[26,27], to the
7000increase
cycles), and the crack propagation stage (after 7000 cycles). In the initial stage, plastic deformation
of plastic deformation represented the accumulation of dislocation. After 300 cycles, dislocation
appeared and intensified significantly as the number of fatigue cycles increased (Figure 6a–c).
blockings [22] near the notch appeared after the rapid accumulation of plastic deformation in the initial
Dislocation densities had an approximate linear relationship with the plastic deformation [26,27], so
stage, and
the plastic
increase deformation stoppedrepresented
of plastic deformation growing the rapidly (Figure of
accumulation 6c,d). The coalescence
dislocation. of growing
After 300 cycles,
dislocations resulted
dislocation in crack[22]
blockings initiation
near the in the
notchmaximal
appeared stress
afterconcentration area, as shown
the rapid accumulation in Figure 6e.
of plastic
deformation
There were in the initial stage,
many microcracks formedand plastic deformation
by plastic stopped accumulation
deformation growing rapidlyaround
(Figure 6c,d). The crack
the main
coalescence
propagation path at of growing
the earlydislocations
stage of crack resulted in crack initiation
propagation (Figure in the
6f) maximal stress concentration
and, afterward, the length of the
area, as shown in Figure 6e. There were many microcracks formed by plastic deformation
crack grew steadily with the increase in the number of fatigue cycles (Figure 6g). The fatigue specimen
accumulation around the main crack propagation path at the early stage of crack propagation (Figure
had severe irreversible bending deformation when approaching fracture (Figure 6h).
6f) and, afterward, the length of the crack grew steadily with the increase in the number of fatigue
Thecycles
morphologies
(Figure 6g).of The fatigue
fatiguefracture through
specimen had SEM severeare shown inbending
irreversible Figure 7.deformation
The crack whenpropagation
path is approaching
shown by fracture the arrows(Figurein 6h).Figure 7a and it also shows the general view of the fracture
The morphologies
surfaces [28,29] indicating theofareas fatigue fracture
for through
(i) crack SEM are
initiation shown
(CI); in Figure
(ii) fatigue 7. Thegrowth,
crack crack propagation
and propagation
(CGP), and final fracture (FF). At the end of fatigue crack growth and propagation, thesurfaces
path is shown by the arrows in Figure 7a and it also shows the general view of the fracture surface of the
[28,29] indicating the areas for (i) crack initiation (CI); (ii) fatigue crack growth, and propagation
fracture was rough in Figure 7a. This was because when crack propagation was close to the critical
(CGP), and final fracture (FF). At the end of fatigue crack growth and propagation, the surface of the
dimension, thewas
fracture residual
rough section
in Figureof7a.the specimen
This was because waswhen
not enough to withstand
crack propagation the to
was close load, fatigue crack
the critical
entered dimension,
rapid propagation
the residual until finaloffracture
section the specimen[30].was As shown
not enough in Figure 7b, the
to withstand thestriation pattern
load, fatigue crackcould be
used to entered
distinguish rapidbetween
propagation fatigue crackfracture
until final initiation
[30]. and crackinpropagation,
As shown Figure 7b, theregarded as onecould
striation pattern of the main
be used to distinguish between fatigue crack initiation and crack propagation,
features for crack propagation [31]. The length “d” of the rack initiation zone along the crack propagation regarded as one of the
main features for crack propagation [31]. The length “d” of the rack initiation zone along the crack
path was about 20 µm, which confirmed the fatigue crack initiation at the surface/sub-surface [29].
propagation path was about 20 μm, which confirmed the fatigue crack initiation at the surface/sub-
Fatigue surface
striations and the secondary crack were observed at the crack propagation zone in Figure 7d,e.
[29]. Fatigue striations and the secondary crack were observed at the crack propagation zone
The final
in fracture
Figure 7d,e. surface hadfracture
The final an obvious surface ductile
had andimpled morphology
obvious ductile dimpled (Figure
morphology 7f), which
(Figure confirmed
7f),
that 35CrMo
which was a ductile
confirmed material.
that 35CrMo was a ductile material.

Figure 6. Cont.
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Figure 6. The morphology of specimen surface at different fatigue cycles: (a) 0 cycles; (b) 1 cycle; (c)
Figure 6.
Figure Themorphology
6. The morphologyofofspecimen
specimensurface
surfaceatatdifferent
different fatigue cycles: (a) 0 cycles;
(b) (b) 1 cycle;
300 cycles; (d) 1000 cycles; (e) 7000 cycles; (f) 9000 cycles; (g)fatigue cycles:
17,000 cycles; (a)(h)
and 0 23,000
cycles;
cycles.1 cycle; (c)
(c) 300 cycles; (d) 1000 cycles; (e) 7000 cycles; (f) 9000 cycles; (g) 17,000 cycles; and
300 cycles; (d) 1000 cycles; (e) 7000 cycles; (f) 9000 cycles; (g) 17,000 cycles; and (h) 23,000 cycles.(h) 23,000 cycles.

Figure 7. Morphologies of fatigue fracture through SEM along main crack propagation: (a) the whole
fracture surface morphology; (b) crack initiation zone and propagation zone; (c) amplification of the
crack initiation zone; (d) amplification of the crack propagation zone; (e) crack propagation zone at
high magnification; and (f) amplification of the final fracture.

Figure 7.The
Morphologies
specimen’sofsurface
fatiguewas
fracture through
observed SEM
along thealong
crackmain crack propagation:
propagation path by SEM (a) the
at whole
high
Figure 7. Morphologies of fatigue fracture through SEM along main crack propagation: (a) the whole
magnification
fracture (Figure 8), and
surface morphology; the results
(b) crack showed
initiation zonethat
and there were a zone;
propagation large (c)
number of secondary
amplification of the
fracture surface morphology; (b) crack initiation zone and propagation zone; (c) amplification of the
crackmicrocracks and plastic
initiation zone; deformation along
(d) amplification of thethe main
crack crack propagation
propagation path
zone; (e) afterpropagation
crack specimen fracture,
zone at
crack initiation zone; (d)that
amplification of the crackmorphology
propagation zone; (e) crack propagation zone at
highwhich demonstrated
magnification; the specimen’s
and (f) amplification ofsurface
the final fracture. after crack initiation included both the
highplastic
magnification; and (f) amplification of the final fracture.
deformation and microcracks in Figure 6e–h. The morphology of crack initiation zone (Figure
8d) was caused by including the fatigue accumulation before the crack initiation (Figure 6a–d) and
The specimen’s surface was observed along the crack propagation path by SEM at high
The early
magnification
crack propagation (Figure 6f), in which the fatigue accumulation at the early crack propagation
specimen’s surfaceandwas observed along the crack
thatpropagation path by SEM at high ofmagnification
(Figure (Figure
6f) led to8), the results
the formation showed
of secondary microcracks there were
in crack a large
initiation number
zone (Figure 8d).secondary
In
(Figure 8),
microcracks and the
and the results
plastic showed
deformation that there
along were
thethe a
main large number of secondary microcracks and plastic
addition, specimen’s surface away from crackcrack propagation
initiation path after
zone had obvious specimen
plastic deformationfracture,
deformation
which demonstratedalong the
in Figure 9, where main crack
that there propagation
the specimen’s path after
surface morphology
were no microcracks, specimen
which indicated after fracture,
thatcrack which
initiation
the variation demonstrated
included
of the specimenboththat
the
the specimen’s
surface surface
morphologymorphology
before after
crack crack
initiation initiation
(Figure included
6a–d) was both
caused
plastic deformation and microcracks in Figure 6e–h. The morphology of crack initiation zone (Figure the
by plastic
plastic deformation
deformation and
accumulation
microcracks in Figure again.
6e–h. This
Thethewas because the
morphology ofsurface morphology
crack initiation zoneaway from 8d)
(Figure the crack initiation
was caused byzone
including
8d) was caused by including fatigue accumulation before the crack initiation (Figure 6a–d) and
the was
fatigue less affected by
accumulation fatiguethe
before accumulation
crack after crack
initiation initiation,
(Figure 6a–d) which
and was preserved
early crack as the variation
propagation (Figure 6f),
early crack propagation (Figure 6f), in which the fatigue accumulation at the early
of the surface morphology before the crack initiation. The final fracture zone had a large amount of
crack propagation
in which6f)
(Figure theled fatigue
to theaccumulation
formation ofatsecondary
the early crack propagation
microcracks in crack(Figure 6f) ledzone
initiation to the formation
(Figure 8d). Inof
secondary microcracks in crack initiation zone (Figure 8d). In addition, the
addition, the specimen’s surface away from the crack initiation zone had obvious plastic deformation specimen’s surface away from
theFigure
in crack initiation
9, wherezone therehad obvious
were plastic deformation
no microcracks, in Figure that
which indicated 9, where there wereofnothe
the variation microcracks,
specimen
which indicated that the variation of the specimen surface morphology
surface morphology before crack initiation (Figure 6a–d) was caused by plastic deformation before crack initiation (Figure 6a–d)
was caused by plastic deformation accumulation again. This was because
accumulation again. This was because the surface morphology away from the crack initiation zone the surface morphology away
fromless
was the affected
crack initiation zoneaccumulation
by fatigue was less affected afterbycrack
fatigue accumulation
initiation, which after crack initiation,
was preserved as thewhich was
variation
of the surface morphology before the crack initiation. The final fracture zone had a large amount of
Metals 2018, 8, 119 7 of 15

Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15

preserved
Metals 2018, 8,asx FOR
the PEER
variation
REVIEWof the surface morphology before the crack initiation. The final fracture
7 of 15
zone
plastic deformation accumulation and secondary microcracks (Figure 8c,f), which were caused by8c,f),
had a large amount of plastic deformation accumulation and secondary microcracks (Figure the
plastic
which deformation accumulation and secondary microcracks (Figure 8c,f), 6h.
which were caused by the
severewere caused by
irreversible the severe
bending irreversible
deformation bending
in Figure deformation
6h. in Figure
severe irreversible bending deformation in Figure 6h.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Morphologies
Morphologies of of specimen
of surface through
specimen surface
surface through SEMSEM along
along thethe main
main crack
crack propagation:
propagation: (a)
(a) crack
crack
Figure 8. Morphologies specimen through SEM along the main crack propagation: (a) crack
initiation
initiation zone; (b)
zone; (b) crack
(b) crack propagation zone; (c) final fracture (d) amplification of the crack initiation
initiation zone; crack propagation zone; (c)
propagation zone; (c) final
final fracture
fracture (d)
(d) amplification
amplification of
of the
the crack
crack initiation
initiation
zone; (e)
zone; (e) amplification
amplification of
of the
the crack
crack propagation
propagation zone;
zone; and
and (f)
(f) amplification
amplificationofofthe
thefinal
finalfracture
fracturezone.
zone.
zone; (e) amplification of the crack propagation zone; and (f) amplification of the final fracture zone.

Figure 9. Morphology of the specimen’s surface away from crack initiation zone.
Figure 9. Morphology of the specimen’s surface away from crack initiation zone.
Figure 9. Morphology of the specimen’s surface away from crack initiation zone.
Figure 10 shows the metallographic structures near the notch after crack initiation. The fatigue
Figure 10 shows the metallographic structures near the notch after crack initiation. The fatigue
test condition was
Figure 10 was
shows the same as the above, and the crack initiated atafter
6800 cycles. The crack propagation
test condition thethe
samemetallographic
as the above,structures near initiated
and the crack the notchat 6800crack initiation.
cycles. The crackThepropagation
fatigue test
path went
condition was through
the same the
as lattice
the above,in Figure
and the 10,
crack which
initiated indicated
at 6800 that
cycles. Thethe crack
crack mechanism
propagation was
path went
path went through the lattice in Figure 10, which indicated that the crack mechanism was
transcrystalline
through rupture.
the lattice in Figure 10, which indicated that the crack mechanism was transcrystalline rupture.
transcrystalline rupture.
Metals 2018, 8, 119 8 of 15
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Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

Figure 10. Optical micrographs by SEM after crack initiation.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Optical
Optical micrographs
micrographs by
by SEM
SEM after
after crack
crack initiation.
initiation.

3.2. MMM Signals

3.2. Signals
3.2. MMM
MMM Signals
3.2.1. Before
3.2.1.
3.2.1. Before and
Before and after
and after Loading
after Loading
Loading
Figure 11
Figure 11 shows
11 shows the
shows the distributions
the distributions of
distributions of H
of Hpp(x)
(x) and H (y)
Hppp(y) of the specimen before and after loading.
Figure p (x) and
and H (y)ofofthe
thespecimen
specimenbefore
beforeand
andafter
afterloading.
loading.
Before
Before loading,
Before loading,
loading, thethe initial
theinitial H p(x) signal curve had a peak at the notch. The initial Hp(y) signal curve
initialHHpp(x)
(x)signal
signalcurve
curvehad
had a peak
a peak at the notch.
at the TheThe
notch. initial Hp (y)
initial Hpsignal curve
(y) signal had
curve
ahad
had aa peak
peak peak and
and aand aa trough
trough trough
near thenear
near the notch,
notch,
the notch, with
with the peak
with theon
the peak
the on
peak on the
leftthe left
andleft and
theand the trough
trough
the trough
on on the
the right.
on the right.
After After
loading
right. After
loading
one cycle,one
thecycle,
peakthethe peak
of H of Hpp(x)
(x) changed
signals changed
changed into trough,
trough, and the Hpp(x)
(x)curve
signaldeclined
curve declined
declined
loading one cycle, p (x)of
peak signals
H signals into trough,
into and the and
Hp (x)
thesignal
H signal curve rapidly.
rapidly.
The peakThe
rapidly. The
and peak
peak and
trough
andof trough
trough of H
Hp (y)ofsignalp(y) signal curve exchanged the curve features, and the Hp(y) signal
Hp(y)curve
signalexchanged the curve
curve exchanged thefeatures, and theand
curve features, Hpthe
(y) signal curve
Hp(y) signal
curve rotated
rotated
curve rotated counterclockwise
counterclockwise
counterclockwise significantly.
significantly.
significantly.

Figure 11. MMM signals of the specimen before and after load: (a) Hp(x); and (b) Hp(y).
Figure 11. MMM signals of the specimen before and after load: (a) Hpp(x);
(x); and
and (b)
(b) H
Hpp(y).
(y).

3.2.2. Cyclic Procedure

3.2.2. Procedure
3.2.2. Cyclic
Cyclic Procedure
Cracks were
Cracks were initiated
initiated at 7000
7000 cycles,
cycles, and
and afterwards
afterwards they enteredentered thethe propagation
propagation stage.
stage. The
Cracks were initiated atat7000 cycles, and afterwards theythey entered the propagation stage. The HThep (x)
Hpp(x)
H (x) and
and Hpp(y)(y) signal
signal curves
curves corresponding
corresponding to to different
different fatigue
fatigue cycles
cycles are
are shown
shown inin Figures
Figures 1212 and
and Hp (y)Hsignal curves corresponding to different fatigue cycles are shown in Figures 12 andand13.
13. It
13. It can
can bebe seen
seen that
that two
two parts,
parts, the
the curves
curves before
before crack
crack propagation
propagation and and the
the ones
ones after
after crack
crack
It can be seen that two parts, the curves before crack propagation and the ones after crack propagation,
propagation, were used
propagation, used to show
show the
the variations
variations of of the
the Hp(x) andand H Hpp(y)
(y) signal
signal curves
curves clearly
clearly during
during the
the
were used towere show the to variations of the Hp (x) andHHp(x)p (y) signal curves clearly during the whole
whole fatigue cycle.
whole cycle.
fatiguefatigue
cycle.
As
As indicated in Figures
Figures 12a and
and 13a, allall H
Hpp(x)
(x) signals
signals exhibited
exhibited aa consistent
consistent tendency
tendency during
during the
the
As indicated
indicatedin in Figures12a12a and13a, 13a, all Hp (x) signals exhibited a consistent tendency during
fatigue
fatigue process.
process. Each
Each curve
curve had
hadhada trough
a trough at the
at atthe notch. H p(x) signal curves declined dramatically
the fatigue process. Each curve a trough thenotch.
notch.HH p(x) signal curves declined dramatically
p (x) signal curves declined dramatically
before 300
before 300 cycles
cycles with
with the
the increase
increase ofof fatigue
fatigue cycles.
cycles. After
After that,
that, Hpp(x)
H (x) signal
signal curves
curves were
were stable
stable from
from
300 to 7000 cycles. When the fatigue crack initiated and entered the crack propagation
300 to 7000 cycles. When the fatigue crack initiated and entered the crack propagation stage, the Hpp(x) stage, the H (x)
Metals 2018, 8, 119 9 of 15

before 3008,cycles
Metals 2018,
2018, withREVIEW
the increase of fatigue cycles. After that, Hp (x) signal curves were stable
Metals 8, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 15
15
from 300 to 7000 cycles. When the fatigue crack initiated and entered the crack propagation stage,
the Hp (x)
signal
signal signalcontinued
curves
curves curves continued
continued to decrease.
to decrease.
to decrease. After After
After 19,00019,000
19,000 cycles,
cycles,cycles,
H Hpsignal
Hpp(x)
(x) (x) signal
signal curves
curves
curves decreasedin
decreased
decreased in an
in an
accelerated manner.
manner.
accelerated manner.
The H
The Hppp(y)
(y)signal
(y) signalcurves
signal curveswere
curves werealso
were alsoshown
also shownin
shown inFigures
in Figures12b
Figures 12band
12b and13b.
and 13b.Each
13b. Each
Each curve
curve
curve had
had
had apeak
peak
aa peak and
and and aa
a trough
trough near
near the
the notch
notch with
with the
the trough
trough on
on the
the left
left and
and the
the peak
peak on
trough near the notch with the trough on the left and the peak on the right. The curves rotatedthe right. The curves rotated
counterclockwisesignificantly
counterclockwise significantlywith
significantly withthe
with theincrease
the increaseof
increase ofof
the
thethe fatigue
fatigue
fatigue cycles
cycles
cycles before
before
before 300300
300 cycles.
cycles.
cycles. After
After After
that,that,
that, the
the
the
H H
p(y) (y)
signal
p signal
curves curves
were were
stablestable
from from
300 300
to 7000to 7000
cycles cycles
with with
the the
increase
Hp(y) signal curves were stable from 300 to 7000 cycles with the increase of fatigue cycles. When increase
of of
fatigue fatigue
cycles. cycles.
When
When
fatiguefatigue
fatigue cycles cycles
cycles reached
reached reached
9000 9000 cycles,
9000 cycles,
cycles, fatiguefatigue
fatigue crack had
crack crack
had had entered
entered
entered propagation
propagation
propagation stage, and
stage, stage,
and theand
the thecurves
Hpp(y)
H (y) Hp (y)
curves
curves continued
continued to
continued to rotate to rotate counterclockwise
rotate counterclockwise
counterclockwise quickly, quickly,
quickly, whilewhile the while the
the features features
features ofof the of
the peak the
peak and peak
and the and the
the trough trough
trough werewere
were
more more obvious.
obvious. After After
19,00019,000 cycles,
cycles, H p(y)H (y)
signal
p signal
curves curves accelerated
accelerated to to
rotate
more obvious. After 19,000 cycles, Hp(y) signal curves accelerated to rotate counterclockwise. rotate counterclockwise.
counterclockwise.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. MMM
MMM signals
signals of
of the
the specimen
specimen before
before crack
crack propagation:
propagation: (a)
(a) H
Hpp(x);
(x); and
and (b)
(b) H
Hppp(y).
(y).

Figure 13.
Figure 13. MMM
MMM signals of
of the specimen
specimen after
after crack
crack propagation:
propagation: (a)
(a) H (x); and (b)
Hpp(x); (b) Hpp(y).
(y).
Figure 13. MMM signals
signals of the
the specimen after crack propagation: (a) H p (x); and
and (b) HHp (y).

3.3. MMM Signal

3.3. Signal Characteristics
3.3. MMM
MMM Signal Characteristics
Characteristics
3.3.1. Variation
3.3.1.
3.3.1. Variation of MMM
Variation of MMM Signal
Signal Characteristics
Characteristics during
during the
the Fatigue
Fatigue Process
Process
To analyze
To
To analyze
analyzethethe variation
thevariation
variationof ofofMMM
MMM
MMM signals
signals during
during
signals during four-point
four-point
four-point bending
bending fatigue
fatigue
bending test test
test
fatigue profoundly,
profoundly, the
the
profoundly,
characteristics
characteristics of H
of Hofp(x) and Hp(y), the gradient of the Hp(x) signal curves at the notch, K(x) for short,
p(x)
Hand
the characteristics p (x) H p(y),
and Hthe gradient
p (y), of theof
the gradient Hthe
p(x) H
signal curvescurves
p (x) signal at the notch, K(x) for
at the notch, short,
K(x) for
the
the gradient
gradient of
of the
the HH p(y) signal curves between the peak and the trough, K(y) for short, and the
(y) signal curves between the peak and the trough, K(y) for
short, the gradient of the Hp (y) signal curves between the peak and the trough, K(y) for short, and the
p short, and the
minimal value
minimal value ofof the
the H
Hpp(x)
(x) signal curves, Hp(x) (x)min
min for short, were extracted, respectively. K(x), K(y),
minimal p (x) signal curves, Hpp(x) minforforshort,
short,were
wereextracted,
extracted,respectively.
respectively.K(x),
K(x),K(y),
K(y),
K(x)
K(x) max, K(y)max, and Hp(x)min are defined Equations (1)–(5), as follows:
K(x)max, ,K(y)
K(y)max, and
, andHHp(x)(x)
min areare
defined
definedEquations
Equations (1)–(5), as follows:
(1)–(5), as follows:
max max p min

K(K(x) {
K(x) = H x(x)
x) = = HHpp(p(x)
)MM
−−H
M−
H (x) }(
/ l − l
)
(x)NNN / /l(MMlM− l−NNlN )
Hppp(x) (1)
(1)
(1)

K(y)== {H
K(y) H (y)
(y) −−H (y) }// (ll
H (y) −−llNN ) (2)
(2)
pp M
M pp N
N M
M
Metals 2018, 8, 119 10 of 15
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Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

= max K(( x))ii i = 1,2,...,n


K(y)K(x) )M −KHxp (yi)N
= Hp=(ymax /(lM − lN )
= 1,2,...,n (2)
(3)
K(x)max
max (3)
K(x)max = max|K(x)i |i = 1, 2, . . . , n (3)
= max K( y) i = 1,2,...,n
K(y)
K(K(y) ( )
max = max K y i i = 1,2,...,n
max= max|K(y)i |i i = 1, 2, . . . , n
y)max
(4)
(4)
(4)

Hpp (( x))min {{ }}

HpH x ==min
(x)min minHHp ((x) = 1,2,...,n
x)i ii = 1, 2, . . . , n (5)
(5)
min
= min Hpp (x)ii i = 1,2,...,n (5)
where Hp (x)M and Hp (x)N are the H (x) signal values at the sampling points of “M” and “N”,
p
where Hp(x)M and Hp(x)N are the Hp(x) signal values at the sampling points of “M” and “N”,
respectively,
where Hp(x)MK(x)and maxHand
p(x)NK(y) the are
are max the signal
Hp(x) maximal values
values at of
thethe absolutepoints
sampling valuesofof “M”
K(x) and
and K(y),
“N”,
respectively, K(x)max and K(y)max are the maximal values of the absolute values of K(x) and K(y),
respectively, and
respectively, K(x)“i”
max is
andtheK(y)
serialmaxnumber
are theof K(x), K(y),
maximal and of
values Hpthe(x). absolute values of K(x) and K(y),
respectively, and “i” is the serial number of K(x), K(y), and Hp(x).
As shown
respectively, in “i”
and Figures
is the14serial
and 15, the variation
number of K(x), of Hp (x)
K(y), andminH, pK(x)
(x). max and K(y)max at different fatigue
As shown in Figures 14 and 15, the variation of Hp(x)min, K(x)max and K(y)max at different fatigue
cycles
Ascould
shown be in
divided
Figures into
14 four
and stages:
15, the variation of Hp(x)min, K(x)max and K(y)max at different fatigue
cycles could be divided into four stages:
cycles could be divided into four stages:
• The initial stage I (1 to 300 cycles),
• The initial stage I (1 to 300 cycles),
•• The initial stage
The steady
steady stageIIIII(1(300
to 300
(300 to cycles),
• The stage to 7000
7000 cycles),
cycles),
•• The steady
The steady stage
steady growth II
growth stage(300 to 7000 cycles),
• The stage III
III (7000
(7000 to
to 19,000
19,000 cycles),
cycles), and
and
•• The
The steady
rapid growth
growth stage
stage IVIII (7000
(19,000 to
to 19,000
23,000 cycles),
cycles). and
• The rapid growth stage IV (19,000 to 23,000 cycles).
• The rapid growth stage IV (19,000 to 23,000 cycles).
In the
the initial
initialstage,
stage,the thecharacteristics
characteristics declined significantly
declined significantlywithwith
the increase of theof
the increase fatigue cycles.
the fatigue
In the initial stage, the characteristics declined significantly with the increase of the fatigue
After that,
cycles. they
After became
that, stable instable
they became the steady
in thestage.
steadyAfter crack
stage. initiation,
After the K(x)max
crack initiation, and K(y)
the K(x) max and values
maxK(y) max
cycles. After that, they became stable in the steady stage. After crack initiation, the K(x)max and K(y)max
began to
values increase,
began while Hwhile
to increase, p (x)minHvalues continued
p(x)min values to decline.
continued When approaching
to decline. fracture,fracture,
When approaching the K(x)max
the
values began to increase, while Hp(x)min values continued to decline. When approaching fracture, the
and max
K(x) K(y)and values
maxK(y) accelerated,
max values while the
accelerated, whileHp the
(x)min
Hpvalues declined
(x)min values in thein
declined rapid growth
the rapid stage. stage.
growth
K(x)max and K(y)max values accelerated, while the Hp(x)min values declined in the rapid growth stage.

Figure 14.
14. Variations of (x)min at
of Hpp(x) atdifferent
differentfatigue
fatiguecycles.
Figure 14. Variations
Figure Variations ofHHp(x)min cycles.
min at different fatigue cycles.

Figure 15. Variations of K(x)max and K(y)max at different fatigue cycles.

Figure15.
Figure 15. Variations
Variationsof
ofK(x)
K(x)max
max and
and K(y)
K(y)max at different fatigue cycles.
max at different fatigue cycles.

3.3.2. Relationship between Characteristics and Fatigue Crack Length

3.3.2. Relationship between Characteristics and Fatigue Crack Length
In order to investigate the regularity of magnetic memory signals in the fatigue crack
In order to investigate the regularity of magnetic memory signals in the fatigue crack
propagation process, the relationships between the characteristics and the length of the fatigue crack
propagation process, the relationships between the characteristics and the length of the fatigue crack
Metals 2018, 8, 119 11 of 15

3.3.2. Relationship between Characteristics and Fatigue Crack Length

In order to investigate the regularity of magnetic memory signals in the fatigue crack propagation
Metals 2018,the
process, relationships
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW between the characteristics and the length of the fatigue crack11were of 15
established (Figure 16). The lateral axis represented the total length of fatigue crack propagation
“a”,
wereand the longitudinal
established (Figure 16).axisTherepresented
lateral axisthe value of Hthe
represented p (x) min , length
total K(x)max of, fatigue
and K(y) max , propagation
crack respectively.
The and
“a”, correlation coefficients
the longitudinal “r”represented
axis were 0.95, 0.88, and 0.96
the value of Hafter
p(x)minlinear
, K(x)fitting
max, andbetween
K(y)max,H (x) min , K(x)The
respectively.
p max ,
and K(y)max
correlation and the length
coefficients “r” were of fatigue crack
0.95, 0.88, and“a”,
0.96respectively. The fitting
after linear fitting between results
Hp(x)showed
min, K(x)that the
max, and

length
K(y) of the
max and thecrack
length propagation
of fatigue crack “a” had a good linearThe
“a”, respectively. relationship
fitting resultswith the values
showed that theof H p (x)min
length of,
K(x)
the crack , and K(y)
max propagation . It could be obvious that the value
max “a” had a good linear relationship with max of K(x) and K(y)
the values ofmax increased with
Hp(x)min, K(x)max, and the
increase
K(y) max. Itof length
could beof crack propagation,
obvious that the valuewhile
of K(x) the
maxvalue of Hmax
and K(y) p (x) min declined.
increased with theTheincrease
data of H (x)min ,
ofplength
K(x)
of crack
max , and K(y)
propagation, max were
while the
the self-emission
value of H p signals
(x) min generated
declined. The from
data the
of propagation
H p(x) min, K(x) of
max fatigue
, and crack,
K(y) max

and they
were can be used as
the self-emission important
signals parameters
generated from the to propagation
evaluate the of length of the
fatigue fatigue
crack, crack.
and they The
can be crack
used
alsoimportant
as generatedparameters
spontaneous to abnormal
evaluate the magnetic
length signals
of the which
fatiguestill existed
crack. The after
crackthe applied
also generatedload
was removed.abnormal
spontaneous Therefore, it is possible
magnetic signals to predict
which stillthe residual
existed afterlife
theofapplied
a drillstring
load was by the MMM
removed.
signal characteristics.
Therefore, it is possible to predict the residual life of a drillstring by the MMM signal characteristics.

Figure
Figure 16. The
The relationship
relationship between
between the the characteristics
characteristics and
and the
the length
length of
of the
the crack
crack propagation
propagation after
after
linear fitting: (a) H (x) ; (b) K(x) ; and (c) K(y)
linear fitting: (a) Hp (x)min ; (b) K(x)max ; and (c) K(y)max .
p min max max.

3.4.
3.4. Discussion
Discussion
According
According toto magnetics
magnetics [32],
[32], domains
domains with
with favored
favored magnetic
magnetic direction
direction would
would grow,
grow, and
and those
those
without would reduce in an applied magnetic field. The growth and reduction of domains
without would reduce in an applied magnetic field. The growth and reduction of domains caused caused
movements
movements of ofthe
thedomain
domain walls,
walls, whichwhich required
required certain
certain energy.energy. Additionally,
Additionally, dislocations,
dislocations, a common a
common type of defect in fatigue, increased the energy required, as is known to pin the domain wall
motion. Thus, the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials would be easily affected by fatigue.
In the fatigue test, the specimen was forced through the impact and the residual stress of the
specimen began to accumulate with the increase of plastic deformation. The stress equivalent
magnetic field theory [33–36] shows that the effect of stress is equivalent to the external magnetic
field. The stress changes the microscopic characteristics and the magnetic domain structure of the
Metals 2018, 8, 119 12 of 15

type of defect in fatigue, increased the energy required, as is known to pin the domain wall motion.
Thus, the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials would be easily affected by fatigue.
In the fatigue test, the specimen was forced through the impact and the residual stress of
the specimen began to accumulate with the increase of plastic deformation. The stress equivalent
magnetic field theory [33–36] shows that the effect of stress is equivalent to the external magnetic field.
The stress
Metals 2018, changes the microscopic
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW characteristics and the magnetic domain structure of the specimen; 12 of 15
the metal specimen exhibits magnetization characteristics under the environmental magnetic field.
The changes
magnetic of MMM
field. signal of
The changes characteristics
MMM signal(Figures 14 and(Figures
characteristics 15) were14discussed, which
and 15) were corresponded
discussed, which
to the morphologies
corresponded to theof the specimen’s
morphologies surface
of the at different
specimen’s fatigue
surface cycles infatigue
at different Figurecycles
6. in Figure 6.
In
Inthe
theinitial stage,
initial thethe
stage, residual stress
residual of theofspecimen
stress accumulated
the specimen rapidlyrapidly
accumulated becausebecause
of the increase
of the
of plastic of
increase deformation from 0 tofrom
plastic deformation 300 cycles (Figure
0 to 300 cycles6a–c). The6a–c).
(Figure equivalent magneticmagnetic
The equivalent field Hσ formed
field Hσ
by the residual
formed by the stress
residualwasstress
opposite
was to the initial
opposite to magnetic
the initialfield H0 near
magnetic theHnotch,
field 0 nearwhich resulted
the notch, which in
aresulted
decreaseinina the magnetic field of specimen surface (Figure 17). Consequently, the values
decrease in the magnetic field of specimen surface (Figure 17). Consequently, thep values of H (x) min ,
K(x) p(x)and
of Hmax K(y)max
min, K(x) maxanddeclined
K(y)maxrapidly.
declined rapidly.

Figure 17. Magnetic field distribution of the notch: (a) before loading; and (b) after loading.
Figure 17. Magnetic field distribution of the notch: (a) before loading; and (b) after loading.

When the fatigue cycles reached 300, the substantial plastic deformation was stable (Figure 6d,e)
due When
to thethe fatigue cycles
appearance reached 300,
of dislocation the substantial
blockings near the plastic
notch deformation was stablethe
[22]. Consequently, (Figure
values6d,e)
of
due to the appearance of dislocation blockings near the notch [22]. Consequently,
Hp(x)min, K(x)max and K(y)max were stable in the steady stage. With the increase of fatigue cycles, the the values of
H p (x)min
crack , K(x)max
initiated andand K(y)max were
propagated from stable
the most in the steady
serious stage.
stress With the increase
concentration positionofoffatigue cycles,
the specimen
the crack initiated and propagated from the most serious stress concentration
(Figure 6e,f). The specimen became discontinuous due to the formation of the fatigue crack. Magnetic position of the specimen
(Figure 6e,f). The
lines, which shouldspecimen becamethe
pass through discontinuous due to theinto
specimen, detoured formation
the air of the fatigue
because crack. Magnetic
of different magnetic
lines, which should pass through the specimen, detoured into the
permeability between air and specimen. More and more magnetic lines detoured with the increase air because of different magnetic
permeability
of the fatiguebetween
crack. Asair and specimen.
a result, the magneticMoreleakage
and more fieldmagnetic lines detoured
on the specimen’s surfacewith the increase
became of
stronger.
the fatigue crack.
Consequently, theAsvalues
a result, the magnetic
of K(x) leakage field on the specimen’s surface became stronger.
max and K(y)max continued to increase, while Hp(x)min continued to
Consequently, the values of K(x) max
decline. When approaching fracture, the fatigue and K(y) continued
maxspecimen to increase,
generated whileirreversible
serious Hp (x)min continued
deformation to
decline. When approaching fracture, the fatigue specimen generated serious
(Figure 6h), and the air gap of cracks became larger. The longer the gap was, the narrower the path irreversible deformation
(Figure 6h), and lines
of the magnetic the air gapso
was, ofthe
cracks became
magnetic larger.field
leakage Theaccelerated.
longer the gap Thus,was,thethe narrower
variation the path
tendency of
of the magnetic lines was, so the magnetic
MMM signal characteristics became more significant. leakage field accelerated. Thus, the variation tendency of
MMMThe signal characteristics
variations of MMM became
signalmore significant. included the steady growth stage and rapid
characteristics
growth Thestage
variations of MMM
of fatigue cracksignal
growthcharacteristics
and propagationincluded the steady
(Figures 14 and growth
15). Thestage and rapid
fatigue crackgrowth
was in
stage of fatigue crack growth and propagation (Figures 14 and 15). The fatigue
the state of steady growth at the beginning of crack propagation (Figure 6f,g), and the discontinuous crack was in the state of
steady growthby
area formed at the
thebeginning
crack wasof continuously
crack propagation (Figure
growing, 6f,g),
too. and the leakage
Magnetic discontinuous area formed
field strengthened
by the crack was continuously growing, too. Magnetic leakage field
steadily due to the steady increase of discontinuous area, which corresponded to the steady growth strengthened steadily due to
the steady increase of discontinuous area, which corresponded to the
stage of MMM signal characteristics during the fatigue process. When approaching the final fracture,steady growth stage of MMM
signal characteristics
the fatigue during rapid
crack entered the fatigue process. When
propagation, fatigue approaching
specimen the hadfinal fracture,
serious the fatigue
irreversible crack
bending
entered rapid propagation, fatigue specimen had serious irreversible bending
deformation (Figure 6h) and the roughness of the fracture increased obviously (Figure 7a). Magnetic deformation (Figure 6h)
and the roughness of the fracture increased obviously (Figure 7a). Magnetic
leakage field accelerated due to the rapid increase of the discontinuous area, in accordance with the leakage field accelerated
due
rapid togrowth
the rapid stageincrease
of MMM of the discontinuous
signal characteristics.area, in accordance with the rapid growth stage of
MMMWhen signalthecharacteristics.
crack initiated at 7000 cycles, the stress was released, thus, at the same time the
When the crack
equivalent magnetic field initiated at 7000
Hσ formed bycycles, the stress The
stress decreased. wasmagnetic
released,field thus, at the
of the same time
specimen’s the
surface
equivalent magnetic field H σ formed by stress decreased. The magnetic
tended to the initial magnetic field H0 because Hσ was opposite to the initial magnetic field H0 in field of the specimen’s surface
tended
Figure 17. to the initial magnetic
Consequently, field H
the values because
of0 K(x) H was opposite to the initial magnetic field H0 in
max andσK(y)max began to decline, while Hp(x)min increased,

as shown in Figures 14 and 15. However, the downward trend of K(y)max was not significant.
Therefore, if the detection results were only obtained from K(y)max at crack initiation stage, it might
cause missing detection. Of course, the same situation may occur in Hp(x)min and K(x)max because
MMM detection results were susceptible to the measuring position, load type, etc. [17,18,20].
Consequently, in order to reduce the probability of missing detection, the combination of Hp(x)min,
Metals 2018, 8, 119 13 of 15

Figure 17. Consequently, the values of K(x)max and K(y)max began to decline, while Hp (x)min increased,
as shown in Figures 14 and 15. However, the downward trend of K(y)max was not significant. Therefore,
if the detection results were only obtained from K(y)max at crack initiation stage, it might cause missing
detection. Of course, the same situation may occur in Hp (x)min and K(x)max because MMM detection
results were susceptible to the measuring position, load type, etc. [17,18,20]. Consequently, in order to
reduce the probability of missing detection, the combination of Hp (x)min , K(x)max and K(y)max should
be used to evaluate the fatigue damage.
The results showed that the variations of Hp (x)min , K(x)max , and K(y)max had a relationship with
the morphology of specimen surface and fracture. The Hp (x)min , K(x)max , and K(y)max could be used
as potential parameters to monitor fatigue cracking. However, it should be noted that there are many
factors influencing MMM signal characteristics, such as the type of material, measuring position, load
type, and load value, etc. [17,18,20]. In conclusion, supposing that researchers intend to accurately
monitor fatigue damage of ferromagnetic materials, including drillstrings, by MMM technology, a great
deal of experimental investigation needs to be finished, including the factors of measuring the position,
load type, and load value, all of which have influences on the MMM detection results. Additionally,
the size of the ferromagnetic material is also a key factor for the result of MMM detection.

4. Conclusions
In conclusion, the MMM signals, Hp (x) and Hp (y), with their characteristics, Hp (x)min , K(x)max ,
K(y)max , were analyzed in accord with the morphology on the specimen surface when performing the
four-point bending fatigue test. The main conclusions have been drawn as follows.

1. The variations of MMM signal characteristics could be explained by the changes of morphology
on specimen surface during fatigue process. At the initial stage, the characteristics decreased
significantly with the increase of plastic deformation on the specimen’s surface because of the
opposite direction between the equivalent magnetic field and the initial magnetic field. After that,
the characteristics remained constant due to the appearance of dislocation blocking. After crack
initiation, the characteristics entered a steady growth stage and the K(x)max and K(y)max values
began to increase, while Hp (x)min continued to decline. Approaching fracture, the fatigue
specimen generated serious irreversible deformation, and the variation tendency of K(x)max ,
K(y)max , Hp (x)min sped up. The results indicated that MMM signal characteristics could reflect
fatigue process, including crack initiation, which had great significance to prevent fatigue failure
of ferromagnetic materials, including drillstrings. Additionally, the combination of Hp (x) and
Hp (y) signals to evaluate fatigue damage could reduce the probability of missing crack initiation,
compared with the detection results from Hp (y) signals only.
2. Fatigue crack initiation occurred at the surface/sub-surface of the specimen, fatigue striations
and the secondary crack were observed at the crack propagation zone, and the final fracture
surface had an obvious ductile dimpled morphology. At the end of crack propagation zone,
the surface of fracture was rough, which corresponded to the rapid growth stage of MMM
signal characteristics. The results showed that the variations of MMM signal characteristics were
related to the morphology of fatigue fracture. In addition, the result of metallographical structure
observation showed that the crack mechanism was transcrystalline rupture.
3. The fitting results showed that the length of crack propagation “a” had a good linear relationship
with the values of Hp (x)min , K(x)max and K(y)max . The results of the whole fatigue test indicated
that it was possible to detect microcracks and predict the residual life of drillstrings. However,
a large number of investigations have to be conducted if we intend to achieve these potential
functions, including the size and the initial residual magnetic field of testing objects. These issues
will be studied in the future by experimentation.
Metals 2018, 8, 119 14 of 15

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Foundation of CNOOC (grant number YXKY-2017-ZY-09)
for its financial support.
Author Contributions: Each of the authors contributed to performing the experiments and writing the article.
Zhibin Hu is the main authors of this manuscript and this work was conducted under the advisement of
Jianchun Fan. Shengnan Wu, Haoyuan Dai, and Shujie Liu helped to conduct the experiments. All authors revised
and approved the publication.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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