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Fuel
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A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In the support of developing a substitute for diesel fuel automobiles, the research in renewable energy has been
Aegle marmelos oil focused due to the hurly-burly situation for petroleum combat and environmental causes. The present study has
Diethyl ether been carried out in a naturally aspirated light-duty variable compression ratio (VCR) multi-fuel research engine.
Compression ratio As input amends, three significant input parameters as injection pressure (IP), compression ratio (CR) and in-
Injection pressure
jection timing (IT) have been taken. In this test, the input parameters are taken as 210 bar, 230 bar, 250 bar for
Injection timing
IP and 16, 17, 18 for CR and 21°, 23°, 25° before top dead center (bTDC) for IT. To outline the resulting output
Optimization
parameters like performance and emissions, the statistical tool like the design of experiments (DoE) have been
used for planning the experimental trials. The lesser exhaust pollution and better performance are the desirable
output factors by optimizing the input parameters via factorial design. For validating the models developed using
response surface methodology (RSM), the confirmatory tests have been carried out to portray the combined
effects of CR, IP and IT on the engine characteristics using all test fuels. Maximum Brake thermal efficiency of
30.05% was found for F(1) fuel at 230 bar IP and 18 CR with 23 °bTDC IT. Minimum carbon monoxide of 0.41%
was observed at IP of 230 bar and CR of 18 with 25 °bTDC IT and oxides of nitrogen of 205.7 ppm was found at
250 bar IP and 16 CR with 25 °bTDC IT for F(1) fuel.
1. Introduction researchers have confirmed that the fuel blends of 20–30% vegetable oil
with diesel resulted in better performance while comparing with other
Due to fossil fuels depleting nature and emission effect in the en- blends ratios [13]. Padian et al. [14] recorded that nozzle tip protrusion
vironment, the renewable fuels like vegetable oil and biodiesel are of 2.5 mm, an injection timing of 30 °bTDC and injection pressure of
gaining a reputation for diesel engines [1]. Vegetable oils are con- 225 bar exhibits higher for brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and oxides of
sidered as a promising alternative for diesel oil as it is possessing par- nitrogen (NOx) emissions and lower brake specific fuel consumption
allel properties with diesel [2,3]. In several nations, the excess quan- (BSFC), hydrocarbon (HC), smoke opacity. The effect of change of
tities of straight vegetable oils (SVO) are accessible copiously while compression ratio on the diesel engine emissions was investigated by
comparing other alternative fuels [4]. In diesel engines, SVOs derived Sivaramakrishnan et al. [15] the results concluded that either reducing
from plant seeds could be utilized appreciably [5]. Alcohols derived CR or increasing IT greatly diminishes the opacity and NOx emissions,
from biomass and vegetable oils are significant renewable fuels for also there was a reduction in HC and CO emission considerable levels.
diesel engines [6,7]. Similar power output and somewhat lower thermal Reheman et al. [16] investigated diesel engine with different CR and
efficiency have been observed in diesel engines while fuelled with ve- biodiesel as fuel. They observed that exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
getable oil [8,9]. The main barrier for biodiesel commercialization is its and BTE augmented and a decrement in BSFC was observed. Jaganath
elevated cost for its production from edible or non-edible oils [10,11]. Hirkude et al. [17] studied the combined effects of CR, IT and IP in
The biodiesel production cost accounts for 70% of its feedstock and also compression-ignition (CI) engine and concluded that IT of 27 °bTDC, CR
a rapid increment in the market cost of vegetable oil [12]. Many of 17.99 and IP of 250 bar were found to be the optimum value for CI
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: krishnamoorthism@gmail.com (M. Krishnamoorthi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.02.070
Received 19 May 2017; Received in revised form 18 November 2017; Accepted 8 February 2018
0016-2361/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
engine fuelled with waste fried oil biodiesel blend along with mineral 0.205 g/KOH and acid value – 8.02 mg KOH/g [28]. In free fatty acid
diesel. Change in IT and CR resulted in enhancement of the engine composition analysis, the bael oil consists of 12.5% of 12-hydro-
performance and reduced emission concentrations [18]. As an oxyge- xyoctadec-cis-enolic acids along with normal fatty acids. Diethyl Ether
nated additive DEE has been added to diesel/biodiesel/vegetable oil (DEE) of 99% purity has been purchased from a business enterprise
fuels to suppress the NOx emission level and also it has a low auto- agent. The microemulsion is a less time-consuming procedure which
ignition temperature which acts as an excellent ignition enhancer reduces the viscosity method compared in the direction of Transester-
[19,20]. ification, and also enhances the uniform mixture of diesel with vege-
The general use of factorial design with several input parameters table oil and alcohols/solvents [12,17]. Bael oil has been mixed with
significantly influences the quality performance or behavior of the DEE and diesel fuel by a blender device which is also stirred simulta-
system [21]. Numerous physical and chemical processes have been neously in electromagnetic agitator for 20 min at 500 rpm. Then it has
using the factorial design for optimization aspect [22]. For optimizing been left stable for 30 min to achieve thermal equilibrium with the
the engine characteristics, the non-linear or linear optimization tools atmospheric temperature before the experimental trial [3].
like RSM, genetic algorithm, Taguchi method, artificial neural network
and factorial design are being employed [23]. From the survey on many 2.1. Fuel properties
studies, it is observed that CR, IP, IT and fuel types influences the en-
gine distinctiveness. However, no research was done for depicting ASTM D-93, ASTM D-1298, and ASTM D-445 standards have been
better working condition (CR, IT and IP) in the IC engine fuelled with used for measuring the flash and fire point, density, and kinematic
bael oil (straight vegetable oil) blends at tradeoff engine load. viscosity respectively for various fuel blends. The flash and fire points
In this research paper, RSM based desirability approach has been have been determined by closed cup fire point apparatus, meanwhile
used for optimizing the engine operating parameters like CR, IP and IT the kinematic viscosity is measured using redwood viscometer [3]. The
for the superior response of BTE, BSFC, HC, NOx, CO and smoke opacity determined properties of diesel, bael oil and DEE and its blends are
emission scale [24]. Minitab’17 software has been employed for opti- sorted in Tables 1 and 2. Three test fuels have been considered for the
mization analysis by dimensionless desirability response [25]. De- examination such as neat diesel (F0) and another two test fuels are
pending on the nature of the problem, the responses of output have blends with diesel, bael oil and diethyl ether (DEE) in the percentage of
been set either minimum, maximum, in the range, target and/or equal 80:15:5 (F1) and 60:30:10 (F2). Based on the better performance from
[26]. literature study, the above ternary fuels have been prepared [3,20].
Increment in percentage of vegetable oil in the blends leads to some
2. Materials and methods operating problems; which is reduced by raising the fuel additive
Aegle marmoles (bael) tree has been cultivated all over India, mostly Table 1
Properties of diesel, bael oil and DEE.
within the sanctuary gardens due to the position as a sacred tree;
likewise northern Srilanka and Malaya [3,27]. The bael seeds collected Property Diesel Bael oil DEE
from the Eastern Ghats in north Tamil Nadu or if bought the bael seed
at a cost of ten rupees per kg. The seeds were dried overnight at 55 °C in Element structure C16H34 C18H36O2 C2H5OC2H5
Density (kg/m3) 830 896 713
an oven to eliminate excess moisture. Bael seeds contain approximately Viscosity (cS) 2.7 24.3 0.23
45% of the oil. The oil has been extracted using a mechanical extractor Auto ignition point (° C) 200–400 < 370 160
and at the cost of 10 rupees per kg of seed. The approximate cost of bael Cetane number (CN) 50 51.7 > 124
oil production is rupees 44 per kg. The determined physio-chemical Pour point (°C) −20 −5 −110
Fire point (°C) 55–90 260 35
properties of bael oils are higher heating value (HHV) – 40,040 kJ/kg;
Lower heating value (kJ/kg) 43,600 36,300 33,900
lower heating value (LHV) – 36,300 kJ/kg, iodine value – 94 mg iodine/ Chemically correct A/F ratio 14.9 12.4 11.1
g (it belongs to monounsaturated vegetable oil); saponification value –
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
Table 2 gauge connected with fuel injection line measures the pressure ranges
Properties of blended fuels. from 100 to 400 bar. Initially, the test engine was operated without any
load for 20 min and after reaching stabilization the experiments were
S. No Blend Kinematic Density (kg/ Cetane Calorific value
viscosity (cS) m3) at 32 °C number (kJ/kg) carried out at steady ambient air intake temperature [17].
Where CNi is the cetane number of each constituent, CVi is the 2.5. Experimental design
calorific value of each constituent and Xi is the percentage of con-
stituents. Table 7 shows the factors investigated in this research with their
chosen level as injection timing, compression ratio, injection pressure
and fuel blends. The fuel injection timing (IT) varied in the range of 21°,
2.2. Test engine and facilities 23° and 25 °bTDC, fuel injection pressure (IP) is varied as 210, 230, and
250 bar, and the compression ratio (CR) is varied as 16:1, 17:1, and
The tests have been carried out in a direct injection (DI) variable 18:1 and the injector with three nozzle holes has been positioned near
compression ratio (VCR) test engine. The engine used for the study is the combustion chamber. Higher CR could cause for higher NOx and
Kirloskar VCR engine and its specifications are shown in Table 3. The lower CR reduces the BTE and increases the CO and HC emissions. Due
engine was equipped with an eddy current dynamometer and also other to lower clearance volume, the fuel particles hit the combustion
suitable arrangements were made to attain all the required controlling chamber walls and resulted in higher HC emissions. Due to insufficient
parameters. Exhaust gas analyzer AVL DI 444 model (Table 4) has been atomization, the lower IP can leads to incomplete combustion, mean-
used for measuring HC, NOx and CO emissions meanwhile, the smoke while much higher IP cause for fuel droplets quenching the in-cylinder
opacity has been measured with Smoke meter, model AVL437C wall and charge dilution problems. Retarded IT positively influences
(Table 5). K-type thermocouple has been used to determine the various the BSFC, CO and HC emission levels. Advanced IT (more than
temperatures at the respective position. To measure the cylinder gas
pressure, the piezoelectric transducer located in the cylinder head has Table 3
been used. Piezoelectric pressure transducers are suitable for de- Technical specifications of the test engine.
termining the quasi-static and dynamic, highly dynamic pressure curves
or pulsations [3]. Data acquisition system (DAQ) captures the signals Type KIRLOSKAR, VCR multi fuel, vertical, water
cooled, direct injection, naturally aspirated engine
from crank angle encoder and charge amplifier. The combustion ana-
No. of cylinders/No. of 01/04
lyses data are generally represented in terms of degree (°) of crank angle strokes
[21]. The crank angle encoder gives an angle and TDC (Top Dead Rated power 4.5 kW/petrol mode, 3.5 kW/diesel mode
center) correlation which is essential for calculating any crank angle Bore (mm)/Stroke(mm) 87.5/110
based consequences linked with combustion cycle. The water flow was Type of ignition Compression ignition
Compression ratio 17.5 (12–18)
adjusted to 70 and 250 L per hour for the calorimeter and engine Injection pressure 210 bar
cooling respectively based on the instruction provided by the engine Injection timing 21 °bTDC (21–25 °bTDC)
manufacturer [3]. Speed 1500 Rev/min
Diameter/No. of nozzle 0.3 mm/3
hole
2.3. Test procedure Dynamometer Eddy current dynamometer; Water cooled with
loading unit
ECU Make PE USA; Model PE3, Full build; with
All the experimental runs have been performed under 80% engine
peMonitor & peViewer software
load (trade-off operating condition) and 25 rps [3,30]. The standard Data acquisition system USB-6210; 16 bit; 4DI; Make-NI Instruments USA
injection timing of the test engine is 21 °bTDC. The shims were used to Software Enginesoft for engine performance analysis
vary the static injection timing by mounting the shim under the seat Crank angle sensor Make- Kubler Germany; speed 5500 rpm with TDC
flange in the fuel pump. For changing the injection timing initially, the pulse; Resolution 1°
Load cell Make VPG Sensortronics; Strain gauge type; Range
TDC position of the engine is marked on the flywheel. To attain the 0–50 kg
exact IT, the repeated operations have to be done by rotating slowly and Fuel flow measurement Differential pressure transmitter; Make-Yologawa
stopping the flywheel rapidly. The number of the shim is added and Japan; Range 0–500 mm WC
removed to adjust the standard IT to attain the desired IT. The thickness Cylinder pressure sensor Piezo electric sensor; Range 350 bar; Make PCB
USA
of the shim is 0.4 mm which corresponds to 2° crank angle advancement
Air flow measurement Model-SL1; Make Wika Germany; Range 250
in the fuel injection timing [21]. Similarly, the shims under the nozzle mmWC
spring are inserted and removed to vary the IP [14,18]. The pressure
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
Table 4
Technical specifications of gas analyzer AVL DI444.
Carbon monoxide (CO) 0–10% vol 0.01% vol < 0.6% vol: ± 0.03% vol
≥ 0.6% vol: ± 5% vol
Hydrocarbon (HC) 0–20,000 ppm vol ≤2000:1 ppm vol, < 200 ppm vol: ± 10 ppm vol ≥200 ppm vol: 5%
> 2000:10 ppm vol
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) 0–5000 ppm vol 1 ppm vol < 500 ppm vol: ± 50 ppm vol ≥500 ppm vol: ± 10
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0–20% vol 0.1% vol < 10% vol: ± 0.5% vol
≥10% vol: ± 5% vol
25 °bTDC) cause for progressive combustion, lesser NOx emissions and Table 6
opacity but diminishes the BTE and maximum cylinder gas pressure. Uncertainties of some measured and calculated parameters.
Advanced IT amplifies the NOx emissions along with a reduction in HC,
Test instruments Measuring Measured Uncertainty (%)
CO and smoke opacity, and further advancing of injection timing re- Principle parameters
sulted in inefficient combustion process. Among these factors, the fuel
blend is considered as a significant categorical factor which has no Burette Fuel flow ± 0.4
inherent ordering to the category. The other three factors injection Thermocouple K-type Temperature ± 0.1
Kobold ZOD flow Pulse pickup RPM of engine ± 0.2
timing, compression ratio and injection pressure are of numeric type meter
among the distinct values. Kinematic ± 1.3
viscosity
Pressure sensor Piezoelectric Cylinder pressure ±1
2.5.1. Factorial design
crystal type
To explore the combined effect of input responses, the Design of HC ± 0.1
experiments (DoE) is a non-linear method for multivariable problems CO2 ± 0.3
and it is the most economical and most effective technique. Factorial NOx ± 0.1
Smoke ± 0.8
design is used in the study by modeling and analysis of response
BSFC ± 1.5
parameters in order to acquire the engine characteristics [21]. This BTE ± 0.1
research work adopts a four factor- three level factorial design to ana- CO ± 0.01
lyze the combined effect of CR, IP and IT. The design matrix generated
by minitab’17 factorial design comprises 81 test runs as sorted in
Table 8. The experimental runs were conducted as per the run order Table 7
and the responses were varied as per the response column. The coeffi- Factors considered with their chosen levels.
cients and equations are developed by the multiple regression analysis Factors Factor type levels
which can be utilized to predict the output response [25,30].
1 2 3
2.5.2. Response surface methodology (RSM) Fuel Used Categoric Diesel (F0) Bael oil blend Bael oil blend
RSM is the collection of mathematical and statistical technique (F1) (F2)
which is helpful for modeling and analysis of problems during which Compression ratio Numeric 16 17 18
the aim is to optimize an output response that is manipulated by several Injection pressure Numeric 210 bar 230 bar 250 bar
Injection timing Numeric 21 °bTDC 23 °bTDC 25 °bTDC
factors (input factors). In this study, the RSM is used to model and
predict the response [23]. The experimental data (Table 8) was in-
vestigated via response regression and second-order polynomial models 2.5.3. Desirability approach
were generated using Eq. (2) [21], The constrained optimization and desirability approach are used for
real-life problems with multiple responses [14]. The desirability ap-
Δq Δx 2 Δz 2 Δu 2 Δw 2
= ⎡ ⎤ +…+⎡ ⎤ + ⎡ ⎤ +…+⎡ ⎤ proach possesses the advantages of flexibility in modifications, simpli-
q ⎣ x ⎦ ⎣ z ⎦ ⎣ u ⎦ ⎣ w ⎦ (2) city of use, availability, and importance to individual response [26].
Where Xi are numeric values of the factors, Y is the response, ɛ is the The approach involves converting each estimated response Yi that
experimental error, terms β0,βi,βii,βij are the regression coefficients and i varies over the range 0 < di < 1, where di value specifies the response
and j are linear and quadratic coefficients respectively [21]. For each value Yi to be more desirable. For instance a value of di = 1 represents a
fuel category, the second order polynomial models for each response completely acceptable response, while a value of di = 0 represents a
variable have been developed. The developed equation, if statistically completely undesired response [21]. The aim of each response is to
significant, represents a correlation between measured responses and minimize, maximize, in range or equal to, target based on the optimi-
factors and can be utilized to predict the response [22]. Response sur- zation nature. The objective of this study is to minimize the BSFC and
face plots are generated using these fitted models. By using the desir- also to reduce the emission levels of HC, CO, opacity and NOx si-
ability approach of RSM, the optimal combination of CR, IP and IT has multaneously.
been extracted [21]. For achieving minimizing response, the desirability di will be
Table 5
Technical specifications of smoke meter AVL 437C.
−1
Measuring Range 0–100% 0–99.99 m 400–6000 1/min 0–150 °C
Accuracy & repeatability ± 1% of full Scale Better than ± 0.1 m−1 ± 10 ± 2 °C
Resolution 0.1% 0.01 m−1 ±1 ± 1 °C
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
Table 8
Design matrix.
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
Table 8 (continued)
defined as, optimum value of factors is depicted from the values of the individual
desired function that maximizes D [14]. Based on the optimization
di = 1, when Yi ⩽ Lowi
criterion, by conducting confirmatory experimental trails, the various
Highi−Yi ⎞ i
wt solutions obtained from desirability approach have been validated [17].
di = ⎜⎛ ⎟ , when Lowi < Yi < High iHi
⎝ High iHi−Lowi ⎠ 3. Results and discussion
di = 0, when Yi ⩾ High iHi
3.1. Analysis of model
For the objective of set target for a response, the desirability di will
be defined as, Analysis of variations (ANOVA) provides the numerical information
di = 0, when Yi < Lowi,Yi > High iHi for the value of probability. Table 9 represents the ANOVA for different
output response indicators like BTE, BSFC, CO, HC, NOx and smoke
wt opacity. ANOVA has been utilized in this study to validate the stability
Y −Highi ⎞ i
di = ⎜⎛ ⎟ , when Ti > Yi > High iHi of the models [14]. For ‘p’ 0.05 is selected as a reference limit [22]. The
⎝ TiHi−Highi ⎠ regression statistics goodness of fit (R2) signifies how well the experi-
Y −Lowi ⎞
wti mental data matches the developed statistical models. A value ‘0’ sig-
di = ⎛ ⎜ , when Ti < Yi < High iHi
⎟
nifies that the correlation line does not fit meanwhile ‘1’ signifies a
⎝ TiHi−Lowi ⎠ perfect fit with the data [17]. Modified version of R2 is the goodness of
Similarly the definitions of di for other objective like maximum, prediction (Adjusted R2), which has been accustomed to the number of
equal to, in range can be found in Ref. [14]. Here Y is the value of the predictors in the model. The significant factor (Predictors R2) signifies
response, i represents the response, high and low represents the higher how well a regression model forecasts the responses obtained from new
and lower limits of the response respectively; T specifies the target observations. Table 9 represents the stability of the analyzed model
value of the response. The weights wti are used to give more importance using DoE. The reasonable agreement of ‘Pre R2’ values with the values
to the lower/upper bounds. Weights vary over the range of of ‘Adj R2’ has been observed, the difference between them less than
0.1 < wti < 10 ; a weight less than 1 give less emphasis, while greater 20% [21].
than 1 give more emphasis to the objective [17]. To obtain an overall
desirability objective, the individual desirability of each response are 3.2. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
combined using geometric mean function D which varies from 0 to 1,
that is calculated by Eq. (3) [25], Figs. 1 and 2 display the consequences of CR, IP and IT on BTE for F
1
(1) fuel and F(2) correspondingly. The useful output energy divided by
n
⎛ ⎞∑ r the input fuel energy in a diesel engine is termed as brake thermal ef-
D = ⎜∏ diri ⎟ i
ficiency [5]. For CR of 18, IP of 250 bar and IT of 21 °bTDC, the BTE of
⎝ i=1 ⎠ (3)
diesel has a maximum value of 29.9%. Highest BTE of 30.05% has been
Each response is assigned an importance (r) that is relative to other recorded for F(1) at CR of 18, IP of 230 bar and IT of 23 °bTDC. BTE is
response in this desirability objective function. Importance differs from optimized in this optimization process which gave more importance, as
the least important value of 1 to the most important value of 2 [21]. The most of the blended fuels have lower BTE when compared to that of
higher value of D represents a desirable and optimum solution. The neat diesel [6]. At higher CR, the increasing compression temperature
Table 9
Results of DoE – performance and emissions.
Model 20.31 < 0.001 10.96 < 0.001 6.89 < 0.001 11.54 < 0.001 14.08 < 0.001 24.01 < 0.001
IP 16.0 0.001 2.390 0.141 19.11 < 0.001 3.26 0.089 46.83 < 0.001 11.38 0.004
IT 9.99 0.006 53.90 < 0.001 19.67 < 0.001 0.61 0.046 4.06 0.046 122.81 < 0.001
CR 155.8 < 0.001 20.38 < 0.001 15.34 0.001 50.80 < 0.001 53.59 < 0.001 16.44 0.001
IP2 – – 0.14 – – – 7.93 0.012 5.68 0.029 19.49 < 0.001
IT2 0.07 – 0.92 – 4.27 0.054 1.50 0.038 4.14 0.058 16.90 < 0.001
CR2 0.04 – 4.92 0.04 0.04 – 17.64 0.001 0.29 – 12.40 0.003
IP × IT 0.05 – 12.80 0.002 – – – – 0.46 – 6.65 0.021
CR × IP 0.48 0.045 0.84 0.372 0.80 – 4.89 0.041 11.15 0.004 7.87 0.012
CR × IT 0.29 – 2.31 0.147 2.80 0.011 17.22 0.001 0.53 – 2.19 0.058
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
leads to a reduction in the ignition delay period [30]. Above CR range BTE (%) = 1.4 + 0.065 × IP + 5.04 × IT −6.09 × CR−0.000149 × IP × IP
of 18:1, the BTE has slight drop due to inadequate combustion space
−0.0582 × IT × IT + 0.267 × CR × CR−0.00148 × IP × IT
inside clearance volume [31]. Poorer combustion has been caused due
+ 0.00371 × IP × CR−0.1187 × IT × CR (6)
to lower clearance depth contributed by hitting of fuel particles on the
combustion chamber wall [29]. The finer droplets of fuel have been
achieved at higher injection pressure; which may influence the spray
penetration and its pattern [14]. There are only small increments in 3.3. Brake specific fuel consumption
BTE at the range of 235 bar to 250 bar injection pressure. The lower
depth penetration of fuel particles in the combustion chamber due to Quadratic nature of model has been developed for BSFC. The chief
fine droplet size and also have lower momentum [15]. At lower CR and effects of the factors measured for BSFC model are significant (neat
IP with 23 °bTDC IT, the minimum BTE of 25% has been observed for F diesel), which has been represented in Tables 9 and 10. Figs. 3 and 4
(2) fuel blend. Above the injection pressure of 235 bar, high-velocity shows that the BSFC is reduced with an increase in IP (from 210 to
atomized fuel particles strike the combustion chamber wall and trim 240 bar) for test fuel F(1) and F(2) respectively. With increasing com-
down the fuel evaporation rate and consequently the improvement in pression ratio and fuel injection pressure, the BSFC value shows de-
BTE is negligibly small [17]. Using the second order response surface crement [15]. The minimum BSFC is observed in F(1) as 0.359 kg/kW-
models, the regression equations has been developed for BTE for the hr at 18 CR, 230 bar IP and 23 °bTDC IT which is 7.5% lower than that
test fuels includes interaction terms, quadratic terms and linear terms of of neat diesel. The finer atomization and improved mixing lead to lower
the input factors i.e., CR, IP and IT [21]. The predicted model for BTE BSFC at higher IP. At CR of 17, IP of 250 bar and IT of 21 °bTDC, F(0)
are given in Eqs. (4)–(6) as follows, fuel recorded lower BSFC of 0.3599 kg/kW-hr. An increase in fuel in-
jection time angle contributed to decreasing in ignition delay thereby
F(0) – Diesel reduces BSFC [12]. For equivalent output power, the quantity of in-
jected fuel into the combustion chamber is augmented in the blended
BTE (%) = 15.4 + 0.099 × IP−0.94 × IT + 0.28 × CR−0.00001 × IP × IP fuel operation due to the lower calorific value of the fuel [12]. At CR of
+ 0.0099 × IT × IT + 0.029 × CR × CR−0.0006 × IP × IT 17, IP of 250 bar and IT of 21 °bTDC, F(2) fuel shows lower BSFC of
−0.00371 × IP × CR + 0.0287 × IT × CR (4) 0.365 kg/kW-hr which is 1.41% higher than that of neat diesel. By in-
creasing the CR, the maximum cylinder pressure has been achieved;
which contributed to more efficient output power by the fuel supply in
F(1) – Diesel/bael oil/DEE
hot combustion chamber [25]. Due to their higher density, the blended
BTE (%) = −108.9 + 0.167 × IP−0.67 × IT + 13.25 × CR fuels exhibit higher BSFC for same injection pressure and volume as it
−0.000897 × IP × IP + 0.0876 × IT × IT + 0.466 × CR × CR has been measured on a mass basis [32]. Beneficial effects on BSFC
have been observed for the addition of DEE to diesel with SVO [19].
−0.00946 × IP × IT + 0.00283 × IP × CR
Addition of DEE improves the properties of vegetable oil by reducing its
+ 0.1442 × IT × CR (5) viscosity, auto-ignition temperature and enhancing cetane number
[33]. Generally, BSFC is lower for standard fuel injection timing at-
F(2) – Diesel/bael oil/DEE tributed to combustion process imminent at the top dead center [17].
The maximum BSFC of about 0.424 kg/kW-hr has been observed in F(2)
at CR of 16, IP of 210 bar and IT of 21 °bTDC which is 7.07% higher
compared to that of neat diesel. The experimental data of BSFC for all
test fuels have been modeled by multiple regressions to fit the second
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
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M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
minimum NOx emission has been found for neat diesel at CR of 16, IP of NOx (ppm) = −3077−1.11 × IP + 158.3 × I + 178.7 × CR
250 bar and IT of 21 °bTDC as 208 ppm. The minimum NOx has been
+ 0.00101 × IP × IP−1.989 × IT × IT −3.88 × CR × CR
observed at CR of 16, IP of 250 bar and IT of 25 °bTDC for F(1) as
−0.0688 × IP × IT + 0.1474 × IP × CR−3.063 × IT × CR
205.7 ppm, meanwhile for diesel it is 220.3 ppm. The NOx formation
starts closer to stoichiometry and lean flammable combustion during (15)
premixed combustion phase [37]. Addition of DEE decreases NOx
emissions by reducing peak combustion temperature [33]. The injected 3.6. Hydrocarbon emissions
fuel particle size of vegetable oil is large when compared to that of
diesel which lessen the combustion efficiency and maximum tempera- The effects of compression ratio and injection system on HC emis-
ture, and hence NOx were lower [38]. At higher compression ratio and sions for F(1) and F(2) fuel have been presented in Figs. 9 and 10. Better
injection pressure with 23 °bTDC IT, NOx emission was at peak level, combustion takes place at higher CR due to enhanced pressure and
which is shown in Table 8. At 18 CR, 250 bar IP and 21 °bTDC IT for F temperature values resulted in lower HC level [26]. The minimum HC
(2), the maximum NOx emission of about 261.3 ppm is recorded which emission has been found for fuel F(1) is 46.8 ppm at 18 CR, 250 bar IP
is 6.09% higher than that of neat diesel. Higher CR increases the in- with 25 °bTDC IT. With the addition of DEE, lower HC emission has
cylinder temperature which leads to increase in flame temperature been observed for blended fuels compared to that of diesel [39]. The
during the combustion process resulted in higher NOx formation improvement in combustion reduces HC emission for the fuels with
[30,37]. The experimental results of NOx emissions for all test fuels are increment in engine load [14]. At CR of 16, IP of 210 bar and IT of
modeled by multiple regression to fit the second order polynomial 21 °bTDC, the maximum HC emission has been measured for fuel F(2)
equations [14]. The regression model has been developed by DoE for was 67.7 ppm which is 5.12% more compared to that of neat diesel.
NOx emission are expressed in Eqs. (13)–(15), Fuel molecules impingement on combustion chamber walls and the
condition of cold engine cause for quenching of combustion reactions
F(0) – Diesel and combustion products mixes with cooler air contributed to HC
emissions [26]. Due to a complete combustion and less dissociation,
NOx (ppm) = −4494 + 4.46 × I + 88 × IT + 368.1 × CR
fewer HC emissions have been observed [25]. At 18 CR, 250 bar IP and
−0.692 × IP × IP−9.5 × IT × IT + 0.0009 × IP × IT 25 °bTDC IT for F(2), the minimum HC emission has been recorded as
+ 0.1768 × IP × CR−3.319 × IT × CR (13) 50.00 ppm which is 0.4% lower than that of neat diesel. The higher
oxygen content of DEE and vegetable oil reduces the stoichiometric air/
fuel ratio resulted in lower HC [30]. At 16 CR, 210 bar IP and 21 °bTDC
F(1) – Diesel/bael oil/DEE
IT, the maximum HC emission level has been observed as 64.7 ppm for
NOx (ppm) = −2316 + 5.27 × IP + 109.2 × IT + 68.7 × CR neat diesel operation. The reason for higher HC emission is that higher
−0.00451 × IP × IP−1.606 × IT × IT −2.86 × CR × CR ignition delay leaves a very small time for combustion [22]. The re-
gression equations developed for HC emissions for the test fuels using
−0.2096 × IP × IT + 0.1092 × IP × CR + 0.667 × IT × CR
the second order response surface models that include quadratic terms,
(14) interaction terms and linear terms of the three input factors i.e., CR, IP
and IT [21]. DoE has been showed that the predicted HC model with
F(2) – Diesel/bael oil/DEE 98% significant confidence and they are given in Eqs. (16)–(18) below,
F(0) – Diesel
291
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
HC (ppm) = 355 + 0.24 × IP + 14.2 × IT −50.5 × CR−0.0054 × IP × IP combustion, bael oil fuels emit higher smoke opacity when compared to
neat diesel and it has been reduced by increasing compression ratio and
−0.461 × IT × IT + 0.489 × CR × CR + 0.0108 × IP × IT
injection pressure [26]. The developed regression equations for smoke
+ 0.1071 × IP × CR + 0.0233 × IT × CR (16)
opacity for the test fuels using the second order response surface models
that includes quadratic terms, interaction terms and linear terms of the
F(1) – Diesel/bael oil/DEE three input factors i.e., CR, IP and IT (Tables 9 and 10). DoE has showed
that the predicted smoke opacity model with 86% significant con-
HC (ppm) = 242−1.72 × IP + 23.6 × IT −23.6 × CR + 0.00013 × IP × IP fidence and they are given in Eqs. (19)–(21) below,
−0.241 × IT × IT + 1.066 × CR × CR + 0.0288 × IP × IT
+ 0.0528 × IP × CR−1.222 × IT × CR (17) F(0) – Diesel
292
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
upper limits, importance, and weight used have been shown in and CO are 11.2%, 3.03%, 0.66% and 2.43% higher when compared to
Table 11. The weight ranges from 0.1 to 10. The weight greater than 1 that of neat diesel respectively as shown in Table 14. For fuel F(2), the
gives more importance to the objective while a weight less than 1 gives BSFC, NOx, CO and HC are 11.3%, 1.04%, 19.1% and 7.5% higher
less importance [21]. The relative significance of the parameters differs when compared to that of neat diesel respectively.
among each other. In this optimization process, more importance has
been given to the BSFC, NOx and smoke opacity.
Three solutions for the three test fuels have been presented Table 12 3.10. Average heat release rate (HRR)
as per the criteria of optimization developed using desirability ap-
proach by the minitab’17 software. Higher desirability solutions are Fig. 15 represents the average heat release rate (HRR) as a function
preferred which are nearer to the set criteria [17]. From these solutions, of crank angle degree (-10 and 50° with reference to TDC). Advanced
the fuel blend F(0) has been found to have optimized running condition injection timing reduces the combustion process rate which stretches
of 18 CR, 21 °bTDC IT with 250 bar IP, which has the maximum de- the combustion duration [32]. HRR has been determined by thermo-
sirability of 61.6%. Table 12 shows that the fuel F(2) and F(3) have dynamics depending on the data of the recorded cylinder gas pressure
optimization criteria. [41]. The HRR has been calculated by the Eq. (22);
Graphical optimization shows the feasible response area values in
the factor space that fit the criteria of optimization [21]. The developed dQ γ ⎛ dV ⎞ 1 ⎛ dP ⎞ dQ w
= P + V +
regression models of BTE, BSFC, CO, NOx, HC and smoke obtained by dθ γ −1 ⎝ dθ ⎠ γ −1 ⎝ dθ ⎠ dθ (22)
superimposing the contours of all the responses surfaces for fuel F(1)
and F(2) have been represented in Figs. 13 and 14. The contour plots where dQ is the amount of heat transfer rate (J/deg CA), V is the
dθ
with upper and lower response line (small range of optimization values instantaneous volume (m3), P is cylinder pressure (N/m2) of the cy-
from Table 12) signifies their effects on the output responses with re- linder, γ is ratio of specific heats, θ is crank angle (deg), Q w is the cy-
spect to input parameters i.e., CR, IP and IT. linder wall heat losses and dQ w is wall heat transfer loss from Eq. (23)
dθ
[3].
3.9. Validation dQ w
= hc × A × (Tg−Tw )
dθ (23)
Confirmatory experiments have been done to validate the solutions
obtained using desirability approach. Three trails of experiments have Higher CR increases the HRR due to complete combustion [25]. The
been taken and averaged at the optimum factor levels [14]. Table 13 rate of fuel combustion in the initial stage of combustion augments
presents the results of confirmatory experiments which are compared slightly with the increase in CR [35]. This is due to the combustion of
with the predicted values from RSM models [26]. The percentages of large fuel quantity during the initial combustion phase due to higher
error in predicting the optimization parameters like BTE, BSFC, CO, compression temperature and also the combustion of the vaporized fuel
NOx, HC, and opacity are sorted. The optimization models developed not yet progressed in the combustion chamber with the existing flame
by RSM for the BSFC, CO, NOx, HC and opacity are found to be suffi- front [38]. The rate of ignition delay increase with IT become more
cient to explain the impact of compression ratio and injection systems evident for lower engine loads compared to peak engine loads [11]. By
for the test fuels and the error in prediction has been found to be within increasing the IT of 2° crank angle degree (CAD) led that the HRR has
4.5% [21]. advanced 3° CAD and the rate of cylinder gas pressure is lower com-
Table 14 shows the output parameters for test fuels F(1) and F(2) at pared to retardation of IT (21°bTDC) [15,17]. From Fig. 15, a decrease
optimum factor levels obtained by the desirability approach which are in combustion duration with neat diesel shows that combustion finishes
compared to neat diesel operation. For fuel F(1), the BSFC, BTE, NOx much quicker compared to blended fuel engine operations [38].
293
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
Table 12
Predicted solutions from desirability approach closer to optimization criteria.
294
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
Table 13
Confirmatory test results at 80 percent engine load and 1500 rpm engine speed with percentage error.
1 17.9 234.2 25 F(1) Actual 29.06 0.4003 0.42 241.7 48.7 53.16
%Error −2.43 2.5133 2.43 0.571 2.26 −1.912
2 18 250 25 F(2) Actual 28.04 0.4201 0.47 240.3 52.0 54.30
%Error −2.91 1.2522 4.44 0.223 4.48 −2.233
Table 14
Optimized responses in comparison with baseline diesel operation at 80 percent engine load and 1500 rpm speed.
contributed to auto-ignition delay, hence the main combustion stage leads to more brake power [31]. From Fig. 17, it is observed that F(2)
shifts towards the expansion stroke [42]. Maximum cylinder gas pres- fuel has inferior peak combustion temperature compared to F(0) fuel.
sure depends on the combustion in premixed stage [3]. This short This is the outcome of both earlier initiation of combustion of the liquid
combustion phase depends on mixing of air and fuel, fuel type, engine fuel and higher premixed controlled combustion, which occurs due to
load and equivalence ratio [32]. the better atomization of F(0) and its lower viscosity [33]. Higher in-
jection pressure augments the spray atomization, escalates the eva-
3.12. Maximum cylinder gas temperature poration of fuel droplet and reduces the ignition delay period [22]. The
progressive burning takes place due to the minimum ignition delay and
Fig. 17 specifies the average maximum cylinder gas temperature Vs thus peak temperature has been reduced. The reduced maximum
the crank angle (-20° to 90° reference toward TDC). Increasing CR will combustion temperature is a reason for reducing NOx emissions [37].
escalate in-cylinder gas temperature near the compression stroke and Low-temperature burning is predicted to benefit overall engine
295
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. Fuel 221 (2018) 283–297
approach to model, predict, and optimize the input response data. The
conclusions drawn from the investigation are as follow;
Acknowledgements
Fig. 17. Maximum cylinder gas temperature.
The authors are thankful for the support of the organization of
efficiency, mainly because of reduced cylinder heat loss and potential of Government College of Technology, Coimbatore for facilitating the re-
molecular properties of the expanding combustion gasses from dilute search work.
combustion phase to allow a greater amount of the energy to be ex-
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