Summary project

Done by: Mohammed Mosa Alfaifi

Email: asd395@gmail.com
CHE201
Convert from (mass to mole) fraction :
1- Take the Basis as 100g of the mixture (m)
2- Find mass fraction (it will be in the question) (xi)
3- Calculate the mass (mi)=xi*m
4- Find Molecular weight (Mi)
5- Calculate moles (ni)=mi*Mi
6- Calculate mole fraction (yi)=ni/ntotal

Average Molecular weight

Mavr=∑yi Mi

𝟏 𝑿𝒊
=∑
𝑴𝒂𝒗𝒓 𝑴𝒊

Process Classification
Batch: no material (mass) is transferred into or out of the system over the time period of
interest (e.g., heat a vessel of water)

Continuous: material (mass) is transferred into and out of the system continuously
(e.g., pump liquid into a distillation column and remove the product streams from top and
bottom of column)

Semibatch: any process that is neither batch nor continuous (e.g., slowly blend two
liquids in a tank)

Steady-State: process variables (i.e., T, P, V, flow rates) do not change with time

Unsteady state: process variables change with time

Material Balance Equation
Input + generation - output - consumption = accumulation
• Accumulation: buildup within system

• In: enters through system boundaries

• Out: leaves through system boundaries

• Generation: produced within system

• Consumption: consumed within system

Note: at steady state there is no accumulation

Degree of freedom :
a) draw and completely label the flowchart
b) count the unknown variables on the chart
c) count the independent equations relating these variables
d) calculate degrees of freedom by subtracting step (b) from step (c)
ndf = nunknowns – nindep_eqns

• If ndf = 0, problem can be solved (in principle).

• if ndf > 0, problem is underspecified and at least ndf additional variables must be
specified before the remaining variable values can be determined.

• if ndf < 0, the problem is overspecified with redundant and possibly inconsistent
relations.
Limiting reactant:
The limiting reactant in a chemical reaction is the substance that is totally consumed
when the chemical reaction is complete. The amount of product formed is limited by
this reagent, since the reaction cannot continue without it.

Fractional excess:

(𝑛𝐴 )𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑−(𝑛𝐴 )𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ

Fractional excess of A = (𝑛𝐴 )𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ

Conversion:

Yield:

Selectivity:
Balance on Reactive Processes:
Three different balances may be written to determine an unknown flow
rate for a reactive process:
a) Molecular Species Balances
b) Atomic Species Balances
c) Extent of Reaction

Example:
C2 H6 →C2H4 + H2
Assuming 100 kmol/min of ethane is fed to the reactor and the molar flow rate of
hydrogen in the product stream is 40 kmol/min

In + Generation = Out + Consumption

Solving by Molecular Species Balances:

• Usually used when a reaction is involved
• Thus, there should be some species that are being generated and some other
species that are being consumed
• Once a generation/consumption term has been calculated, the other terms can be
calculated directly from stoichiometric equation
Solving by Atomic Species Balances:
• Usually leads to most straightforward solution procedure, especially when more
than one reaction is involved
• Since atomic species can neither be generated nor consumed, all atomic balances
take the form of “input = output”

Solving by Extent of Reaction:

• As for the molecular species balances, this method is usually used when a reaction
is involved
• However, this method tends to be more useful when there are multiple reactions

• Recall:
ν is the stoichiometric coefficient
• Reactants: -ve Products: +ve
ξ is the extent of reaction
CHE202
Energy balance equation on closed system :
∆Ek+∆Ep+∆U=Q±W
Energy balance equation on open system :

∆𝑬̇k+∆𝑬̇p+∆𝑯̇ =𝑸̇ ±𝑾̇

Kinetic Energy:
1
Ek=2 𝑚𝑢2

m= mass
u=velocity

potential Energy:
Ep= mgz
m= mass
g= acceleration of gravity
z= height of the object above a reference plane
Procedure for Energy Balance Calculations:
1- Perform all required material balance calculations.
2- Write the appropriate form of the energy balance (closed or open system) and delete
any of the terms that are either zero or negligible for the given process system.
3- Choose a reference state (phase, temperature, and pressure) for each species involved
in the process.
4- For a closed constant- volume system, construct a table with columns for initial and
final amounts of each species (mi or ni ) and specific internal energies relative to the
chosen reference states (𝑈 ̂ ) For an open system, construct a table with columns for
inlet and outlet stream component flow rates (m i or ni ) and specific enthalpies relative
to the chosen reference states (𝐻 ̂).
̂ (or 𝐻
5- Calculate all required values of 𝑈 ̂ ) and insert the values in the appropriate places
in the table.
6- Calculate:
Closed system ∆U = ∑𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑖 𝑈̂𝑖 - ∑𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑖 𝑈̂𝑖 or ∑𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑈̂𝑖 - ∑𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑈
̂𝑖
Open system ∆𝑯̇ = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑛̇ 𝑖 𝑯
̂ - ∑𝑖𝑛 𝑛̇ 𝑖 𝑯
̂ 𝑖 or ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑯
̂ 𝑖 - ∑𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑯
̂𝑖
7- Calculate any work, kinetic energy, or potential energy terms that you ha e not
dropped from the energy balance.
8- Solve the energy balance for whichever variable is unknown (often Q or 𝑄̇ )

Kopp’s rule:
Is a simple empirical method for estimating the heat capacity of a solid or liquid
at or near 20 C according to this rule, CP for a molecular compound is the sum of
contributions (given in Tables) for each element in the compound. For example ,

(CP)Ca(OH)2=(CP)Ca + 2(CP)O + 2(CP)H

=[26 + (2 *17) + (2 * 9.6)] J/(mol. ⁰C) = 79 J/(mol. ⁰C)

[The true value is 89.5 J/(mol ⁰C).]
Heat capacity for the mixture:
(CP)mix = ∑ 𝒚𝒊 𝑪𝒑
(CP)mix = heat capacity of the mixture

𝒚𝒊 = mass or mole fraction of the component

𝑪𝒑 = heat capacity of the component

Energy Balances on Single-Phase Systems:

If a process only involves heating or cooling a single species from T1 to T2 , the
procedure is:

1- ̂ = ∫𝑇2 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 or ∆𝐻
Evaluate ∆𝑈 ̂ = ∫𝑇2 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 , correcting for pressure changes if
𝑇 1 𝑇 1
necessary.

2- For a closed system at constant volume, calculate ∆𝑈 = 𝑛∆𝑈 ̂ (where 𝑛 is the

amount of the species being heated or cooled). For a closed system at constant
pressure, calculate ∆𝐻 = 𝑛∆𝐻 ̂ . For an open system, calculate , ∆𝐻̇ = 𝑛̇ ∆𝐻
̂ where
𝑛̇ is the species flow rate.

3- Substitute for ∆𝐻 , ∆𝑈 , or ∆𝐻̇ in the appropriate energy balance equation to

determine the required heat transfer, 𝑄, or 𝑄̇ heat transfer rate .

If more than one species is involved or if there are several input or output streams
instead of just one of each, the procedure given in the previous page should be followed:
choose reference states for each species, prepare and fill in a table of amounts and
specific internal energies (closed system) or species flow rates and specific enthalpies
(open system), and substitute the calculated values into the energy balance equation.
Important Definitions:
1- Heat: Heat is not state of the material , it's the transfer of Energy Caused By Temperature
Difference . When heat is passed from one body to another the internal energy of the bodies
Change. Heat is Energy in Transit. Recall the First law from Thermodynamics. ∆U = Q – W

2- Latent Heat Of Vaporization: When matter changes from liquid to vapor or vice versa, it
absorbs or releases a relatively large amount of heat without a change in temperature.

3- British Thermal Unit: " BTU" Is the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of
water one degree Fahrenheit.

4- Specific heat: Amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of a pound of a particular
substance 1f ( the unit-specific heat is BTU per pound per degree Fahrenheit ( BTU/lb/f).

5- Latent heat: Heat transfer can occur with no temperature change taking place this heat transfer
is referred to as latent heat transfer .latent heat transfer results in phase change, that is a
substance change from solid to liquid, liquid to solid, liquid to gas or gas to liquid.

6- Sensible heat: When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The increase in
heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when the heat is removed from an object and its temperature
falls, the heat removed is also called sensible heat. Heat that causes a change in temperature in an
object is called sensible heat .

7- Heat of fusion: (or heat of melting). is the specific enthalpy difference between the solid and
liquid forms of a species at T and P

8- Bubble Point: The temperature at a specified pressure at which the first stable vapor forms
above a liquid.

9- Dew Point: the temperature at which a vapor starts to form a liquid during the process of
condensation.

10- Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which vapors from a hydrocarbon liquid will ignite.

11- Heat Of Combustion: The amount of heat obtained by the complete combustion of a unit
quantity of material. The gross, or higher, heating value is the amount of heat obtained when the
water produced in the combustion is condensed. The net, or lower, heating value is the amount of
heat obtained when the water produced in the combustion is not condensed.
 12- Heat of Reaction: (also known as Enthalpy of Reaction) is the change in the enthalpy of a
chemical reaction that occurs at a constant pressure.

13- Ideal Gas Law: The equation used is pV = n RT. This equation can relate the volume, pressure,
temperature, and the amount of a given gas.

14- Equations of State: relate the p- V - T properties of a pure substance (or mixture) by theoretical
or empirical relations. The Ideal Gas Law is a simple example of an equation of state.

HEATS OF REACTION: HESS’S LAW:

Hess's Law is saying that if you convert reactants A into products B, the overall
enthalpy change will be exactly the same whether you do it in one step or two steps
or however many steps.

Heat of formation:
A formation reaction of a compound is the reaction in which the compound is formed
from its elemental constituents as they normally occur in nature (e.g., O 2 rather than
O). The enthalpy change associated with the formation of 1 mole of the compound at
a reference temperature and pressure (usually 25 C and 1 atm) is the standard heat
of formation of the compound,

̂ 𝒓° =
∆𝑯 ̂ 𝒇𝒊 ° −
∑ |𝒗𝒊 |∆𝑯 ∑ ̂ 𝒇𝒊 °
|𝒗𝒊 |∆𝑯
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

̂𝑟 = heat of reaction
∆𝐻
̂𝑓𝑖 = heat of formation
∆𝐻

HEATS OF COMBUSTION:
The standard heat of combustion of a substance, , is the heat of the combustion of that
substance with oxygen to yield specified products [e.g., CO2 (g) and H2O(l)], with both
reactants and products at 25 C and 1 atm.
ENERGY BALANCES ON REACTIVE PROCESSES:
By heat of reaction method:
By heat of formation method:
Processes with Unknown Outlet Conditions: Adiabatic Reactors:
In this system, the input conditions, heat input, and product composition are specified
and the outlet temperature is to be calculated. To solve such problems, you must
evaluate the enthalpies of the products relative to the chosen reference states in terms
of the unknown final temperature, and then substitute the resulting expressions into the
energy balance ( 𝑄̇ = ∆𝐻̇ , or ∆𝐻̇ = 0 for an adiabatic reactor) to calculate Tout.

Adiabatic Flame Temperature:

When a fuel is burned, a considerable amount of energy is released. Some of this energy
is transferred as heat through the reactor walls, and the remainder raises the
temperature of the reaction products; the less heat transferred, the higher the product
temperature. The highest temperature is reached if the reactor is adiabatic and all of the
energy released by the combustion goes to raise the temperature of the combustion
products. This temperature is called the Adiabatic Flame Temperature Tad.