1

Applied
ATP-EMTP
to
Highly-sophisticated
electric power
systems

Currents in cycloconverter

Eiichi Haginomori
August 2003
 2

Preface
For power system engineers engaged in sophisticated electric power systems, such as with very
high power generations, with high capacity of EHV/UHV transmission lines, high density power
flows, combined with IPP systems, etc., more and more understanding in detail the various tran-
sient and complicated phenomena in the systems are obliged. The time regions of these are from
nanoseconds to several seconds, or even minutes.
As for the education of such engineers the best way is thought to be experiments and experiences
in actual power systems, any of which seems to be very difficult and costly in these fields. Also long
time interval of education is necessary.
Recently ATP-EMTP has made a significant development and became a more and more useful and
powerful tool to analyse various transients in power systems and, also, power apparatuses. The
program covers almost all of the transients and is applicable to PC, by which virtual experi-
ment/experience seems to be realistic. Therefore, the efficient usage of the program is beneficial for
cost and time saving.
In this text-book various kinds of transients together with the analyses with ATP-EMTP are written.
Also the principles of the phenomena and the usages of ATP-EMTP are involved as much. Data
files analysing such phenomena are attached.
Care should be taken that, beforehand, primary stage study of ATP-EMTP is strongly recom-
mended before reading this text book.

Contents
1. Transient currents in power systems
1.1 Short circuit current
1.2 Transformer inrush magnetizing current
1.3 Transformer magnetizing current under geo-magnetic storm condition
1.4 Inrush current in capacitive circuit

2. Current interruption transients

2.1 Short circuit current breakings
2.2 Capacitive current switchings
2.3 Inductive current breakings
Appendix 2.1 TRV with parallel capacitance in SLF breaking
Appendix 2.2 4-armed shunt reactor for suppressing secondary arc in single pole rapid
re-closing
Appendix 2.3 Switching 4-armed shunt reactor compensated transmission line

3. Overhead transmission lines and underground cables

3.1 Overhead transmission line
3.2 Under ground cables
Appendix 3.1 COMBINATION of overhead line(s) and underground conductors
Appendix 3.2 Multi-layer coaxial insulation

4. Transformer
Single-phase two winding transformer
Single-phase three winding transformer
Three-phase one core (three legs or five legs) transformer
A few examples
Appendix 4.1 Response to fast/very fast transient voltage (VFT)

5. Black box arc modelling

5.1 Mayr arc model
5.3 Cassie arc model

6. Synchronous machine dynamics

6.1 Machine parameter coding
 3

6.2 Some examples

Appendix 6.1 Synchronous machine sudden short-circuit --- description on d-q co-ordinate
plane
Appendix 6.2 Synchronous machine starting as induction motor
Appendix 6.3 Voltage distribution on transmission line

7. Transient stability
7.1 Classic analysing method -------- Equi-area method
7.2 Time domain analysis ------- ATP-EMTP
Field excitation control
Back swing phenomena
Appendix 7.1 Modelling by Universal Machine

8. Induction machine, doubly fed machine

Cage-rotor induction machine
Machine parameters and basic calculations
Multi machine case
Quasi-constant power load
VVVF starting
Doubly fed machine
Appendix 8.1 Doubly fed machine vector diagram as fly-wheel generator operation

9. Typical power electronics circuits in power systems

9.1 HVDC converter/inverter
9.2 SVC (Static Var Compensator/ Thyrister Controlled Inductor)
9.3 PWM inverter, 3-phase, triangular carrier wave principle
9.4 Cycloconverter

10. Machine drive applications

10.1 Small scale system composed of synchronous generator(s) and induction motors
Initialisation, Induction motor starting, Application of AVR, Inverter controlled VVVF starting
10.2 Cyclo-converter driven synchronous machine
Sudden mechanical load, Quick starting of cyclo-converter driven synchronous motor,
Comparison with inverter driven system, Quick starting by inverter driven
10.3 Fly-wheel generator ---- Doubly fed machine application to transient stability enhancement
Circuit diagram, Initialisation, Effect of the fly-wheel generator

Note: Data files attached are explained in the relevant chapters.

 1

1. Transient currents in power systems

1.1 Short circuit current
Typically short circuit currents in power systems are related to circuit breaker performance. De-
pending on the point on wave timing of the short circuit initiation, the short circuit current has de-
caying d.c. component with the maximum of the a.c. crest
value. Power system short circuit phenomena are repre-
sented by Fig. 1.1 in most simplified manner. In actual
power systems some parallel circuits with respective L/R
(d.c. decaying time constant) values exist, still the circuit as
Fig. 1.1 can be mostly applied with practically enough ac-
curacy.
The following analytical solution is easily obtained. :

Fig. 1.1 Simplified circuit diagram

Current in inductance is to be continuous, therefore irrespective of the point on wave short circuiting
timing, the current starts from zero. So for compensating the instantaneous a.c. value to zero for the
short-circuiting time, d.c. component exists. Appling ATP-EMTP, an example is shown in Fig. 1.2,
also see the attached data file, where each current starts from zero value and equal a.c. component
waves irrespective of the d.c. and short circuiting timings are shown.
In practical system circuits, where the circuits are mostly three phases, both positive/negative and
zero sequence parameters are to be considered in three phase circuits. Also for practical systems,
discharging currents from parallel capacitances, such as transmission lines, cables, or shunt ca-
pacitor banks, are occasionally not insignificant. Such discharging currents have components of
several hundred Hz and
mostly decay after a few
tens ms from the
short-circuiting time. But
in special cases, they
may not be negligible
after several tens ms
from the short circuit ini-
tiation when the currents
are to be interrupted by
circuit breakers. A typical
example, corresponding
to an extremely high
density network near a
megalopolis, is shown in
Fig. 1.3, which is a case
of EHV substation
bus-bar is short circuited,
Fig. 1.2 Short-circuit current in Fig. 1.1
where extremely high
capacitances such as
EHV cables via certain
length of overhead line (20km) and high capacity of shunt capacitors in the tertiary winding side of
the transformer are connected. Care should be taken in such calculation regarding the damping of
the transient current frequency by capacitance discharging current. The frequency of the transient
is in the order of several hundreds Hz, so the losses in transformers, transmission lines, cables, etc.
are to be based on that frequency range.
The calculation was done for a 550 /300 kV sub-station, the capacity of which transformer is (in
 2

total) 3GVA, 600MVA of

capacitor bank is con-
nected to the tertiary side
of the transformer, total ca.
40 km of EHV cables are
connected to the 300kV
bus-bar via 20km of over-
head transmission line.
Damping resistances in the
circuits were carefully ad-
justed for the transient
current frequencies.
Applying “Fourier On”
menu, GTPPLT or Plot XY,
Fig. 1.3 Short-circuit currents in EHV sub-station
the Fourier spectrum is
easily obtained and the
wave shape in Fig. 1.3 (with maximum transient component) has 10% of 5th harmonics, which can
yield 50% of enhancement of di/dt value at the current interruption. The value may significantly af-
fect to certain type of circuit breaker performance. For details of the system parameters applied,
see the attached data file.
Note:
Such short circuit current distortion is significant where very high capacitance(s) exists via certain
inductance, e.g., transmission line, transformer, series reactor of shunt capacitor bank, etc.

1.2 Transformer inrush magnetizing current

Transformer inrush magnetizing

current is often explained applying
the diagram as Fig. 1.4. For EHV
high capacity transformers, the
values often record up to several
thousand A, while the steady state
magnetizing currents are less
than 1 A. Such calculation apply-
ing ATP-EMTP is relatively simple,
introducing actual transformer
magnetizing characteristics. An
example is shown in Fig. 1.5,
where No. 93 True non-linear in-
ductor simulates an actual 550kV,
1GVA transformer characteristics,
which can accept initial residual
flux. For the detailed data, see the
file attached. In the data file, the
magnetizing current region of 10
---- 10000 A is simplified due to
less data was available. For cor-
rect calculation, this region may
be of great importance.
In Fig. 1.5, the current gradually
decays due to, mainly, the resis-
tance(s) in the circuit. The actual
applied voltage to the inductance
component is reduced by the re-
sistance drop, so, the voltage is
Fig. 1.5 Transformer magnetizing current more or less asymmetrical due to
550kV, 1GVA transformer the asymmetry of the magnetizing
 3

current. Therefore the current goes gradually to symmetrical one, down to less than 1 A. For correct
calculation as for the damping of the current, care is to be paid for the correct resistance value(s) in
the circuit.
Notes:
- In the attached data calculating Fig. 1.5, the magnetizing characteristic is modelled by only 3
segments for one polarity. If correct value(s) for 10 ---- several 1000 A current value(s) is wished,
more accurate modelling for the current range may be necessary.
- Three non-linear inductance menus are available:
Type 98 Pseudo non-linear reactor : Most simple and useful for general usage but initial (residual)
flux is not applicable. Type 93 True non-linear inductance : Initial flux is applicable. Calculation is
only a little bit slower. Care should be paid when applying initial flux, current dose not starts from
zero but a certain value relevant to the flux value on the magnetizing curve.
- Type 96 Pseudo-non-linear hysteretic reactor : Care should be paid when up going and down
going, the current/flux locus traces the same line for each, i.e., the width between the two lines is
constant.

1.3 Transformer magnetizing

current under geo-magnetic
storm condition
Strong geo-magnetic storms
originated by the Sunspot are
known to attack the earth ap-
proximately every 11 years,
when approx. DC current due to
the terrestrial magnetism
change flows in a very long
transmission line in north –
south direction which reaches
up to ca. 100 A. The transmis-
sion line terminates with a
transformer at each sub-station.
Therefore DC current flows
through the transformer in such
circumstance up to in the order
of 100 A. The DC current mostly
flows only one side winding of
the transformer, thus the iron
core is saturated much. The flux
goes out of the iron core and
may make heated the trans-
former iron case due to the
higher iron loss rate of the ma-
terial. In 1989, a large black out
in US and Canada electric utili-
ties were reported due to such
origin. Transformer magnetizing performance is shown in Fig. 1.6 under such DC current super-
imposed. By a certain AC voltage applied, the flux linkage can be any of flux (1) or flux (2) de-
pending on the initial condition. In mathematics, the matter corresponds to the integration constant,
i.e., the flux is integration of the applied voltage to the inductance. Corresponding magnetizing
current is Current (1) or Current (2). Thus any kind of current can exist. Actually the flux bias, i.e. the
initial condition of the time period concerned, is fixed as steady state condition. As for the inrush
current shown in the previous section, the initial current is the most interest in most cases. But the
phenomena in this section lasting several ten minutes, steady state condition is most interested. As
for the circuit diagram in Fig. 1.7, the next equations are easily obtained. :
 4

The second equation is the integration of the first one. The third one is just modification of the
second one, which shows the average current value is just the DC current value applied.

Fig. 1.7 Circuit diagram for geomagnetic Fig. 1.8 ATP-EMTP calculation of transformer
storm condition magnetizing current under geomagnetic
storm

ATP-EMTP calculation result is shown in Fig. 1.8, also see attached data file for the circuit pa-
rameter details. In the calculation to attain shorter time interval to the steady state, the series re-
sistor values are intentionally enhanced. Otherwise, the time to steady state is to be several ten
seconds for the actual circuit parameters. The calculation was done applying both AC and DC
voltages to the transformer without initial residual flux.
Note :
- Geomagnetic storm condition lasts several ten minutes, while the thermal time constant of a
transformer is in the order of one --- several hours. Higher current lasting less than one minute
such as inrush current is of no importance as for the thermal phenomena. Electrical time constant
around a transformer is far less than one minute. Therefore, electrically steady state phenomena
are of importance regarding geomagnetic storm.
- In the attached data file calculating the phenomena, introducing initially residual flux and/or an
other timing of source voltage, different current wave shape is obtained only for the initial time
iterval. After some time interval, current reaches to the same steady state value.

1.4 Inrush current in capacitive circuit

Capacitive circuits such as high capacity shunt capacitor banks or EHV under ground cable sys-
tems, when closing by relevant switching facilities, i.e. circuit breakers, may create very high inrush
current up to the order of the short circuit one. The frequency of the transient is in the order of a few
hundred Hz ---- several kHz. The transient last generally short time interval, so the contact con-
sumption of the relevant switching facility (circuit breaker) is the most concern. Also facilities are
influenced electro magnetic forces. Some examples of circuit diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.9 in
single phase ones. Most actual circuits are in three phases, so in calculating three phases model-
ling is necessary for most cases.
a): Single capacitor bank circuit in most simplified representation. The highest current is easily
calculated by V (voltage), C (capacitance) and L (total series inductance). R (series resistance)
only influences on the damping of the transient current.
b): Ditto, but with series reactor intentionally added. The practice is very common in Japan to sup-
press the current and also harmonic current component.: So called back to back capacitor bank
circuit, where, if the series reactance values are low, very high inrush current flow. Special care
should be paid for circuit breaker application.
c): So called back to back shunt capacitor bank arrangement. When a capacitor bank is switched
on while another one is previously energized, true inrush current may flow. The series reac-
tances are to be carefully calculated.
d): In high capacity of sub-stations, capacitor banks are installed in the transformer’s tertiary wind-
ing circuits. Thus some amount of series reactances are automatically introduced.
e): In EHV under ground cable systems where, especially, plural circuits are connected to the bus
 5

bar, fairly high inrush current may be created.

Fig. 1.9 Circuit diagrams creating capacitive inrush currents

EMTP calculations themselves are thought to be not so, so complicated, so no example is shown
here. Care should be taken for also the damping elements (resistances) in the circuits. The values
depend on the relevant (the inrush current) frequencies, such as transmission lines, cables, trans-
formers, etc. It may be necessary to preliminarily calculate the inrush current frequency, and to
re-calculate each damping element. The followings are general ideas for the damping, which might
be of your help unless otherwise obtained. Also see as for details in the following relevant sections.

* Overhead transmission line and underground cable: Parameters are to be calculated based
on the relevant transient frequency. For underground cable, dielectric loss (tan), which can be
neglected in power frequency, might be necessary to be counted in. See section 3.
* Capacitor bank:: Appropriate dielectric loss in the relevant frequency range is to be considered.
The loss of the series reactor, if any, is in the order of 0.05% of the capacitor bank capacity in
power frequency. About 60% of which is copper loss which can be represented by a constant
value of series resistor irrespective the frequency. Iron loss (ca. 25% in power frequency) is
represented by a constant value of resistor connected in parallel due the fact that the loss de-
pends on the 2nd power of the voltage irrespective of the frequency. Stray loss (ca 15% in power
frequency) is proportional to 2nd power of current and 1.5th power of frequency.
* Power transformer: Typical losses of a high capacity of transformer is, ------ Iron loss is ca.
0.03% of the capacity, which can be represented by a constant resistor connected in parallel.
Load dependent loss is 0.15 --- 0.2%, 85% of which is copper loss and 15% is stray loss. Like
capacitor bank’s series reactor, the relevant losses are applied.

Attached data files for this chapter:

Data1-01.dat: Calculating a.c. short circuiting currents in a most simplified circuit in Fig. 1.2
Data1-02.dat EHV sub-station with high capacity of shunt capacity bank and cable network to cal-
culate short circuit current in Fig. 1.3
Data1-03.dat EHV transformer inrush magnetizing current calculation for Fig. 1.5
Data1-04.dat EHV transformer magnetizing current calculation under geomagnetic storm condition
in Fig. 1.8
 1

2. Current interruption transients

For circuit breakers or other switching facilities, transient voltages just after the current interruptions are
of great concern with successful current breakings, as the phenomena relate to the competition be-
tween the insulation recoveries and transient voltages across the contacts. The transient voltage is
called as “Transient recovery voltage, (TRV).” For some typical cases in power systems, calculation
principles are shown in this chapter.

2.1 Short circuit current breakings

For circuit breakers short circuit current breaking is the most important performance to fulfil. Just after
the interruption of high current the insulation across the contacts is to withstand against TRV of rela-
tively or even very rapid recovery. Applying EMTP, TRVs can be straightforwardly calculated. Never-
theless, for calculating TRVs in large power systems, simplified and effective calculation processes are
wished. For the purpose, to bear current injection principle in mind is strongly recommended. The
principle is shown in Fig. 2.1.
As shown in the upper figure, the inverse polarity of current ( -I ) is superimposed to the originally
flowing short circuit current ( I ) from
the switch terminals. Then the total
current is to be zero, corresponding to
current interruption. The phenomenon
is represented by (a), (b) and (c), i.e.
the total phenomenon is (a), which can
be replaced by (b) + (c) by superim-
posing principle. (b) corresponds to
short circuited as up to the time, so no
TRV appears. TRV is produced only in
(c). Therefore, we are to calculate for
(c) to obtain TRV. The feature of this
method is :
- As for source, only the breaking
current is to be considered and
some sources in the system are
eliminated.
- Only the circuit parameters seen
from the switching facility terminals
are to be considered. Therefore,
parameters remote from the ter-
minals seem to be not so, so im-
portant.
- In (c), any initial condition is ex-
cluded, so we can apply only dead
circuit and injecting current to cal-
culate TRV, thus simplified and
easier consideration is applicable.
- In the calculation, ramp current in-
stead of sinusoidal one is mostly
Fig. 2.1 Current injection principle applicable due to relatively short
In current breaking time interval of TRV duration time
interval, compared to a loop of
power frequency current.
As a whole, the method suggests possibility of simplification in TRV calculation. Accurate parameters
are necessary only circuit locations close to the switching device concerned.
 2

Great care is to be taken the principle is applicable only for TRV across the switching facility terminals.
For other variables, e.g. voltages to ground, the original process ((a) in Fig. 2.1)is to be taken.
Actual complicated systems are com-
posed of simple elements, so firstly to
study responses by simple circuit ele-
ments seems, hopefully, to be useful and
beneficial. In Fig. 2.2 some circuit ele-
ments frequently applied to represent ac-
tual systems are shown.
(6) ---- (9) are often used in practical short
circuit test plant circuits. In Fig. 2.3
ATP-EMTP calculation results injecting
ramp currents to the elements (1) ---- (9)
are shown. As for actual numerical values
of the parameters applied, see the at-
tached data file.
The followings are noted :
- In digital calculations finite values are
Fig. 2.2 Some circuit elements to represent systems to be applied, even for the initial part
of the ramp current, yielding aston-
ishing results for cases (2) and (4).
Small capacitances are to be con-
nected in parallel to the inductances.
- (6) and (7), also (8) and (9) yield simi-
lar results respectively, see Fig.
2.3.(b). But in the enlargements of the
very initial parts, significant differ-
ences are found in Fig. 2.3 (c). The
differences are often of certain im-
(a) (1) ----- (5) in Fig. 2.2 portance in actual short circuit test
circuits. The differences are origi-
nated by capacitances directly con-
nected to the switching facility termi-
nals.
- Hand calculations (analytical) are not
so, so difficult, so the reader is
strongly recommended to try, at least
once, for better understanding these
phenomena.
(b) (6) ---- (9) in Fig. 2.2 Then, actual application to calculate
power system TRVs will be shown next.
Let’s introduce Fig. 2.4 (single-phase
circuit diagram) as an example. For three
phase circuits, basic principle will be
shown later.
In Fig. 2.4, a 300kV system around a
sub-station is shown. Transformer’s an-
other side system is simply represented
(c) Enlargement of the initial part in (b) by voltage source via inductance equiva-
lent to transformer and the system short
Fig. 2.3 Voltages by injecting ramp currents to circuit circuit reactance. Applying what are men-
elements in Fig. 2.2 tioned before, transmission lines near the
circuit breaker are relatively accurately
 3

represented by distrib-
uted parameter lines,
while; remote systems
are simply represented
by lump elements such
as capacitors and in-
ductors. For the details
of the parameters ap-
plied, see the attached
data file. The short circuit
capacity at the bus bar is
approx. 50kA, repre-
senting a sub-station in a
relatively high capacity
of system. “X” is the
connection bus bar re-
Fig. 2.4 One line diagram around 300 kV sub-station lating to ITRV, to be
to calculate TRVs in short circuit clearings shown later.
Fault points are F1 ----
F4. F1 is so called ter-
minal fault, and F2 ---- F4
are line faults. Especially,
fault at F2 is called short
line fault (SLF), which,
due to relatively high
breaking current and very
high rate of rise of TRV,
is of importance for cer-
tain type of circuit-
breakers.
EMTP calculation result
as for F3 fault current
breaking in Fig. 2.4 is
shown in Fig. 2.5. In (a)
(a) Overall voltages and current overall phenomena are
shown. Before current
interruption, a portion of
voltage exists at the bus
corresponding to the dis-
tribution along the line
(10km). After interruption,
bus side voltage recovers
to the source value with
some transients. Line
side one goes to zero
also with some transients.
The details are clear in
(b) as the zooming ex-
pression around the cur-
rent interruption.
Note:
(b) Enlargement around current interruption
- Breaking means
overall phenomena
Fig. 2.5 Fault current breaking, fault at F3 in Fig. 2.4
 4

including initiation of movement of circuit- breaker, contact separation, arcing, quenching of arc and
current interruption, TRV appearing, withstanding against TRV and power frequency recovery
voltage. While interruption means just end of arcing current.
Applying current injection principle before mentioned, TRVs in line fault breakings are understood as:
- Current injections from the circuit breaker are to be --- one current to the bus direction and the other
of opposite polarity to the line direction, value of which correspond to F3 fault current.
- Line side TRV follows the principle (8) in Fig. 2.2 and Fig. 2.3
- Bus side TRV, at the first step before the reflection waves coming, follows (3) in Fig. 2.2 and 2.3, as
overall surge impedance Z, which is equivalent to resistance Z before the reflection coming, and
Inductance corresponding to Transformer, etc. are connected in parallel. Then afterwards, arrivings
of reflection waves in some lines, overall voltage change is such like as (5), (6) or (7) in Fig. 2.2 and
2.3. These phenomena are well explained in ANSI C37.06.
- TRV across the terminals of the circuit breaker is the difference of the two TRVs, as shown in Fig.
2.5 (b).
- Be aware, as written before, current injection is valid for across terminals TRV. By each side current
injection, only voltage change appears.
Applying current injection principle, for example, dv/dt (rate of rise of recovery voltage, RRRV) and re-
flection time are easily obtained as [di/dt times surge impedance] and [line length divided travelling
speed respectively, thus overall conception of TRV is easily obtained. “X” in Fig. 2.4 corresponds to a
connection line between the circuit breaker and the bus, the length of which is in the order of several
ten meters. The connection line yields TRV similar to the line side one (SLF), but due to shorter length,
of lower amplitude. This is called Initial Transient Recovery Voltage (ITRV). This may be of importance
for certain type of circuit breakers, especially breaking higher current such as F1 or F2 fault in Fig. 2.4.
A distributed parameter line of the relevant length models the connection line.
For calculation TRV introducing very short connection line by EMTP, very short step time is required by
EMTP. In EMTP step time of calculation shall be shorter than the minimum travelling time of the dis-
tributed parameter line in the relevant circuit. Therefore, huge number of steps is necessary, as usually
several ten ms of calculation time interval is necessary for calculating breaking phenomena, mainly due
to initialisation technique in EMTP. On the other hands, time interval of ITRV concerned is very short,
such as, several microseconds. Introducing current injection principle in also EMTP calculation, effi-
cient calculation is possible. An example is shown in the attached data file, where 50m of connection
line and 0.1 microsecond of step time are introduced, while the total calculation time interval is 20 mi-
croseconds.

Three-phase circuit

Like a single-phase circuit, current injection principle is applicable to also a three-phase circuit in a
power system. The main concept of current injection in TRV calculation is:
TRV = [Injection current] times [Impedance looked through circuit breaker terminal]
For three phase circuits, the following equations are introduced. :

where Z0, Z1, and Z2 are respective sequence impedances looked through circuit breaker terminals,
and e0, e1 and e2 are voltages appearing across the terminals of the circuit breaker. Notations u, v, and
w relate to phases. In most cases in power transmission systems, Z1 = Z2.
Such equations, based on symmetrical component principle, were originally introduced for phenomena
in power frequency domain. But introducing Fourier series spectrums for some voltage/current wave
shapes, equations are thought to be valid for any voltage/current wave shape including transient one.
 5

Fist example is to calculate first pole to clear impedance for three-phase fault. In the case, assuming
phase “u” is the first pole to clear, then, ev = ew = 0. From the equations shown before, :

For phase “u”, (eu / iu) is thought to be the equivalent impedance for first pole to clear. From the equa-
tion above, :

Then, for first pole to clear, the equivalent impedance is :

Likewise for second and third pole to clear, the followings are introduced respectively. :

Also for three phase circuits, TRVs are conceptually considered as products of injection currents and
equivalent impedances. Therefore from these impedance values, TRVs in three phase circuits could be
guessed, at least for relative values or qualitatively. For quantitatively accurate values, of cause, EMTP
calculations are inevitable.
Note:
- Modelings of power system elements such as transformers, overhead transmission lines, under
ground cables, etc. will be explained in the following chapters. Care should be taken that the models
depend on the frequency of the relevant phenomena. The best way is models for power frequency
are applied up to the current interruption, and ones for the frequency of the transient phenomena are
applied for the following phenomena. In actual cases compromise is to be necessary.

2.2 Capacitive current switchings

Fig. 2.6 Capacitive current breaking
- most simplified representation -
Switchings of capacitive circuits such as no-load
overhead transmission lines, under ground cables,
or shunt capacitor banks are relatively frequent
service of circuit breakers. In breaking capacitive
current the maximum recovery voltage across
terminals of switching device is higher than twice
of the source voltage, see Fig. 2.6. Generally it last
longer time, so re-strike (sustained discharge be-
tween contacts) could occur.
 6

By re-strike, significant over voltage and greate shock due to the impulse discharging current are cre-
ated in the circuit. So, for modern sophisticated power systems with reduced insulation revel, re-strike
a) System layout
b) Normal breaking
b) Delaying in 2nd pole to clear
Fig. 2.7 No-load overhead line
Capacitive current breaking
free is an earnest requirement.
In Fig. 2.7, 550kV no-load overhead line’s ca-
pacitive charging current breaking is shown in
simplified manner. The line is represented in
symmetrically transposed condition, 150km of
length. The source side is much simplified; still
general trend is well represented. Details are
shown in the attached data file and a).
b) shows voltage changes in normal breaking,
i.e. currents in three phases are interrupted in
order at each current zero. c) shows delaying of
current interruption in the second pole to clear.
Due to the electro-static coupling, the first
pole’s line side voltage is much influenced, so
the recovery voltage of the pole is enhanced
much. If the scattering of the contact separation
timing is more than one 6th of one cycle time
interval (2.7ms for 60Hz and 3.3ms for 50Hz),
such possibility exists.
More accurate line and system modelling will be
explained in the following chapters. In most
overhead transmission line systems, so called
“Rapid auto-re-closing” is applied. In the sound
phase during the operation, the circuit pole may
close against the residual voltage of the inverse
polarity of the source voltage. The most severe
case’s result of circuit diagram in Fig. 2.7 is
shown in Fig. 2.8 a), where each pole closed at
each maximum voltage timing. The highest
over voltage at line end terminal is approx. 4 p.u.
of the system voltage. Pre-insertion resistor’s
effect is significant as shown in b), where 1000
ohm of resistors are inserted approx. 10ms in
three poles. For details of the system and op-
eration sequence parameters, see the attached
data files.

a) Direct re-closing b) Re-closing with resistor insertion

Fig. 2.8 Rapid re-closing with and without resistor insertion
 7

Note :
- In calculating re-closing over voltages, accurate transmission line modelling is necessitated due to
the wide range of frequency voltage components included. Damping of the line that is dominant for
over voltage value is dependent on the frequency. See the following chapters.
- In the case above shown solidly earthed neutral source circuit is applied. For non-solidly earthed
conditions, some examples will be shown in the following as mainly for a cable system.

a) Circuit diagram b) Isolated neutral source c) With significant capacitance

circuit to earth in source circuit
Fig. 2.9 Capacitive current breaking in system with non-solidly earthed source circuit
Fig. 2.9 shows capacitive current breaking in a cable system. The cable is modelled as screened one,
i.e. each phase core is surrounded by earthed screen so that no electrical static coupling exists be-
tween phase cores, corresponding to equal zero and positive sequence capacitance values. The sup-
ply side is modelled as non-earthed neutral condition.
Note:
- In EMTP, one-terminal-grounded source is mandatory, so representing non-earthed source, combi-
nation of current source and impedance can be applied. Alternatively, (semi) ideal transformer or
“No. 18 ungrounded source” can also be applied, see the following.
The result b) is usually specified case for non-solidly earthed neutral system and due to the en-
hancement (shifting up) of the supply side neutral voltage, the maximum recovery voltage reached up
to 2.5 p.u. of the source phase voltage. In c), as more general cases, significant values of capacitances
to ground such as cables are connected to the supply side bus bar. Then due to less enhancement of
the neutral voltage in the supply side, the maximum recovery voltage is approx. 2.0 p.u., so much re-
duction is expected. Also see the
attached data files as for the sys-
tem parameter details.
As another example, breaking
shunt capacitor bank capacitive
current, with 66kV and 50MVA
rating, is shown in Fig. 2.10. The
supply circuit neutral is high ohmic
resistor grounded. In the calcula-
a) Circuit diagram b) Voltage changes in breaking tion, No. 18 ungrounded source in
EMTP menu is applied, see the
Fig. 2.10 Shunt capacitor bank capacitive current breaking attached data file for the details.
66kV, 50MVA bank The capacitors have series con-
nected reactors, the purpose of
which is to suppress harmonics
(higher than 3rd stage) and back-to-back inrush making currents. In Japan, as standard procedure, the
reactor reactance is 6% of the capacitor’s capacitive reactance. The voltage charged on the capacitor
is enhanced due to the inverse polarity of voltage on the series connected reactor, so the recovery
voltage is also enhanced by the value. Moreover, due to the voltage oscillation on the reactor, high
frequency component is involved at the initial part of the recovery voltage. Occasionally the high fre-
quency component of the recovery voltage elongates the minimum arcing time, i.e. the current is in-
terrupted by relatively longer contact gap, the reactor may bring suitable effect on re-strike free break-
 8

ing.
Note:
- As relatively high frequency of oscillation is created by the series connected reactor, in calculation by
ATP-EMTP, sufficiently low value of step time is to be used.

2.3 Inductive current breakings

a) Circuit diagram b) Voltage changes when SHR current breaking

Fig. 2.11 300kV, 150MVA shunt reactor breaking

Inductive current means shunt reactor (SHR), no-load transformer magnetizing or stalled motor ener-
gizing current. Due to low current value, the interruption itself is of little problem. While breaking by
usual circuit breakers such as air blast, SF6 or vacuum ones, the current tends to be chopped (forced
interruption) before its prospective (natural) current zero.
Note:
- Physical chopping phenomena by circuit breaker arc with negative v-i characteristic in conjunction
with circuit parameters will be explained in the following chapter.
Fortunately, in ATP-EMTP, current chopping (forced current interruption before current zero) is easily
introduced by time controlled usual switch. As an example, 300kV, 150MVA shunt reactor current
breaking is explained in Fig. 2.11. “a)” shows one phase of the circuit diagram in simplified modelling.
The connection bus inductances are to be introduced adjacent to the circuit breaker. “b)” shows
voltage changes around current interruption.
Note:
- For details of the circuit parameters in a), see the attached data file, where, for the purpose of
calculation stabilizing, several additional elements such as series connected resistors are intro-
duced. Also, “chopping --- re-ignition --- re-interruption” are represented by three switches, which
shall not directly be connected forming a ring. Small resistors are to be introduced in between.
At t1, the current is interrupted with chopping (by 5A). When chopping, as for the energy in the reactor
(magnetic) and capacitor connected in parallel, the next equation is introduced:

where: V: Maximum voltage across reactor terminals after chopping, when all energy is transferred to
C
ic: Chopped current revel
V0: Source voltage peak (approx. equal to the voltage at the chopping)
L: Reactor’s inductance
 9

C: Reactor’s capacitance
Then the maximum voltages across the reactor terminals and circuit breaker are easily calculated. In
Fig. 2.11 b), after t1, the SHR terminal voltage goes to the maximum, and then goes down with the
across circuit breaker voltage recovers (B-SHR).At t2, the circuit breaker re-ignites and very high fre-
quency of voltage change at the SHR terminal appears together with high frequency and amplitude (up
to a few thousand A) of re-ignition current flowing. The current is re-interrupted after approx. 0.05ms
and re-establishment of TRV (B-SHR) appears. What is to be noted, after the second interruption, due
to higher trapped magnetic energy in the SHR winding, the voltage recovery is steeper than the first
one. So, also the second re-ignition might occur. Such is called as “Multiple re-ignitions” which may
corresponds to extremely severe over voltage condition to the reactor insulation.
Note:
- The second current interruption mostly occurs at current zero of the circuit breaker, where the
current is composed with initially very high but then mostly damped re-ignition high frequency cur-
rent through capacitances adjacent to the circuit breaker (so called second parallel oscillation cir-
cuit) and combined with the AC current in the SHR winding.
- What is most serious as in inductive current breaking for shunt reactor is, very rapid change of
voltage at winding terminals by re-ignition. Voltage stress of the winding, especially at the entrance
part, is generally very severe by high frequency of voltage stress. Some will be explained in the
following chapter.

Attached data files for this chapter:

- Data2-01.dat Current injection to 9 circuit elements

- Data2-02.dat 300kV system TRV calculation in simplified circuit representation
- Data2-03.dat ITRV calculation applying current injection
- Data2-11.dat 550kV overhead transmission line capacitive current breaking
- Data2-12.dat Ditto, but delaying 2nd pole to clear interruption
- Data2-13.dat Ditto, calculating rapid re-closing over-voltages
- Data2-14.dat Ditto, calculating re-closing over-voltages with resistor insertion.
- Data2-15.dat Cable charging capacitive current breaking by isolated neutral source circuit, no sig-
nificant value of capacitance to earth is connected in the source circuit.
- Data2-16.dat Ditto, but significant value of capacitance (cable) exists in the source circuit.
- Data2-17.dat 66kV, 50MVA shunt capacitor bank capacitive current breaking, No. 18 non-grounded
source circuits applied.
- Data2-18.dat 300kV, 150MVA shunt reactor inductive current breaking, chopping ---- re-ignition ----
re-interruption
- Data2-21.dat 4-armed shunt reactor compensated line dropping
- Data2-22.dat Ditto, secondary arc current calculation

Appendix 2.1: TRV with parallel capacitance in SLF breaking

Appendix 2.2: 4-armed shunt reactor for suppressing secondary arc in single pole rapid re-closing
Appendix 2.3: Switching 4-armed shunt reactor compensated transmission line
 10

Appendix 2.1 TRV with parallel capacitance in SLF breaking

For some kinds of calculations, mathematic process seems to be even easier and simplified. The example
is to calculate the change in SLF breaking TRV wave shape by circuit parameter modification, where the
original wave shape has been known.
The short-line fault TRV from an idealised distributed parameter line is known as a triangular wave shape.
In the Laplace domain, this can be written as follows as for one cycle:

where
tL: time to peak without capacitance
ω: angular frequency of the breaking current
I : breaking current peak
Z: surge impedance
S: Laplace operator

The equation is valid for 0 δ t δ 2tL. If the TRV for t > 2tL is required, the equation (1) is to be replaced by the
following:
TRV ( s ) = ωIZ
s2
(1 − 2e − t L s + 2e −2t L s + ............... ) (1a )
−t L s
In order to introduce damping of the wave, the term 2e in equation (1) should be replaced
−tL s
by, 2ke , where k < 1,0.
The TRV can be represented by the product of the breaking (= injection) current and the impedance, also in
the Laplace domain. The injection current in the Laplace domain can be approximated such as (due to very
short time interval concerned):
ωI
s2 (corresponding to the current = ωIt in the time domain)
Then the impedance of the distributed parameter line in Laplace domain is: (for t < 2tL)

The lumped capacitance impedance in the Laplace domain is represented by:

(3), where C = capacitance

The capacitance value includes both the lumped capacitance at the circuit-breaker terminal side producing
the inherent tdL of the line and the additional capacitance, if any.

Connecting the two impedances represented by (2) and (3) in parallel, the following equation is obtained for
the total impedance in the Laplace domain:

(4)
where t dL = ZC
tdL is also applicable for conditions with additional parallel capacitances.

The product of the injection current ( ωI ) and the impedance (4) is the TRV with parallel capacitance in
s2
the Laplace domain:
 11

The second part of the equation (5) is valid for tL δ t δ 2tL only.

By reversal Laplace transformation process, SLF TRV with parallel capacitance in time domain is calculated
as follows:
For 0 δ t δ tL:

for tL δ t δ 2tL

(7)
with t' = t - tL

Using equations (6) and (7), the correct wave shapes of SLF TRVs with line inherent tdL and for conditions
with additional parallel capacitance can be calculated.
For cases t > 2tL, (1a) instead of (1) should be applied. When damping is introduced, 2ke − t L s should be
−tL s
used instead of 2e in equation (1) as mentioned before. The total calculation process is then slightly
modified.

For every case, with or without parallel capacitance, the peak value of the TRV is quasi equal to ωIZt L , i.e.
no significant damping to the peak value is introduced. Dividing equations (6) and (7) by ωIZt L , gives the
following equations.
 12

The TRV wave shape given by equations (6a) and (7a) can be normalised such that the peak value is unity
and time unit is in tdL. The parameter is tL/tdL. Fig. 2A.1 shows the results of a calculation for tL/tdL =1.0 --- 15.
Multiplying the Y-axis value by ωIZt L and X-axis value by tdL, the actual wave shape is obtained. The peak

Fig. 2A.1 SLF-TRV with parallel capacitance

values are not significantly damped.

 13

Appendix 2.2 4-armed shunt reactor for suppressing secondary arc in single pole
rapid re-closing

As the first step of studying switching phenomena in systems with 4-armed shunt reactors, math-
ematic study seems to be beneficial to grasp the outline. In single pole rapid re-closing, where only
the faulted phase of a transmission line is opened, the faulting arc is to quench during the re-closing
time interval. By electro static coupling with the sound phases, a certain level of arc current tends to
continue without quenching. As higher the system voltage is and as longer the transmission line is,
the tendency increases.
For eliminating the arc current (secondary arc current) aiming successful re-closing, 4-armed shunt
reactor where the neutral is earthed by means of another reactor is applicable. Fig.2A.2 shows the
circuit layout.

a) System layout b) Equivalent circuit c) 4-armed shunt reactor

Fig. 2A.2 4-armed shunt reactor arrangement

“a)” shows system layout during one phase line to ground faulting, where both ends of the phase are
open. Secondary arc may exist. “b)” shows the equivalent circuit at the faulting point, where, assuming
voltages along the phase v and w lines are quasi uniform, voltages are applied from the point, instead
of both ends, i.e. eu=0 (faulting), ev and ew. “iu” is the secondary arc current. Z0, Z1 and Z2 are sequence
component reactances of the line section (capacitances and inductances of 4-armed shunt reactor
shown in “c)” connected in parallel). The following equations are obtained. :

Except for rotating machines, in transmission systems, Z1 = Z2. In a transmission line with 4-armed
shunt reactor, parameters other than neutral reactor’s are fixed by the relevant system condition. So,
adjusting the neutral reactor reactance value, we can have:
Z0 = Z1 = Z2
Introducing this condition, then we can have iu = 0 applying the above shown equations, i.e. the sec-
ondary arc current can be suppressed.
Note:
- During switching of such transmission line, due to the non-linearity of the reactors as usually iron
cores are used, certain value of transient voltages appear at the neutral point and some insulation
failures have been reported. For sophisticated insulation design especially around the neutral point,
accurate analysis introducing every detailed parameters of the system including the non-linear
characteristics of iron cores is recommended.
 14

Appendix 2.3 Switching 4-armed shunt reactor compensated transmission line

During switching a transmission line with 4-armed shunt reactor compensation, the purpose of which is
to suppress secondary arc current when single-phase re-closing, due to unbalanced saturations of the
shunt reactor arms, over-voltages appear at the neutral point, the voltage of which point is zero in
steady state condition. Following is the most simplified example as for the phenomena.
As shown in Fig. 2A.3, 400kV
300km of overhead transmission
line with general parameters is
compensated by 4-armed shunt
reactor, the compensation ratio of
which is 60%. The no-load line is
energized from the left end and
then dropped.
Such reactor is generally gapped
core type, so the saturation char-
acteristic is assumed as shown in
the Figure. Some non-linear ele-
Fig. 2A.3 400kV overhead line compensated by 4-armed ments dominate the phenomena,
shunt reactor so digital calculation seems to be
best applicable.
As for the details of the modelled
parameters, see the attached data
file.
ATP-EMTP calculation result as
for the shunt-reactor terminal and
neutral voltages when the line is
dropped is shown in Fig. 2A.4. In
the case, significantly high voltage
appears at the neutral point of the
reactor after the line dropping,
which may be very important for
the reactor insulation design.
Care should be taken, as the
phenomena much depends on
the relevant system parameters,
i.e. details of the transmission line
Fig. 2A.4 Voltages at line entrance and neutral point parameters, shunt reactor com-
pensation rate, shunt reactor
saturation characteristics, etc. as
precise as possible modelling is necessary for the actual case evaluation.
 1

3. Overhead transmission lines and under ground cables

For modelling these, the followings are applicable, where each has respective limited applicability:
Reactance only:
- For very low frequency only, power frequency for overhead transmission line and usually not appli-
cable for cables which have large capacitances.
Pi ( ) type:
- Mostly for power frequency for transmission line and cable.
- High reliability, easy to check the parameters due phase domain parameters applied.
- Moderate efficiency in calculation
Distributed parameter line for fixed frequency:
- Applicable to any frequency of phenomena.
- High efficiency in calculation
- Restriction in calculation step time, which is to be shorter than the shortest travel time of the line in the
relevant system.
- For very short line together with longer line(s) in the relevant system, “pi” type is recommended.
- Frequency dependent model is only applicable to overhead line.

3.1 Overhead transmission line

As an example, an overhead transmission
line, as shown in Fig. 3.1, is examined,
where the length is 10km. For more de-
tailed parameters not shown in the figure,
see the attached data files and Role Book
regarding LINE CONSTANTS.
Such double-circuited lines are widely ap-
plied to 300kV systems.
For most generalized applications, distrib-
uted parameter models of three kinds are
calculated using LINE CONSTANTS in
ATP-EMTP.:
- Non-transposed model at 50Hz of fre-
quency.
- Non-transposed model at 5000Hz of
frequency
- Perfectly transposed model at 5000Hz.
The calculated PCH data, which can be
directly introduced to transient calculation
data files, are shown in Table 3.1.

In two kinds of non-transposed ones, pa-

rameters are written in mode domain, not
in phase domain though node names are
written in phase domain. The first line of
each model corresponds to mainly zero
sequence (to ground) mode. Between
Fig. 3.1 Overhead transmission line 50Hz and 5000Hz parameters,
300kV, 410mm X 2 conductor
2 these parameters are of great difference
due to skin effect of the earth. Another
lines correspond to mainly within lines
ones and the differences by both frequencies are not so significantly large.
The matrix shown in the lower part is for converting between mode and phase domains. Between two
frequencies, the difference of the matrixes is not so large.
 2

Table 3.1 Overhead transmission line calculated PCH files (three kinds)

For transposed line, only zero sequence and positive sequence parameters are given. Mode transla-
tion is fixed, so no matrix is necessary. The first and second lines correspond to zero and posi-
tive/negative sequence parameters respectively. For transmission line positive sequence parameters is
identical to negative ones.
As an example typically showing the differences between these three models, power frequency COS
wave shape voltage, the amplitude of which is 100V, is applied from one side of each model transmis-
sion line and the other end voltage is calculated. The initial step of the voltage involves high frequency
components; so examining wide range of frequency response is expected.
 3
a) Voltage propagation along line
b) Ditto, enlargement of the initial part
Fig. 3.2 Voltage propagation comparison by 3
type of line models
Fig. 3.3 Short circuit currents by 3 models
case. Up to the current interruption, power frequency current flows, therefore, power frequency model
is to be applied. Then afterwards, TRV of several tens kHz is created by the reflection in the relevant
short line. Of cause, line model based on several tens kHz is to be applied. Therefore, two steps of
calculation, in principle, are to be done. This seems to be complicated, so application of current injec-
tion seems to be more appropriate. Firstly power frequency SLF current is calculated and then, the
The calculated result is shown in Fig. 3.2.
For power frequency component three
kinds of models show almost the same
results. But for high frequency one, the
difference is great, less damping in 50Hz
model. Between transposed and
non-transposed modes the difference is
negligible. So, simplified transformed
model seems to be applicable in most
cases.
In b), which is the enlargement of the
initial part, 50Hz model shows lower
frequency of response, which corre-
sponds to higher inductance of line in
lower frequency.
The wave shape somehow angular and
seems to be not realistic. This is due to
the modelling principle, where the
damping is represented by series con-
nected lump resistors at both ends and
also at the middle point.
As another example, short circuit current
calculation is shown in Fig. 3.3, where
sinusoidal wave shape of voltage is ap-
plied from one terminal and the other
end is earthed, i.e.single phase ground-
ing fault case. By 50Hz model, at least
the power frequency component seems
to be appropriate. The damping of d.c.
component might be necessary to be
re-calculated applying very low fre-
quency model.
By 5000Hz models, both transposed
and non-transposed ones, the results
are quite un-realistic, most probably due
to extremely high damping.
In line-to-line mode, i.e. applying a volt-
age in to one phase and reversed polar-
ity one to the other phase, these differ-
ences are significantly small. Readers
are strongly recommended to try with
your self.
Anyhow, selecting an appropriate fre-
quency as the calculation basis in LINE
CONSTANTS is extremely important.
Note:
- As an extreme example, let’s take up
SLF (see the previous chapter) breaking
 4

current is to be injected.
Now, let’s step in to Frequency dependent model.
As the most popularly and widely used modelling for overhead transmission lines, JMARTI (Jose Marti)
set up routine is took up. Also, in this case, calculations for transmission line shown in Fig. 3.1, 10km in
length, are done. In modelling calcula-
tion, various parameters are calcu-
lated, based on “frequency by fre-
quency” in mode domain. One exam-
ple is shown in Fig. 3.4, where propa-
gation constants of various modes of
propagating waves vs. frequency are
shown. Mode 6, representing great
damping in high frequency range,
mainly corresponds to zero sequence
mode. Also surge impedances and
travelling times are calculated.

Note:
- Such figures are easily obtained by
PARAM command in GTPPLOT. For
details, see HLP file and
Fig.3.4 Propagation constants of various GTPPLOT.PDF file attached to
mode of waves (damping) GTPPLOT.
In the set up routine, three kinds of
frequencies are input, i.e. for mode
matrix calculation, for steady state calculation and the lower limit frequency of the frequency range. Of
cause upper limit, also, is input. For mode matrix calculation, only one frequency is applied. In principle,
the mode matrix depends on frequency so, for other than the specified frequency, errors might be in-
troduced. As shown before, the matrix dose not varies so much depend on the frequency, the errors
are kept within permissible range, so experiences show.
Five kinds of frequency sets are applied as for fm (mode matrix), fs (steady state) & fl (lower limit).:
- No. 1 line fm = 50Hz fs = 50Hz fl = 10Hz
- No. 2 line 500Hz 50Hz 10Hz
- No. 3 line 5000Hz 50Hz 10Hz
- No. 4 line 50000Hz 50Hz 10Hz
- No. X line 1MHz 100kHz 0.1Hz (for wide range up to 10MHz)
For details of the input data, see attached data files, DATA3-06 ----- DATA3-09, and DATA3-0X. The
output PCH files (line parameters in JMARTI models) by these data files are calculated which should
be checked by your self-calculations. The PCH files are directly used in transient calculation data files
alike by LINE CONSTANTS.
For some very simple cases, examples are shown
next. In Fig. 3.5, step and cosine shape voltage is
injected from one end of the lines and the other
open ended terminal voltages are calculated. The
condition is almost the same as in Fig. 3.2, where
LINE CONSTANTS model is applied The end
terminal voltage wave shapes seem quite appro-
priate, in values, damping, rounded shapes con-
trasting to angular ones in LINE CONSTANTS,
shown in Fig. 3.2, finite front steepness. De-
pending on frequencies, which are the base of
characteristics, differences are negligible. Calcu-
Fig. 3.5 Injecting step-&-cosine wave voltage lating high frequency of voltage phenomena,
 5

JMARTI models seem to be just appropriate, at

least for over-head transmission lines.
In the next example (Fig. 3.6) short circuit cur-
rents in one line to ground fault cases are shown.
Sine wave shape of voltage is applied to one-side
terminals, so both AC and damping DC compo-
nents are involved. Result applying LINTCON-
STANTS, where, considering the damping time
constant in DC component, 10HZ of calculation
basis frequency is applied, is also shown. Ex-
perience shows this is most reliable. Results by
JMARTI, both in amplitudes and damping of DC
Fig. 3.6 Short circuit current --- 1LG components, depending on the basis frequency,
show not negligible differences. Therefore, for
such calculation, JMARTI model is not always
appropriate.
In the third example, no-load line dropping (line
capacitive charging current breaking) is taken up.
Similar phenomena are shown in Fig. 2.7 and 2.8,
where LINE CONSTANTS (transposed model) is
applied. In Fig. 3.7 line side voltages of the first
phase to open are shown. Up to second and third
phase opening, the voltages enhance, but vari-
ously. After three phase opening, the trapped
voltages show significant damping. In the model-
Fig. 3.7 No-load line dropping ling, no conductance is considered, so no damp-
ing, i.e. kept constant, is appropriate. Therefore,
JMARTI calculation shows significant error. In calculating re-closing over voltages (see the previous
chapter), which is the most important application of the method, great care is to be taken as for the
trapped voltage which dominates the over voltage.
Another example is shown in Fig. 3.8, where no-load line’s capacitive charging currents in various
frequency basis models are shown.
As the power factor of the capacitive
currents, due to the non-transposed
asymmetry of the line, three phase
currents are not symmetrical. So, the
average power factor of three phases
is to be taken. By precise calculation
from the results, not shown here, the
values are:
- +0.03% by LINE CONSTANTS
model
- -2.1% --- +3.7% by JMARTI model
Due to non-conductance modelling
between phases and to the earth, the
Fig. 3.8 No-load line capacitive charging current power factor is to be very low. So
LINE CONSTANTS model is far more
appropriate in this case. As the conclusion of frequency dependent model application, great care is to
be taken. In some cases, erroneous results may be introduced. To the author’s experiences, SEM-
LYEN and NODA set-ups introduce similar results in most cases.
 6

3.2 Under ground cables

First of all, care should be taken that frequency dependent model is not applicable for cables except for
gas-insulated cables. The author suppose due to the existence of other than 1.0 of relative permittivity
of insulation media. Also, mode matrix is much dependent on frequency. As the supporting programs,
both CABLE CONSTANTS and CABLE PARMETERS are available. The later has been recently re-
vised, so this should be more reliable, though the author has not found significant difference between
these two.
As an example, CV (cross-linked polyeth-
ylene insulated) cable system shown in Fig.
3.9 is taken up. The cable is applied to up to
550kV under ground system. As for the
detailed dimensions, see attached data file,
also referring to ATP Role-book.
Three-phase cable system is located in a
concrete tube the dimensions of which are
arbitral in the data file. The tube is buried in
the ground. Each coaxial cable is com-
posed of core conductor, insulation media,
sheath conductor, etc. It should be noted
the sheath conductor’s current capacity is
low, so, current in which should be as lower
as possible. This means the magnetic field
close to the cable is significant.
One total length of cable consists of many
major sections, the unit length of which is 1
Fig. 3.9 CV cable system layout
– 2km. Especially for high and extra high
voltage systems, each major section is
composed of three minor sections for ap-
plying cross-bonded layout in order to re-
duce the sheath current, see Fig. 3.10. At
each connection of minor section, sheath
connection is transposed (cross-bonded)
and at each major section terminal, three
phase sheathes are shunted and earthed.
Here, the effect of cross bond will be dem-
onstrated. As one minor section, 600m
length of three-phase cable system is taken
up. For power frequency of phenomena
calculations, PI-type modelling, parameters
Fig. 3.10 Earth connection of one major of which are calculated at power frequency,
Section of a cross-bonded cable
seems to be most appropriate. See the at-
tached data file for details. Calculations are
done for non-cross bonded cable system, where three minor sections’ sheathes are straight connected,
and cross-bonded cable system. The typical results are shown in Fig. 3.11. For calculating electro
magnetically induced currents, symmetrical three-phase current (1000A) is injected from one terminal
and the other end terminal is short-circuited. Therefore, the applied voltage is very low for less electro
statically induced current. For electro statically induced current calculation, symmetrical three phase
voltage (√2/√3 times 550kV) is applied from one terminal and the other end terminal is open circuited.
In a) of the figure, three phase injected currents are shown, the crest values are 1000A In b), the
magnetically induced sheath currents in non-cross bonded cable are shown, the values are almost the
same as the core current ones. In c), One side terminal sheath currents by applying service voltage
(550kV) are shown, the values(ca. 50A) are 50% of the major section’s capacitive currents due to the
both side earthing.
 7

In d) El. magnetically induced currents in cross-bonded cable sheathes are shown, the values of which
are dramatically reduced, i.e. from ca. 1000A to less than 100mA.
In e) El statically induced currents in cross bonded cable sheathes are shown, where due to the both
end terminal earthing, the three phases’ capacitive currents are only partially cancelled, and the values

a) b) c)

d) e)

Fig. 3.11 Electro statically/magnetically induced currents in cable sheathes

a) Core currents (1000A) b) Sheath currents in non-cross bonded cable
c) El. statically induced sheath currents in non-cross bonded cable
d) El. magnetically induced sheath currents in cross-bonded cable
e) El. statically induced sheath currents in cross-bonded cable

are ca. 20A, ca. 40% of the non-cross bonded one.

Attached data files for this chapter:

- Data3-01.dat 300kV, 410mm2X2(bundle), 2-circuited, 10km, power frequency distributed pa-
rameter PCH calculation in LINE CONSTANTS
- Data3-02.dat Ditto, 5000Hz, Distributed parameter PCH calculation in LINE CONSTANTS
- Data3-04.dat Ditto line, Voltage transient calculation by [step & cosine] voltage, 50Hz, 5000Hz and
5000Hz transposed line parameters.
- Data3-05.dat Ditto lines (three kinds), Short-circuit current calculation under max. asymmetrical
(d.c. component) current condition (applying sine wave shape voltage).
- Data3-06.dat Ditto line, JMARTI set-up data, mode frequency=50Hz.
- Data3-07.dat Ditto, mode frequency=500Hz.
- Data3-08.dat Ditto, mode frequency=5000Hz.
- Data3-09.dat Ditto, mode frequency=50000Hz.
- Data3-0X.dat Ditto, mode frequency= 1MHz
- Data3-10.dat Voltage travelling transient calculation, JMARTI (mode frequency=50, 500, 5000,
50000 and 1M Hz) and LINE CONSTANTS (10Hz) lines, applying [step & cosine wave shape voltage].
- Data3-11.dat Short-circuit current calculation in JMARTI (mode frequency=50, 500, 5000, 50000
and 1M Hz) and LINE CONSTANTS (10Hz) lines, with max asymmetry.
- Data3-12.dat Ditto 5 kinds JMARTI lines, trapped DC voltage after breaking capacitive currents.
- Data3-13.dat Ditto 5 kinds JMARTI and one LINE CONSTANTS (50Hz) lines, power frequency
capacitive charging current calculation.
- Data3-21.dat 550kV 3-phase CV (cross-linked polyethylene insulated) cable system in a tube,
 8

600m, at 50Hz, PI-type PCH calculation, by CABLE PARAMETERS.

- Data3-22.dat Ditto, but 500Hz, Distributed parameter PCH calculation.
- Data3-23.dat Ditto cable, One major section (three minor sections), non-cross-bonded sheath,
Electro-magnetically induced sheath current calculation.
- Data3-24.dat Ditto cable, One major section, Electro-statically induced (capacitive charging)
sheath current calculation.
- Data3-25.dat Cross-bonded one major section, ditto parameters, Electro-magnetically induced
sheath current calculation.
- Data3-26.dat Ditto one major section, Electro-statically induced sheath current calculation.
- Data3-31.dat One overhead conductor, one under ground cable, 4 under ground earthing mesh
conductor, Induced voltage in the cable calculation by L-impulse voltage to overhead conductor appli-
cation. (Combination of overhead and underground conductors)
- OH-UG3.dat One overhead conductor, 6 underground conductor, one of which is for cable, the
other for underground earthing mesh, length=20m, PCH file calculation (distributed parameter type), at
500kHz. (Combination of overhead and underground conductors)
- OH-UG3PI.dat Ditto, but PI type.
- OH-CAB1.dat Coaxial cable in space (actually in very high location), PCH file calculation. Together
with PCH by OH-UG3 (above shown), Combination of overhead conductor, underground cable and
earthing mesh system is to be represented such as in Data3-31.dat.
- Data3-41.dat Capacitance graded bushing cone elements (total 7 kinds) (coaxial insulation model)
PCH file calculation.
- Data3-42.dat Gas insulated bus duct elements (total 7 kinds) PCH file calculation
- Data3-43.dat Capacitance graded bushing sectioning gas insulated bus duct, calculation of volt-
age distribution around the bushing cone by VFT voltage incoming.
- Data3-44.dat Ditto, but extremely FT voltage incoming.

Appendix 3.1 Combination of overhead line(s) and underground cable(s)

Appendix 3.2 Multi-layer coaxial insulation
 9

Appendix 3.1 Combination of overhead line(s) and under ground conductor(s)

Especially for analysing disturbances in control cables by, e.g. lightning stroke to station conductors or
re-striking impulse current, both overhead and under ground conductors are to be included in one
analysis domain. In CABLE PARAMETERS, such option is applicable. In Benchmark DC27.DAT, one
example is shown, where an overhead and an underground conductors are modelled.
In the present CABLE PARAMETERS in ATP-EMTP, system consists of only one kind of conductors is
applicable. So, modelling system with coaxial cable(s), special idea(s) is to be introduced. Let us in-
troduce conductor layout, the cross-sectional view of which
is shown in Fig. 3A.1, where one overhead conductor, one
cable and four earthing mesh conductors exist. In the
system, due to the restriction of present CABLE PA-
RAMETERS, the cable is to be modelled as the same
conductor. So, modelling coaxial cable, another coaxial
cable in the another domain should be introduced, the
sheath of which is electrically connected to the relevant
conductor at proper points. Due to negligible penetration
through the coaxial cable sheath, this modelling is thought
to be appropriate, see Fig. 3A.2. As for the detailed data
coding in the modelling, see the attached data files. 60m of
the conductor system (segmented to three sections, for
obtaining intermediate information if any) and 100m of
under ground cable connection are introduced. The ground
Fig. 3A.1 Conductor layout mesh is earthed at both ends and the sheath of the cable
conductor is connected to the ground mesh via appropriate
impedance. An impulse voltage (1 MV in crest value,
enormous case) is applied to the overhead conductor and
various part voltages are calculated. The layout image in
longitudinal direction cross sectional view is shown in Fig.
3A.3
The calculated result summing up is shown in Fig. 3A.4, :
a) 1MV of impulse voltage is applied from a terminal of the
overhead conductor. By transmission and reflection, some
ripples appear and higher voltages appear.
b) The underground cable sheath voltage, based on the
Fig. 3A.2 Imaging underground cable very deep underground, reached to ca. 15kV.
c) The voltage difference between the cable sheath and
the grounding mesh is, lower than several kV.
Therefore,
d) The voltage between the underground cable core and
the sheath is negligibly low (several mV).
As the conclusion of this case, provide all facilities are
earthed to the electrical station underground mesh, the
maximum induced voltage in the underground secondary
circuits is several kV by 1MV of over-voltage in the outdoor
conductor.
Fig. 3A.3 Longitudinal cross section Great care should be taken in modelling.
view
 10

a) OH conductors’ voltages b) Cable sheath voltages

c) Cable sheath – ground mesh voltages d) Cable core – sheath voltages

Fig. 3A.4 Underground conductors’ induced voltages

 11

Appendix 3.2 Multi-layer coaxial insulation

CABLE PARAMETERS accept up to two-layer coaxial insulation cable. As shown in the previous ap-
pendix, due to non-penetration of the transmission wave through the sheath, multi-layer coaxial insula-
Fig. 3A.5 Multi-layer coaxial insulation
representation
Fig. 3A.6 Modelling capacitance graded
bushing
tion seems to be represented multiple coaxial cables of
respective radii in each domain, the sheathes and
cores are connected each other. Fig. 3A.5 shows the
concept.
As a typical example, let us take up a capacitance
graded bushing in a gas-insulated bus-duct. Due to the
difference of length between insulation layers, i.e.
travelling time, something may happen in dielectric
stress in very fast transient voltage. Fig. 3A.6 shows
sectional view in such modeling layout, though very
arbitrary. Hopefully we can obtain general tendency in
such simplified model. To model cone type bushing,
core elements in coaxial insulation with different length
are to be introduced. Calculating coaxial insulation
elements, overhead coaxial cable in very high position
from the ground surface is applicable both for gas in-
sulated bus-duct and bushing core. For detailed di-
mensions/parameters, see attached data files.
In the surge voltage travelling calculation, VFT voltage
is applied from one side of the layout in Fig. 3A.6, and
the other side is connected long bus duct. Voltage dis-
tribution along the bushing cone surface is calculated.
Typical calculated results are shown in Fig. 3A.7. In a)
four sections’ cone type surface voltage distribution is
shown. In the first part, due, most probably, to reflec-
tions, slight voltage enhancement appears. In b),
highest stressed part, i.e. conductor surface part, de-
tailed voltages are shown. Out-going side voltage
shows higher enhancement, which is higher than the
applied one (gas insulation part) by approx. 30%.
The calculation shows that cone type capacitance

a) Bushing cone surface stress b) Conductor surface part

Fig. 3A.7 Bushing cone surface voltage distribution by VFT surge voltage

graded bushing in gas insulated bus duct may produce more or less voltage stress concentration by
VFT surge coming.
 1

4. Transformer

Three kinds of menus are applicable in ATP-EMTP to represent transformers.

- Saturable transformer component (TRANSFORMER)
- XFORMER
- BCTRAN
From the author’s experience, the first one is most convenient to represent power transformers
due to well representing physical image of the hard wear and electrical phenomena. Also many
data are common to general power system analyses. So in the chapter, mostly the first one is ex-
plained.

Note:
The features of the latter two (XFORMER, BCTRAN) are,
- From general test data of transformers, data to be applied to transient calculations are directly
calculated.
- The data are in the form of “mutually coupled inductors” (actually in “PI-EQUIVALENTS” form,
the function of which perfectly covers “Mutually-coupled R-L Elements”, see Rule Book)
For example, three-phase two winding and one core transformer is represented by six mutually
coupled inductors.
- Saturation characteristics are not covered within the scope. So, another saturable non-linear
element(s) is to be introduced out side. The influence by the saturation on the self/mutual in-
ductance(s) can never be considered.
- Magnetising inductance corresponds to self-inductance of the relevant winding, but leakage in-
ductance cannot directly represented.
- Total procedure is “BLACK BOX” like one.

Single-phase two winding transformer

In Fig. 4.1, physical image of single-phase two winding transformer is shown.
Fig. 4.1 shows typical physical image of single-
phase two winding transformer,
Where,
W1, W2: windings
φ1,φ2: fluxes linked with only W1 or
W2
φ0: commonly linked flux
v1, v2, i1, i2 respective winding voltages
and currents
The following equations are easily written.
d φ 1 d φ 0
v 1 = i1 r1 + n 1 + n 1
Fig. 4.1 Physical image of 2-winding dt dt
d φ 2 d φ
transformer v 2 = i 2 r2 + n 2 + n 2 0

dt dt
Replacing
n1φ 1 = l1i1 , n1φ 0 = L0 i0 n 2φ 2 = l 2 i 2
it is understood that Fig. 4.2 represent the same contents, so Fig. 4.2 can be a perfect equivalent
circuit of a two windings transformer. The “Saturable transformer component” menu in ATP is base
on the principle of this circuit.
 2

The features of the circuit are:

- Using the menu, parameters are to be obtained
beforehand. Generally they are used in power
system analysis etc.
- l1 / l2 is named as leakage inductance which is
not much influenced by saturation. The main part
of the flux pass is not in the iron core. So linear
inductor is applicable with enough accuracy.
Fig. 4.2 Equivalent circuit - L0 can be saturable, so non-linear inductor such
as type 98 (default) or type 93 (optional, initial
residual flux is applicable) is applicable.
- L0 can, in principle, be connected any side of the ideal transformer. As the default, it is connected
to the primary side.
Small note:
- In Fig. 4.1, it is apparent that, if W1 and W2 are divided into plural parts and located every other,
φ   a nd φ2, consequently l1 and l2 can be very low. The method is occasionally applied for power
transformers, and typically for ones for audio, where quasi-ideal (no leakage inductance)
transformers are required.

Single-phase three winding transformer

Likewise three winding transformer can be modelled by one magnetising inductance and three
leakage inductances. In principle, three coupled inductors are represented by three
self-inductances and three mutual inductances, total six inductances. Therefore by four induct-
ances in the above, two are shortage. Nevertheless, experience shows actual three winding
transformers can be represented by the model with enough accuracy. Leakage inductance values
of respective windings are generally obtained from the manufacturer, so these are directly appli-
cable.
Care should be taken that in the menu minus value, for inductance/resistance, is not favourable.
Occasionally manufacture supplied equivalent leakage inductance is minus, though very low value.
In such case, the value is to be change to be very low plus value.

Three-phase one core (three legs or five legs) transformer

For three-phase transformer composed of three single-phase ones, three of single-phase ones are
applicable without any difficulty. Care should be taken that delta-connected tertiary windings are
not to be excluded, which may strongly dominate the zero sequence short-circuit impedance.
For three-phase five-leg-core transformer, as zero sequence flux pass exists in the iron core,
conditions are the same as three of single-phase ones. So, of cause, three of single-phase
transformer is applicable.
For three-leg core type and without delta-connected winding one, which is most popular for me-
dium and low capacity of three-phase transformer, as the zero-sequence flux pass mostly exists
outside of the core, special care is to be taken regarding zero-sequence parameters. Also in this
case three of single-phase ones are applied. For representing very low zero-sequence magnetis-
ing inductance, another dummy windings for three-phase are introduced, which are connected in
delta. The leakage inductances of which are to be adjusted, i.e. zero-sequence magnetising in-
ductance from the primary side is equal to the sum of the primary side and the relevant winding
leakage ones. Actually, while zero-sequence magnetising, some portion of the flux exists in the
iron core part, so the magnetising inductance is higher than the short-circuit one. Therefore posi-
tive value of leakage inductance in the dummy winding is possible.
More details are shown in Role Book – IV, E, 4, though in somewhat different way.
 3

Notes:
- In any of transformer menu, each winding is considered as one lump element, i.e. the current in
one winding is uniform. This seems to be correct up to the fundamental inherent frequency of the
winding. The value is in the order of a few --- several kHz for most power transformers.
- In calculating TRV, for example, the prospective frequency of the TRV is dominated by both the
transformer elements and system ones such as lines, cables, etc. So, the frequency is never
higher than the transformer’s inherent one. Therefore, transformer menu in this chapter is appli-
cable.
- For much higher frequency of phenomena such as by lightning surges or VFT switching surges,
another models are required. Depending on the frequency concerned, respective models are to be
considered. In most cases, considering the physical constructions, parameters are to be calcu-
lated. “Mutually coupled R-L elements” and additional capacitors are mostly applied.

A few examples
ⅰ) 537kV/287.5kV Auto-transformer, inrush magnetising current
The first example is as for inrush
magnetising current in an
auto-transformer. (The maximum
tap voltages of the transformer are
shown in the figure. The maximum
system voltages are 550kV and
300kV.) As shown in Fig. 4.3, each
phase has a common winding
(287.5kV) and a branch winding
(537kV – 287.5kV). Also
delta-connected tertiary winding
Fig. 4.3 537kV Auto-transformer (74kV) exists. For details of the

data description, see the attached

data file.
Calculated inrush magnetising
current from 550kV system side is
shown in Fig. 4.4. The inrush cur-
rent lasts several tens seconds.
For the calculation of the time,
correct resistance values both for
the system and transformer are
required. Also, correct Φ- I char-
acteristics in the relevant current
range is important.

ⅱ) Transformer limited short cir-

Fig. 4.4 Inrush magnetising current in 550kV cuit current breaking
In Fig. 4.3, 550kV side cir-
cuit-breaker is permanently closed,
and the 300kV side terminals are short-circuited (three phase). The short circuit is cleared at the
location. Such is called as transformer limited fault clearing (breaking). Three phase breaking
currents and TRVs are shown in Fig. 4.5.
 4
Fig. 4.5 Transformer limited SC current breaking
tance is lower than positive/negative one. “First-pole-to-clear factor”, i.e. the ratio of the first pole
TRV to the phase voltage based one, is given as:
3X 0
X1 + 2X 0
Fig. 4.6 Transformer limited fault clearing
Grounding fault in non-solidly earthed side
Fig. 4.7 Transformer limited fault clearing,5-leg core with
high-impedance delta connected winding
It should be noted that as for TRVs,
of the first-pole-to-clear is lowest
and the third one is highest. In Fig.
4.3, as for short-circuit reactance
looked into from 300kV side, posi-
tive and negative sequence ones
the sum of the transformer’s and
the system’s. But as for zero se-
quence, tertiary winding’s one is
connected in parallel. So, if the
transformer reactance is pre-
dominant, i.e. in very high
short-circuit capacity of system,
zero sequence short-circuit reac-
where, X1 and X0 are positive
and zero sequence short-circuit
reactances respectively.
If X0 < X1, then the first pole’s
TRV is lower than last pole one,
which may be general in a very
high capacity of system.
Note:
- In IEC standard, considering
also the case shown in the fol-
lowing, the first-pole-to-clear
factor in transformer limited fault
breaking is specified as 1.5,
also for systems of solidly
earthed neutral.
ⅲ) Transformer limited fault, but
which is non-solidly earthed sys-
tem side
As shown in Fig. 4.6, in the next
example, three-phase grounding
fault locates in the non-solidly
earthed system side. The
short-circuit is cleared by the
solidly earthed side cir-
cuit-breaker.
The transformer is assumed to
be:
- The iron core is 5-leg type, i.e.
 5
zero sequence magnetic flux passes in the core.
- Delta-connected tertiary winding
(generally exists for station-internal
power source or eliminating third
harmonic component) is of high im-
pedance type.
The breaking currents and TRVs are
shown in Fig. 4.7. Both the currents
and TRVs show as phenomena in
non-solidly earthed system, though
the circuit-breaker is located in the
solidly earthed side. The
first-pole-to-clear TRV (Vs) is based Fig. 4.8 Same as Fig. 4.6, but in 3-leg core or lower
on 1.5 times phase voltage. Consid- impedance of delta connected winding condition
ering such case, in IEC standard,
Fig. 4.9 Transformer limited fault clearing,
under solidly earthed system condition
Fig. 4.10 Generator step-up transformer
circuit
delta-connected winding as shown in Fig. 4.8 can represent the circuit condition.
In Fig. 4.9, calculated breaking currents and TRVs are shown, where three-phase TRVs appear in
similar magnitude, i.e. solidly earthed condition.
TRVs for transformer limited cases
are specified to be based on
non-solidly earthed condition.
Care should be taken, in Fig. 4.7,
2nd pole TRV (Tr) is not equal (in
magnitude) to 3rd one, due to
non-perfectly floating neutral con-
dition.
For the case power source exists
in 161kV side and fault at the left
side of the circuit-breaker, break-
ing current and TRV situation are
the same as in this case.
ⅳ ) Ditto, but transformer with
3-leg iron core or lower impedance
of delta-connected winding condi-
tion.
In 3-leg iron core type transformer,
as shown before, due to the high
reluctance as for zero sequence
flux, the zero sequence short-circuit
impedance is lower, e.g. 2 --- 3
times of positive/negative one.
Even for 5-leg type, if the capacity
of the delta-connected winding is
relatively higher such as for appli-
cation of compensation circuit, the
zero sequence impedance is also
lower. For both cases, applying
lower impedance of
 6

ⅴ ) Generator step-up trans-

former circuit
In power stations located in
HV/EHV solidly earthed systems,
the generators are connected to
the systems via step-up trans-
formers, the primary (generator)
side of which are delta connected,
as shown in Fig. 4.10.
For the case, three-phase break-
ing currents and TRVs are shown
in Fig. 4.11.
As for short-circuit impedance
Fig. 4.11 Three-phase grounding fault clearing in generator seen from the system side, zero
step-up transformer circuit sequence one is only of the
transformer though the neutral of
the generator is high-Ohmic re-
sistor earthed in the case, while to positive/negative one the generator’s one is included. So the
zero sequence one is lower. As the result, the breaking current enhances at the final stage (1LG
condition) and the TRV is lowest in the first-pole-to-clear. Such are the typical in generator step-up
transformer circuit.
For details of modelling generators, see the following chapter(s).

Attached data files for this chapter

- Data4-01.dat 537kV/287.5kV/74kV auto-transformer, inrush magnetising current calculation.
- Data4-02.dat Ditto transformer, transformer limited fault current clearing at 287.5kV side
- Data4-03.dat 287.5kV/161kV 5-leg core type transformer limited fault clearing at solidly
earthed side
- Data4-04.dat Ditto, but 3-leg core type or with lower impedance of delta-connected winding
- Data4-05.dat Generator step-up transformer circuit, fault clearing in the solidly earthed sys-
tem side.
Followings are for Appendix
- Data4-06.dat 50-turn, air-core reactor, VHF response calculation by ramp-and-DC voltage
- Data4-07.dat Ditto reactor, impedance vs. frequency characteristic calculation
 7

Appendix 4.1 Response to fast/very fast transient voltage (VFT)

In the transformer model i.e. “TRANS-

FORMER”, “XFORMER” or “BCTRAN”
in ATP-EMTP, each winding is
modelled as one inductance, where
current value and voltage distribution
rate are uniform along the turns. By
higher frequency of voltage application
than the fundamental inherent fre-
quency, these relationship can never
been held. It is known by steep front of
Fig. 4A.1 Air-core reactor in a metal cylinder over-voltage application, the voltage
stress around the entrance terminal
winding is severe.
Here, an air-core reactor located in a
metal cylinder (earthed), detailed di-
mensions of which are shown in Fig.
4A.1, is taken up. The reactor is di-
vided to ten sections, each consists of
five turns, having self and each other
mutual inductances. Also capacitan-
ces within turns and to cylinder exist.
All values are shown in the attached
data file.
Note:
Fig. 4A.2 Ramp & step voltage application - For stable transient calculation,
these inductances (both self and mu-
tual) are to be calculated as best ap-
propriate as possible. Inserting resis-
tors of appropriate values in series to
the self inductances, which are easily
introduced in “Mutually-coupled R-L
elements”, may bring better result.
When steep ramp and step voltage
being applied from one terminal while
the other side is earthed, voltages in
every 5 turns are shown in Fig. 4A.2,
the enlargement of the very initial part
of which is in Fig. 4A.3. From these,
Fig. 4A.3 Initial part zooming of the above voltage stresses at inside part are
apparently delayed, i.e. by very steep
voltage stress, only the entrance part is stressed.
In Fig. 4A.4 and 4A.5, voltages at every 5 turns are shown while 1A (crest value) of AC current in
wide range of frequency is applied. Fig. 4A.4 shows voltage magnitude that corresponds to im-
pedance in ohm.
Fig. 4A.5 shows phase angle, corresponding to impedance phase angle. Positive one corre-
sponds to inductive one. From these two figures, up to the fundamental inherent frequency, i.e. ca.
2 MHz, voltages are in linear relation along the turns. Also the phase angles are uniform. This
 8

means up to the frequency the reactor can be as one inductance.

For higher frequencies, such relations can never been kept, therefore, multi-inductance modelling
is inevitable.

Fig. 4A.4 Voltage magnitude vs. frequency characteristic

1A of AC current applied
corresponding to Impedance (Ohm)

Fig. 4A.5 Voltage phase angle

corresponding to impedance phase angle
 1

5. Black box arc modelling

Circuit-breaker’s performance in power system is analysed by representing the circuit-breaker

characteristics by a function of electrical parameters such as current/voltage, and combining with,
though complicated, power system circuit. For such purposes, so-called “Black-box modelling” is
applied, in which, despite of actual circuit-breaker hard-ware such as contact shape, gas pressure,
number of breaking point, etc., a mathematical function of electrical parameters is introduced. In
the chapter, as being popularly used equations, Mayr arc model and Cassie arc model are taken
up.

5.1 Mayr arc model

In Mayr’s arc modelling, assuming constant arc diameter, constant arc power loss, Saha’s ex-
pression of arc conductivity, etc. the following expression is deduced.:
1 dG 1  EI 
=  − 1
G dt θ  N 0 
where, G: Arc conductivity θ: Arc time constant E: Arc voltage I: Arc current
N0: Arc loss constant
Introducing Laplace operator “s” the equation is rewritten as,

G0 = I 2 N 0 G = G0 (1 + θ s )
These equations are easily introduced to TACS in ATP-EMTP, and the result G can be the arc
conductance, the reciprocal of which is introduced as the circuit-breaker into the system circuit.
For details, see the attached data files.
Mayr arc model is suitably applied to low current (< several tens A ) of arc, or even post arc current
arc.
Though fault current of a cir-
cuit-breaker is very high, cur-
rent interrupting is phenom-
ena around current zero, so
Mayr arc model is suitably
applicable. Also the model is
applicable to “arc”, i.e. high
temperature gas predominant
time region, therefore, so
called “Inter-action interval” is
Fig. 5.1 Short line fault breaking circuit a typical application.
300kV, 50kA, L90 condition Note:
- After the Inter-action interval,
the time interval is called as “High-voltage interval”, where dielectric phenomena are significant, so
another model(s) is to be applied.

As the first example, short line fault current breaking is taken up. Fig. 5.1 shows basic (simplified)
circuit according to IEC standard for 300kV, 50kA circuit-breaker’s L90 (SLF current is 90% of
terminal fault one) rated condition. For the circuit-breaker, Mayer arc model is applied,
where, θ(time constant) = 1μs, N0(arc loss) = 293kW
The main part of current breaking phenomena in this case lasts several micro seconds, and, also
very short length of distributed parameter line for ITRV is involved. Therefore very short step time
 2

is required in EMTP. For shorter

TMAX (total time), suitable
TACS initialisation is recom-
mended. For details, see the
attached data file. The calcula-
tions in this case were done for
100 μseconds around current
zero (current interruption).
Fig. 5.2 shows breaking current
and TRV in comparison with by
ideal circuit-breaker (without arc
voltage, infinitive dielectric re-
Fig. 5.2 Breaking current and TRV covery after current interruption).
by Mayr model arc and Ideal circuit-breaker The main part is zoomed in Fig.
5.3. The above shown Mayr arc
parameters θ and N0 are critical one, i.e. higher. θ and/or lower N0 bring failure in current
breaking. These values seem to be typical of SF6 gas circuit-breaker.
Compared to by ideal cir-
cuit-breaker, current zero, i.e.
interruption is made, though by
a little, earlier due to the arc
voltage. After current zero, in-
verse direction of current, called
as “post-arc current” flows, the
magnitude of which is in the
order of several A.
As for TRV by the circuit-breaker,
ITRV oscillation is entirely
damped and smooth wave
shape appears.
In Fig. 5.4, the arc resistance
Fig. 5.3 Enlargement of the above figure (Fig. 5.1) variation is shown. Up to the
current zero, the resistance is
very low. Then, gradually it in-
creases and after the first peak
of the TRV, it quite rapidly en-
hances up to quasi infinitive. So,
around the current zero, the
relatively low arc resistance
damps ITRV oscillation.
From these, the energy balance
just after the current zero is
understood, i.e. by the com-
Fig. 5.4 Voltages and arc resistance parison of injecting energy by
TRV and the energy loss,
breaking success/failure is determined. In very critical failure state, i.e. by a little higher θ or
lower N0, the current recovers at several micro seconds after the current zero. You should try. !!
 3

Fig. 5.5 shows an alternative circuit, which is approved in IEC standard as equivalent to Fig. 5.1,
main purpose of which is making
easier the breaking test. For de-
tails, see IEC standard
62271-100.
In the circuit, ITRV circuit is ex-
cluded and, instead, the ramp
capacitance at the line side ter-
minal is lowered. Then the TRV
across terminals is mostly
equivalent to the original one.
Fig. 5.5 Alternative circuit to Fig. 5.1 By the circuit, introducing
θ= 1.0 μs
N0= 300kW
critical condition is obtained.
Much fortunately by quasi equal
arc parameters, the critical con-
dition appears and both circuits
are evaluated to be equivalent.
Nevertheless, in Fig. 5.6, some
differences in post arc current
and TRV damping are observed.
The circuit in Fig. 5.5 produces
much post arc current and much
damping of TRV.
Fig. 5.6 Breaking currents and TRVs by Fig. 5.1 and 5.5 By circuit-breakers with another
arc parameters ( θ, N0), the re-
sults may be different.

As the next example, shunt re-

actor switching is taken up. When
shunt reactor magnetising cur-
rent is switched off by a cir-
cuit-breaker, while the current
approaching the relevant current
zero, oscillation is initiated. Es-
pecially for smaller current region,
Fig. 5.7 Shunt reactor switching circuit circuit-breaker arc exhibits nega-
300kV, 150MVA, Single phase representation tive V-I characteristic. By Mayr
arc equation above shown, for
(quasi) steady state, i.e. d/dt=0,
EI = Const. i.e. negative characteristic appears. Inserting a negative resistor into a L-C circuit, os-
cillation is created. Actually in the primary state of radio technology, arc was applied to oscillator.
In Fig. 5.7, 300kV, 150MVA shunt reactor switching circuit (single phase representation) is shown.
Shunt reactor inductive current is easily interrupted, so generally the interruption occurs in rela-
tively shorter arcing time, i.e. smaller contact gap and lower blasting gas pressure. As for the arc
parameter, lower arc loss seems to be suitable. Lets introduce the following parameters.
θ(time constant) = 0.5μs, N0(arc loss) = 15kW
The values are arbitrary ones, but at least from the following results, seems to be suitable for
 4

modern SF6 gas circuit-breaker. For detailed modelling, also see the attached data file.
Calculated circuit-breaker current
is shown in Fig. 5.8. Before ap-
proaching the prospective current
zero, at ca. 8A, oscillation begins
and by the oscillating current zero,
i.e. before the prospective inter-
ruption time, the current is inter-
rupted. Roughly looking, the cur-
rent is chopped at ca. 8A. There-
fore the phenomena is called as
current chopping.
In the figure, the first part oscilla-
tion is created by switching for the
calculation purpose This may help
Fig. 5.8 Current chopping by shunt reactor current to introduce disturbance to create
breaking oscillation.
By doubling N0, corresponding to
longer arcing time (longer contact
gap), higher gas pressure, or
multi-break circuit-breaker, the
calculated result is shown in Fig.
5.9, where oscillation initiating
current is almost doubled from the
above case. Such phenomena is
know, i.e. by stronger quenching
force, chopping current is higher.
In some literatures, chopping cur-
rent is reported as approximately
proportional to square root of
breaking point number. Factor
Fig. 5.9 Ditto, but doubled N0 other than N0 may be dominant by
increasing breaking point.
The next example, shown in Fig.
5.10, is by doubled parallel ca-
pacitance to the reactor winding.
In the relevant oscillation circuit,
i.e. 0.03 μ F, 50 μ H , cir-
cuit-breaker and the relevant ca-
pacitor, which is called as “second
parallel oscillation circuit,” actually
the capacitance value is doubled.
Then as mentioned in some lit-
eratures, the chopping current is
enhanced approximately propor-
Fig. 5.10 Same as Fig. 5.8, but doubled reactor parallel tional to the capacitance value.
capacitor from 5nF to 10nF
 5

5.2 Cassie arc model

In Cassie arc modelling, the assumptions are:
- Heat loss depends on the arc flow (convection loss).
- Heat loss, stored heat, and electrical conductance are proportional to the cross section area.
Then, as the result, the following is obtained.
1 dG 1  E 2 
=  2 − 1
G dt θ  E 0 
where, E = Arc voltage, E0 = Constant, θ= Arc time constant, G = Arc conductance.
The above assumptions correspond to relatively high current of arc, such as higher than several
hundred A, so Cassie arc model is applicable to higher current of arc.
Introducing to EMTP-TACS, following rewriting is useful.

G0 = G 2
(G = G0 ) G=I E G0 =
I2
E0
2
1
1+θs
R =1 G

These equations are, likewise as Mayr model easily introduced to TACS. For details, see the at-
tached data file.
For steady state, i.e. d/dt = 0, arc voltage E equal constant E0. Therefore, as the equation is to be
applied to relatively long time interval of high current region, to introduce just appropriate E0 value
is important. As an example, so called zero skipping current breaking near a synchronous gen-
erator is taken up.
In Fig. 5.11 a), the
generator is sup-
plying transmis-
sion line charging
current via the
step-up trans-
former. Close to
the 550kV bus bar,
three-phase
grounding faults
occurs in one of
the two circuits.
Non simultaneous
faulting is intro-
duced, i.e.
three-phase point
on wave individual
Fig. 5.11 Circuit for zero skipping current breaking calculation timing of faulting
to create max of
current zero skipping. Actually, the faulting timing is, 14ms, 8.3ms and 8.3ms for phase A, B and C
respectively from the voltage crest in phase A. The timing was gotten by trial and error procedure.
Therefore such high rate of zero skipping of current could seldom be created.
For introducing circuit-breaker’s dynamic arc characteristics calculated by TACS, circuit diagram in
Fig. 5.11 b) is used. The main reason is TACS is active only after time 0, so for initialisation pur-
pose, i.e. for t < 0, the switch connected in parallel is required. For more details, see the attached
data files. Some important generator parameters applied are shown in the figure. Also for other
details of modelling synchronous generator, see the following chapter(s).
In Fig. 5.12, three-phase short circuit current is shown, where in phases A and C apparently no
 6

current zero exists. Though the fault

initiating timing truly seldom occurs,
and practically not necessary to con-
sider from statistical point of view,
here the phenomenon is taken up as
the base.
In Fig. 5.13, introducing an ideal cir-
cuit breaker which has zero arc volt-
age and can interrupt current at the
first current zero, the three-phase
fault currents are tried to be inter-
rupted. The contact opening time is
Fig. 5.12 Zero skipping short-circuit current set to 0.048s. In phase B current ze-
without influence of circuit-breaker arc ros exist, so at the first current zero, it
is interrupted. Introducing zero se-
quence components due to asymme-
try of the circuit by one phase of in-
terruption, dc components in phase A
and C are much damped very soon
current zeros appear. Then the cur-
rents in the rest two phases are in-
terrupted.
Introducing Cassie dynamic arc, i.e.
inserting arc voltage to the circuit, dc
components in three-phases’ currents
are expected to be much damped. So
Fig. 5.13 Breaking by ideal circuit-breaker assuming N0 = 1000Volt, i.e. as the
mean arc voltage, three-phase fault
current were calculated. In Fig. 5.14,
in comparison with the case without
arc voltage in Fig. 5.12, current wave
shapes are shown. The difference is
very small. This is thought to be the
fact that the arc voltage is so small
comparing to the system voltage.
Inserting an ideal circuit-breaker in
series to the arc model as shown in
Fig. 5.11 b), so as to interrupt current
at the first current zero, the
Fig. 5.14 Three-phase fault currents with and without three-phases’ currents calculated are
arc voltages shown in Fig. 5.15. Due to small dif-
ference between with and without arc
voltage as shown in Fig. 5.14, the
current interruption phenomena is not so different from that in Fig. 5.13. Therefore, it can be said
that arc voltage of in the order of 1000V does not introduce significant effect on zero skipping
current interruption in 500kV system.
The next trial is, though un-realistic, to introduce 10000V of arc voltage.
Due to the higher damping effect on dc component, current zero in skipping phase(s) appears
earlier, so the total fault time interval is significantly shortened. See Fig. 5.16.
 7

What can be said in the section are,

Fig. 5.15 Fault current interruption by a circuit-breaker
with Cassie arc model ------ N0 = 1000 Volt
- Significant current zero skipping is
of rare occurrence by quite special
fault timing of fault initiation.
- Even though of such case, at least
one phase current has current zero,
so the phase current can be inter-
rupted by usual ac circuit-breaker.
After at least one phase of fault cur-
rent interruption, the other phase’s
current zero(s) comes soon due to
inserting zero sequence parameter
(resistance) to the circuit. Then
three-phase fault current can be in-
terrupted by usual ac circuit-breaker.
- For introducing significant effect on
sooner current zero coming, in the
order of 10000V of arc voltage is
necessary in 500kV system.

In two phase isolated fault case, due

Fig. 5.16 Ditto, but N0 = 10000 Volt
to non-insertion of zero sequence
parameter to the circuit, much com-
plicated phenomena is foreseen. But
due to the less damping of ac com-
ponent, sooner current zero coming
appears, see Fig. 5.17.

Care should be taken that, in this

section, considering high voltage ac
circuit-breaker arc, current zero
skipping only in high voltage system
circuit is taken up. Other current zero
skipping such as in shunt reactor
making current superimposing on
capacitive current, or that in gen-
erator circuit is to be surveyed
separately.

Fig. 5.17 Two phase isolated fault case

Attached data files

- Data5-00.dat Short-line-fault (SLF) current breaking according to IEC 62271-100, 300kV,
50kA, 50Hz, L90 (Current interruption by ideal circuit-breaker)
- Data5-01.dat Ditto, but by CB with Mayr arc characteristics, θ=1μs, N0=293kW
- Data5-02.dat Ditto, but by alternative test circuit according to IEC 62271-100 (without Tdl,
without ITRV), N0=300kW
- Data5-03.dat Current chopping in shunt reactor current interruption, 300kV, 150MVA reactor,
 8

CB with Mayr arc characteristics, θ=0.5μs, N0=15kW

- Data5-04.dat Ditto, but N0 is increased to 30kW
- Data5-05.dat Same as previous but one, with increased parallel capacitance from 5nF to
10nF.
- Data5-11.dat Current zero skipping in HV side of generator step-up transformer, without arc
voltage (system circuit prospective).
- Data5-12.dat Ditto, fault current is interrupted by ideal circuit-breaker without arc voltage.
Three-phase fault currents are interrupted phase by phase.
- Data5-13.dat Same as previous but one, but inserting Cassie model arc characteristics (arc
voltage).
- Data5-14.dat Ditto and also inserting ideal circuit-breaker in series to the arc model to inter-
rupt current at the first current zero.
- Data5-1Z.dat Ditto but the arc voltage is enhanced to 10 times of the previous one to bring
significant effect of the circuit-breaker arc.
- Data5-16.dat Two-phase isolated fault case.
 1

6. Synchronous machine dynamics

In the middle of eighties, the present Type 59 synchronous machine model program was implemented
and put into practical use in EMTP. In the first half of nineties, also Type 58 model, which has
significant improvement from the former, was put into practical use in ATP-EMTP. Most sources of AC
power systems are synchronous generators, so the dynamics of the machines are of great interest,
especially regarding relatively short time interval of phenomena. Only time domain analysis is
applicable to such fast phenomena as down to sub millisecond. In such circumstances EMTP is a
significantly useful tool in power system dynamics analyses. As the special feature of Type 58,
calculations are stable especially in asymmetrical circuit conditions such as non-transposed over-head
lines, which are mostly applied in today’s power systems.
It should be noted the present type 59 involves a great bug calculation of saturation in magnetising.
The usage is mostly common by both, excepting write “58” or “59”. In this chapter, therefore, mostly
Type 58 is explained.

6.1 Machine parameter coding

What are written in the “Role Book”, in Chapter Ⅷ “Dynamic Synchronous Machine”, are not perfectly
updated, so the present updated coding is to be shown in this section.
The figured modelling in ATP-EMTP synchronous
machine is shown in Fig. 6.1 (2P machine). Two coils
in each d and q axis model the rotor. As for the stator,
in Type 59, three phase coils are replaced by two
coils in d and q axes, whereas, in Type 58, three
phase coils are applied as they are. The basic equa-
tions in Type 58 are as follows.
For each coil voltage,

j,k : a, b, c, F, G, KD, KQ
Ljk : time varying functions, depending on
the angle between Rotor and Stator
As for torque,

These differential equations are numerically calcu-

Fig. 6.1 SM modelling in ATP-EMTP
lated.
DW and QW are used only in Type 59
By inputting machine data shown later, the necessary
constants in the equations are calculated, where
some assumptions are introduced. Today, the calculations are considered appropriate in obtaining the
machine constants.
Typical data coding of Type 58 is shown below. (Others are as written in Role Book, Ⅷ.)
 2

Note:
- In the 2nd and 3rd lines, only 58 and node names are to be written. Voltages, frequencies and an-
gles are automatically introduced as symmetrical three phase AC.
- < 2.0 of PARAMETER FITTING corresponds to open circuit time constants are to be used.
> 2.1 of PARAMETER FITTING corresponds to short circuit time constants are to be used.
- “1” in col. 7 of 5th line corresponds to metric unit mechanical constants are to be used.
- For R and X, p.u. values (machine rating bases) are to be applied.
- For time constants, “second” is to be used as the unit.
- If XCAN (Caney reactance) can be applied, transient rotor coil currents such as during short-circuiting
are more correctly calculated. For armature currents, little influence is introduced. Without introduc-
ing the value, XL value is automatically introduced as XCAN.
- To write 11, 21, 31, and 51 in Output ordering cards yields full out put for one mass machine case and
generally recommended.
- For initialising Type 58 machine, CAO LOAD FLOW option is applicable, which may introduce better
results especially asymmetrical circuit cases. The usage of which is identical to FIX SOURCE, see
data files in the following example case.

6.2 Some examples

No-load overhead line charging current supplying
In the first example, no-load overhead line charging current case is taken up. The total system layout is
shown in Fig. 6.2 where No. 2 plant and infinitive capacity of source (voltage source) are disconnected.
Only No. 1 plant generator is supplying overhead line’s capacitive charging current.
The overhead line is modelled in non-transposed double-circuited type, where parameters are calcu-
lated in 50 Hz. It should be noted that in calculating machine dynamics, phenomena are mostly in
power frequency, so power frequency based line parameters are to be applied. Phase line locations
 3

are “a”, “b” and “c” from the top in one side, and “c”, “b” and “a” in the other side for obtaining as better
symmetry. Details are shown in Chapter 03 of this text. As for step-up transformers, details are shown

Fig. 6.2 Two machines and infinitive bus system layout

in Chapter 04. For initialisation, by specifying the generator terminal voltages together with phase an-
gles, all variables are to be automatically fixed in this SM program. Then in the case, this procedure
was applied. For details of the data coding, see attached data file DATA6-02.DAT.
Note:
- Transformer saturation characteristics may introduce violence in calculation. The main cause
seems to be inrush current in the magnetising circuit. SM initialisation and overriding initial condi-
tion to non-linear element (Type 93 reactor) is not compatible. In SM transient calculation, as less
influence by the saturation is supposed, such non-linear element(s) should be excluded. For in-
troducing transformer magnetising circuit, see Data6-0x.dat, where inrush current still exists.

a) Generator terminal voltages and currents b) Line voltages and charging currents

c) Rotor winding currents d) Air gap torque

Fig. 6.3 No-load transmission line charging by a synchronous generator

- Max allowable step time was approx. 100 μs in the case. By longer step time, diverge may arise.
The critical value depends on also the circuit parameters (transmission line, load circuit, etc.).
 4

- Generally, imaging actual systems, numerous times of “Try and error” process is inevitable for op-
timum calculation even such simple cases.

Some results are shown in Fig. 6.3. The HV line charging voltages and currents are shown in b) and
the generator terminal voltages and outgoing currents are in a). In HV side, asymmetry is not significant
due to the phase line location crossing. In generator side, on the other hand, some asymmetry exists in
the currents. The cause seems to be “Delta-Wye connection” of the step up transformer, i.e., the cur-
rents out of Delta connected coils are the subtraction of the coil currents corresponding to the HV side
currents. Subtraction often introduces higher asymmetry. The steady state rotor winding currents in
symmetrical condition are to be constant, i.e. the rotor and the armature flux rotate in an equal speed.
Nevertheless, Fig. 6.3 c) shows some fluctuations in the rated frequency. The cause seems the
asymmetry of the load (transmission line) circuit. In the torque (Fig. 6.3 d)), also ripple of doubled fre-
quency exists.

Load flow calculation

In a circuit composed of generators and voltage sources, where all voltage values and phase angles at
generator and source terminals have been beforehand correctly obtained together with appropriate
load circuit parameters, all variables within all generators are automatically initialised by giving all of
such conditions to EMTP calculation data. The previous case is a simple example.
Obtaining such voltage conditions is generally complicated and of tremendously hard work. “FIX
SOURCE” has been widely used for such purpose in ATP-EMTP. “CAO LOAD FLOW”, which was
developed lately by Mr. CAO and seems to be superior especially in cases with existing some asym-
metry in the circuit, is the same usage and is applicable only to Type 58 SM. Therefore in this section,
only CAO LOAD FLOW is explained. (Usage is mostly common to FIX SOURCE.)
In Fig. 6.2, assuming plant No. 1 (4P machine) to supply full power towards right side infinitive bus and
plant No. 2 disconnected, the data file coding is shown in Data6-03.dat attached. In the file the decla-
ration, “CAO LOAD FLOW” is typed before the time card. At the bottom part, the initial load flow condi-
tion is typed. In the case, generator terminal voltage and output active power are input, with typing “1”
at Column 2. By this procedure, the initial terminal voltage’s phase angle and all machine variables
including the reactive power are automatically and appropriately calculated.
By typing “0” instead of “1”, active power and reactive power (generator direction) are to be specified.
By “2”, reactive power and phase angle are to be specified. By such procedure, the rest variables are
automatically and appropriately initialised.
Some results are shown in Fig. 6.4. In a), generator terminal voltage and supplying current are shown.
The current value corresponds to 1300MVA X 0.9 of full active power at 19kV. The current is slightly
lagging. On the other hand, in Fig. 6.4 b) the transmission line voltage and current are in a same phase
angle, i.e. power factor is ca. 1.0. Due to the transformer’s short-circuit reactance, generator side cur-
rent has some lagging component. The transmission line current value seems to just appropriate. From
the generator terminal voltage and current, the generator supplying apparent power is calculated as
1210 MVA, where the active power is specified (in CAO LOAD FLOW) as 1170 MW (= 0.9 X 1300
MVA) in the data.
c) shows detailed voltage phase angle difference along the transmission line. By existence of active
power flow, along the line towards downstream, voltage phase angle is delayed.
d) shows air gap torque and angle of the d-axis based on the infinitive bus voltage. Both are compared
to the case of no-load transmission line charging current supplying case. Values seem to be appropri-
ate, but the cause of the fluctuation in the torque is not clarified yet.
 5

a) Gen. terminal voltages & currents b) HV bus voltage & Line charging current

c) Voltages along the line d) Air-gap torque & d-axis angle

Fig. 6.4 One generator and infinitive bus case ----- Supplying full active power load

a) Generator terminal voltages & currents b) Bus voltages & fed currents

c) Voltages along the transmission line d) Generator torques & d-axis angles
Fig. 6.5 Two generators and infinitive bus case ---- Supplying full active power
 6

In the next example, two machines are feeding load power. All of components in Fig. 6.2 are connected
and both generators are feeding full active powers while the reactive powers are automatically fixed by
CAO LOAD FLOW, details are shown in Data6-04.dat. Some results are shown in Fig. 6.5. In a), gen-
erator terminal voltages and feeding currents are shown in comparison, G1 terminal voltage phase
angle is a little advanced compared to G2, while the current phase angels are respective. G1 and G2
feeding apparent powers are calculated to be 1185MVA and 620MVA respectively.
HV side voltages and currents of the plants are shown in b). The phase angles are advance by 30 de-
grees compared to the lower voltage side due to Delta – Wye connection, and the wave shape rela-
tionships are same in both sides. The voltage phase angle relation along the transmission line is shown
in Fig. 6.5 – c). Angle differences in Bus21 – Bus31 – “Inf.-bus” are apparently higher by higher active
power transmission, compared to the one generator case in Fig. 6.4 – c). As for the voltage amplitudes,
the middle part is the lowest. This will be explained in Appendix 6.3.
d) shows air gap torques and rotor’s d-axis angles of two generators. Ripples in both generator torques
are not yet thoroughly clarified.

Sudden short-circuit
Next calculation is for sudden short-circuit, i.e. to calculate transients when short circuit occurs. In the
first example, assuming three phase simultaneous short circuit near Bus 11 and clearing after several
tens milli-seconds. As for details of the data coding, see Data6-05.dat attached. Some results are
shown in Fig. 6.6.
Three phase fault current is shown in a). What is notable is the AC component amplitude gradually
damps during short circuiting. The cause will be shown in d) and e). The fault current is the sum from
G1, G2 and infinitive bus through relevant reactances (transmission lines, etc.).
b) shows the generator side currents during the fault. The maximum ac amplitude of G1 is approxi-
mately twice of the rated current which is limited by the generator’s sub-transient and transformer re-
actances.
c) shows bus voltage of before, during and after the faulting. At the instant of the fault clearing, the ac
component of the voltage (recovery voltage) shows damping by ca. 15% compared to the pre-faulting
value. Directly this corresponds to the damping of armature coil linkage flux. (See e)) This shows
(transient) recovery voltage immediately after fault clearing near generator(s) is more or less damped.
d) shows rotor coil currents. During steady state, only the field coil currents flows (steady DC). But
during the transient, some value of AC and DC flow with respective damping. These damping are the
cause of the damping in short circuit current and recovery voltage.
e) is the d-q plain representation of armature d-q domain coil flux linkages (See Fig. 6.1). In steady
state, both coils flux linkages are steady, i.e. the initial point during steady state is upper right position.
During faulting via transformer impedance, the flux trace draws smaller circle. If short circuit occurs at
the generator terminal, i.e. the voltage equal to zero, the full value of the flux is trapped, then the trace
is to be a big circle with a radius of the initial flux value. Details will be explained in the Appendix 6.1.
(Flux linkage output is applicable using TACS, see the same Appendix.)
f) shows rotor d-axis position and the rotating velocity change. During faulting, due to mainly reactive
power output only, the generator more or less accelerates and this acceleration in the most important
cause of transient stability failure. The phenomena is well analysed by EMTP simulation. In the next
chapter, details will be shown.

In chapter 05 fault current zero skipping is briefly discussed. Also in this chapter, the subject is to be
surveyed introducing a few kinds of faulting condition.
 7

a) Three phase earthing fault currents b) Fault currents at generator terminals

c) Bus voltages at the fault point d) G1 rotor coil’s currents

e) Armature current in d-q domain f) G1 d-axis angle and Velocity change

Fig. 6.6 Three-phase simultaneous earthing fault near Bus 11

a) Total fault current b) Fault current from No. 1 plant

Fig. 6.7 Three-phase non-simultaneous earthing fault under no-load (continuing)
 8

c) Fault current from No. 2 plant d) d-axis angle & velocity change in G1
Fig. 6.7 (continued)

a) Total fault current b) Fault current from No. 1 plant (G1)

Fig. 6.8 Three phase non-simultaneous earthing fault under full loading condition
The first example is shown in Fig. 6.7, where in order to introduce significant zero skipping fault current,
three phase non-simultaneous point on wave faulting timing is introduced. The beforehand load flow
was of practically no-load. The faulting timing was obtained by “try and error” process.
In a), the total fault current, i.e. the sum of from G1, G2 and the remote infinitive bus, is shown. Though
in phase C zero skipping appears for approx. two periods, after several tens milli-seconds from the fault
initiation, zero skipping disappears. Then the total fault current can be safely interrupted by a general
alternating current circuit-breaker. Nevertheless, current from No. 1 plant shown in Fig. 6.7 b), has very
significant zero skipping due to, mostly probably, predominance of damped ac component in the gen-
erator circuit and low DC component damping in the circuit. While as for the current from No. 2 plant,
shown in c), due to by not only generator circuit but also by transmission line, the parameters of which
are linear and relatively low L/R value (DC decrement time constant), the current shows no
zero-skipping. What is notable in the case is, as shown in Fig. 6.7 d), the generator is decelerated
during the faulting, whereas in the former case, as shown in Fig. 6.6 f) the generator is accelerated.
The details will also be written in the next chapter.
Another example is shown in Fig. 6.8, where non-simultaneous three phase fault under full loading
condition is applied. The fault initiation timing is the result of numerous times of Try & Error process. In
the case only the current from G1 side has significant zero skipping, which may be difficult to be inter-
rupted by a general AC circuit-breaker. Currents from G2 and/or from remote infinitive bus, not shown,
has no significant zero skipping due to the circuit composed of transmission line which is of linear pa-
rameters and of relatively low L/R value, etc. Then the total fault current, shown in a) has not zero
skipping.

From the survey in this chapter as for zero-skipping of fault current, the following are clarified. :
 9

- Zero skipping appears only near generator(s).

- By only quite special point on wave fault initiation timing, it appears.
- Most significant zero skipping appears by three phase fault.

Attached data files :

Data6-00.dat 1300MVA, 4P, 19kV generator and step up transformer parameters
Data6-01.dat 300kV, 410mm**2 X2, 50km Line Constants parameter calculation data
Data6-02.dat Generator supplying transmission line charging current, 300kV, 100km, 2cct.
Data6-03.dat One gen. plus Inf. bus case, load flow calculation, CAO LOAD FLOW option
applied.
Data6-04.dat Two gen. plus Inf. bus case, full load flow calculation by CAO LOAD FLOW
Data6-05.dat Three phase earthing fault near No. 1 plant step up transformer HV side under
ditto system condition, three phase simultaneous faulting.
Data6-06.dat Ditto, but no-load condition and non-simultaneous three phase faulting.
Data6-07.dat Similar to 6-05 case, but non-simultaneous three phase faulting to create
maximum zero skipping fault current.
Data6-0x.dat Step up transformers with magnetising linear reactances are applied.
Data6-11.dat Perfect round rotor SM without damper coil, 3.3kV, 1MVA, 2P, 3-phase simultaneous
sudden short circuiting under no-load condition. (Asymmetrical short circuit current,
i.e. with high DC componet)
Data6-12.dat Ditto, but point on wave short circuiting to create short circuit current without DC
component (Symmetrical short circuit current)
Data6-13.dat Like data case 6-11, but under full loading condition
Data6-14.dat Like data case 6-11, but salient pole machine under no load condition
Data6-1F.dat SM with damper coils both in d- and q- axes. 3 phase simultaneous short circuiting
under full load condition.
Data6-20.dat Basic data of Synchronous machine starting as Induction machine, operated
under power frequency.
Data6-21.dat Checking operation in very low frequency and very low induced voltage, where
1% of values could be applied.
Data6-22.dat Starting as Induction machine, with 2% of the initial velocity and 1% of the initial
voltage, the field current is ca. 50% of the rating.
Data6-31.dat Simplified representation of voltages along a transmission line, applying L-C
ladder circuit. Minimum voltage appears at the middle point of the line.
 10

Appendix 6.1 Synchronous machine sudden short circuit --- description on d-q
co-ordinate plane

In Type 59 synchronous machine program, calculation is made as d-q-0 domain variables. Though
some demerits exist in Type 59 compared to Type 58, phenomena within the machine are well repre-
sented by Type 59. In this appendix, such inside phenomena in sudden short circuit will be discussed
for better understanding of synchronous machine dynamics. Therefore, Type 59 is better to be applied.
As for d-q-0 domain calculation method,
we can find some materials/literatures
easily, so little is necessary to explain. In
the first example, we take up the follow-
ing perfectly symmetrical (non-salient)
rotor machine. The machine parameters
are, :
Ratings: 3.3kV, 1MVA, 2P, 50Hz
Main constants: Xd = Xq = 1.5pu, Xd’ =
Xq’ = 0.2pu, Td’ = Tq’ = 0.3sec.
The machine has no damper coil and is
of winded rotor induction motor type one, a) 3 phase SC current b) Armature flux linkage
and some of such ones are applied as
variable speed generators. Again, going
back to Fig. 6.1, assuming three phase
armature coils are suddenly and simul-
taneously short-circuited. The flux link-
age in the armature is trapped at the ini-
tial value with damping concerned. Fig.
6A.1 a) shows three phase armature
currents during short circuit. In two
phases, high value of DC component
c) Rotor flux linkage d) Armature current
exists. b) shows armature flux linkage in
d-q domain plane, based on the rotor
position. As the flux is fixed on the ar-
mature, its rotes in d-q plane, drawing a
spiral. c) shows rotor flux which is also
trapped with damping due to short circuit
of the coils (voltage source of field is of
zero impedance.).
Assuming two coils, coupled each other,
the next equations are easily obtained.
e) Rotor current f) SC current without DC
Winding turn ratio is assumed to 1.0,

then we have,

As generally k is in the order of 0.9

---0.95, so as the general understanding,
the current is approximately proportional
to the flux difference of the two coils. d)
and e) show such general trend in rela- g) Armature flux linkage h) El Torque during SC
tion to b) and c). Fig. 6A.1 Sudden short circuit (continuing)
 11

f) shows three phase short circuit cur-

rents without DC component. Such cur-
rents are obtained by short circuiting
between phase b and c at the crest of
Vb-c, and 90 degree later short circuiting
three phases. Armature flux linkage is
shown in g), where, excepting 90 degree
of the transient time, the value is almost
zero. By the flux movement shown in n),
this is easily understood.
The great contrast is in the torque
shown in h) in comparison with the pre- i) Armature flux, on load j) Rotor flux, on load
vious three phase simultaneous short
circuiting case. In the previous case,
due to the existence of fluxes in both of
stator and rotor, high amplitude torque
swing appears. In the latter case, due to
least flux in the stator, the torque is al-
most zero. The phenomena may intro-
duce great effect to transient stability,
especially during pumping stage. Details
will be described in the next chapter as
for “back swing.” k) Armature current l l) Rotor 4 coil currents

Short circuiting under full loading case is

shown in I) and j). By the initial load
current, the initial flux position rotates.
The difference of the initial angles, (φS -
φ R ) corresponds to the initial load
torque.
By salient pole machine, flux changes
are almost the same as round rotor
machine. Significant difference is in
currents. By equations before shown in m) Combined current n) Flux movement
the previous page, currents are domi- Fig. 6A.1 (continued)
nated by also inductance(s). In salient
pole machine, the inductance values in d- and q- axes are different, therefore the current trace in d-q
domain plane is of oval shaped as in k). The result means doubled frequency of DC component fluc-
tuation exists. The fact that short circuit current in salient pole machine has 2nd stage harmonics com-
ponent is well known.
I) shows rotor coil currents of a machine with dampers both in d- and q- axes. Each shows complicated
variation in the time domain graph. m) shows d-q plane current trace, each d/q axis component of
which is the sum of each two coil currents. Fortunately in EMTP, all of the rotor coils are modeled in a
uniform turn number. So, sum of currents is proportional to sum of magnetically motive forces (Ampere
– turn). By observing in respect of the total magnetically motive forces in both axes of the rotor, the
phenomena shows the quite the same appearance.

Note
For drawing X-Y plot graphs applied in this Appendix, PlotXY.exe is best applicable. Also
GTPPLOT.exe is applicable for the purpose.
 12

Appendix 6.2 Synchronous machine starting as Induction motor

Synchronous generators/motors are occasionally started as induction motors, where the field coils are
short-circuited. The principle is identical to induction machine. Type 58/59 synchronous machine pro-
gram in ATP-EMTP was originally developed as in service in near power frequency range. Therefore,
for calculating quasi zero speed of phenomena, special care is to be taken.

a) Velocity change, origin corresponds to 1Hz. b) Air gap torque when starting

c) Armature current d) Field & Damper(-d) coil currents

Fig. 6A.2 Synchronous machine starting as Induction machine
One example is shown in this Appendix, where the followings were applied. :
- Firstly one synchronous machine is taken up, by which steady state operation under power frequency
is checked. (See attached Data6-20.dat) The machine ratings here applied are: 3.3kV, 1MVA, 2P,
with damper.
- By the machine, operation under very low frequency and very low induced voltage is to be established.
(See attached Data6-21.dat) The actually possible minimum was, as in the data, 1% both in fre-
quency and voltage. Care should be taken that the rated voltage and capacity written in the data are
to be also 1% of the original ones. Saturation could not be introduced. The cause has not been
clarified.
- Then connecting to power frequency AC source, the machine starts as an induction machine. In the
case, 2% of the initial velocity was the lowest possible limit. The inducing voltage could be 1% of the
rating. (See attached Data6-22.dat) In the case, AC voltage source of zero voltage had been con-
nected initially via the impedance and the voltage value was enhanced afterwards. This method
produced stable result. (Some alternatives may be applicable.) In the case, the machine field has
been energised by 50% of the rating from the initial, therefore, finally the machine perfectly syn-
chronised to the AC source, without any slip. Care should be taken, in Fig. 6A.2 a), the vertical
co-ordinate shows the velocity change and not the absolute value, according to the EMTP program.
The initial absolute value is 6.28 rad./s.
 13
Appendix 6.3 Voltage distribution on transmission line
a) Simplified transmission line modelling
transmitting some active power
b) Voltages along the line
c) Voltage enlargement
Fig. 6A.3 Voltages along a transmission
line in simplified modelling
In Fig. 6.5 c), the voltage distribution along
the transmission line shows minimum at
the middle part. This can be represented
by the following simple circuit layout.
In Fig. 6A.3 a), a transmission line is rep-
resented in most simplified modelling, i.e.
multi-stage L-C pie representation. The left
end is connected to an AC source and the
opposite load resistor. The line is transmit-
ting some active load current.
b) shows voltage distribution along the line,
where, as more load side, the phase an-
gles are more delayed.
c) shows the crest part of the voltage in
much enlargement. As shown in the figure,
minimum voltage exists at the middle point
along the line.
By higher active load current, minimum
voltage appears at the right side end, and
by very light or no load current, right side
voltage is highest. Therefore such voltage
distribution as in the case, i.e. minimum at
the middle point, appears only in very
critical circuit conditions.
 1

7. Transient stability
In AC power system, each generator is to keep phase relationship according to the relevant power flow,
i.e. for a certain reactance X, the both terminal voltages V1and V2, and phase angle difference θ, the
active power flow P through the reactance is calculated as:

P = V1 • V2 sin θ (7.1)
X
In the previous chapter, such relationships are calculated for some steady state system conditions. By
disturbances such as short-circuit, sudden load rejection, switching transmission line, etc. each gen-
erator may accelerate/ decelerate due to the probable unbalance between the driving and load torques.
The angle θ before shown may swing and such phenomena are called as “Transient stability”.
In this chapter the phenomena are explained mainly applying time domain analysis, contrasting with
conventional process “Power frequency phasor domain analysis” or “Equi-area method”, and also the
counter measure to enhance the stability will be explained.

7.1 Classic analysing method -------- Equi-area method

Firstly let’s check the conventional phasor domain based classic method “Equi-area method” by
cross-checking with time do-
main analysis ---- ATP-EMTP.
Firstly introducing the so
called one generator & infini-
tive bus system shown in Fig.
7.1, the basic phenomena is
to be surveyed. For other pa-
Fig. 7.1 One generator vs. infinitive bus system rameters not shown in the
figure, please refer the at-
tached data file(s) of the
chapter. Applying equation (7.1), what is to be V1 as the sending point voltage? This seems to be an
imagined inside of the machine voltage and may be changeable one. As shown later, the flux linkage just
inside of the armature winding is relatively kept constant during the relevant phenomena, the voltage
corresponding to the flux seems to be appropriate as this V1. Therefore, as the reactance of the machine
under the phenomena, the armature winding leakage one seems to be best applicable. For the trans-
mission line reactance, parameters of transposed one are calculated for this time as simple calculation.
For details, refer to chapter 3. The transformer’s reactance and one in front of the infinitive bus are easily
obtained.
In Fig. 7.2, transmission active power vs.
angle difference, as for single-circuited
and double-circuited lines, are shown.
As the sending part voltage V1, 300kV
(generator terminal voltage based one)
is applied though, quite correctly speak-
ing, the inside voltage is more or less
higher than the terminal voltage. As V2
287.5kV is applied.
For double-circuited line transmitting
1170MW (90% of power factor of
1300MVA), the initial angle of 32.5 de-
gree is calculated. For single-circuited,
48.5 degree is calculated. These values,
of cause, agree with Fig. 7.2.
Assuming sudden switching over from
double circuited to single one, in Fig.
7.2, as the vertical co-ordinate corre-
Fig. 7.2 Transmission active power characteristics sponds to the machine torque and
for single circuited and double circuited line therefore area, i.e. product of torque
and angle shift, corresponds to energy,
S1 is excess energy from the turbine up to the steady state point by single-circuited line. Then the gen-
erator is accelerated and the angle advances up to the angle S1 = S2. This is the most simple case of
equi-area method. The maximum angle over swing is approx. 69 degree.
Then, let’s check these values by applying EMTP (time domain analysis).
 2
Fig. 7.3 Rotor d-axis position base on infinitive bus (66 X 2) (4P - 2P) + 30 (Delta - Star) = 162
voltage angle via star-delta step-up Tr, for 4 pole
machine
Fig. 7.4 Armature winding flux linkage position
based on rotor position --- Electrical angle
section, values on the armature winding are shown but, in general case, also values on the armature
terminal voltage are applied.
7.2 Time domain analysis ---- ATP-EMTP
Fig. 7.5 Generator terminal voltage
In Fig. 7.3, the maximum rotor swing is approx. 20 degree for 4 pole machine, i.e. electrically 40 degree.
In Fig. 7.2, the value is 36 degree. The difference depends on the flux movement on the rotor shown in
The system and machine parameters are co-
incide to ones in Chapter 6, and
un-transposed line parameters are applied.
The machine’s rotor angle position is shown
in Fig. 7.3. Care should be taken (in EMTP)
that the angle corresponds to the actual ge-
ometrical one for 4-pole machine based on
the infinitive bus voltage angle. Also, the
machine is connected to the system via
delta-star connected step-up transformer. So,
66 degree for double-circuited line steady
state case, corresponding normalised elec-
trical degree is:
Fig. 7.4 shows the flux vector linked with the
armature winding, displayed on d-q axis plane.
The armature flux position angle is then:
162 – 39 = 123 degree
Therefore the voltage angle at the armature
winding is, (as dφ/dt = -V for generator),
123 – 90 = 33 degree
The value well agrees with the former hand
calculated one.
For single circuited, 49 degree is obtained,
which also is a good agreement with the hand
calculated one before shown.
For over-swinging, from Fig. 7.3 and 7.4 as
for the time of maximum rotor angle in Fig. 7.3,
the angle in Fig. 7.4 is approx. 45 degree, the
maximum angle is, likewise:
86 X 2 + 30 – 45 – 90 = 67 degree
which is fairly good agreement with the
equi-area method result.
Note:
In classic calculation method such as
equi-area method, both mechanical and elec-
trical source points are assumed to be based
on a common point. Actually the mechanical
energy transferring point is the rotor, but
electrically transferring point is vague. In this
Fig. 7.6 Field exciting current
 3

Fig. 7.4. In classic method, such as equi-area method, source side voltage is an imagined one. In time
domain analysis, every actual value is calculated. Also actual voltage amplitude is changeable, which
can not be involved in classic method.
A little more details are shown in Fig.
7.5 and 7.6, the former of which is
generator terminal voltage and the
latter field exciting current. Both
change during the time interval. In Fig.
7.4 also the flux angle and amplitude
changes are shown. These show the
variables of the generator are
changeable during the transient,
As the next example, increasing the
transmission active power by 5%, the
rotor angle swing is shown in Fig. 7.7
in comparison with the former case.
Fig. 7.7 Rotor angle by over-loading The amplitude increases, furthermore,
the recovery delays a lot. The condi-
tion seems to be critical. Actually, not
shown, by more 5% of power increase, the generator losses the synchronism (out-of-phase).
In the next example, line
faulting result in one circuit
of the double-circuited line
opening is taken up. Two
cases are introduced.:
Case 1: excluding interme-
diate switching station in
Fig. 7.8, faulting (F) is
Fig. 7.8 Power system diagram, 3LG fault --- 1 circuit clearing
cleared by CB11 and CB31,
i.e. whole length of the line
is to be single-circuited.
Case 2: introducing inter-
mediate switching station,
the fault is cleared by CB11
and CB21, i.e. only half of
the line is single-circuited.
The results are shown in
Fig. 7.9 as the rotor angle
swing. In case 1, 1.17GW of
transmission power results
in out-of-phase, so as the
critical value, 1.13GW is
introduced. In case 2,
where only the half of the
line is single circuited, due
Fig. 7.9 Rotor angle swing by 3LG --- 1 circuit clearing to less enhancement of the
line impedance, significant
improvement is apparent as for transient stability enhancement.
In the next case, second
generator unit is con-
nected to the intermedi-
ate bus, the rating of
which is 600MVA with 2
pole, feeding 0.6GW.
Faulting and clearing
sequence is the same as
the former.
The result (rotor angle
swing) is shown in Fig.
7.11. For easy
Fig. 7.10 Two generator vs. inf. bus case
 4

comparison of the angle swing be-

tween 2P and 4P machines on a same
basis, the right side co-ordinate scale
(for 2P machine) is doubled as the left
side. As the faulting spot is remote
from the second generator, the angle
swing is far less than the first one. For
two-generator case, though the initial
angle is higher than the one generator
case, the stability state is almost the
same. In two-generator case, the
swing of the first generator seems to
transfer to the second one, i.e. the
second one’s swing amplitude en-
hances. Much more complicated in-
Fig. 7.11 Two generator and inf. bus case
teraction phenomena may occur in
multi-machine cases.
Field excitation control
Fig. 7.5 shows the terminal voltage is damped when the angle enhances. From the equation (7.1), the
lower voltage corresponding lower transmitting power, thus the generator tends to accelerate. By in-
creasing the excitation current resulting in higher terminal voltage, the transmitting power enhances and
the machine acceleration is damped. Generator has AVR (automatic voltage regulator) and/or PSS
(power system stabiliser), the main purpose of which is to keep the terminal voltage constant. But in-
troducing special controlling of them, also enhancement of transient stability is expected. Especially PSS
for such purpose is introduced to modern high capacity machine.
Fig. 7.12 shows the block
diagram of AVR/PSS applied
to the generator, which is of
very rapid response and thy-
rister type. As the output
voltage is supplied by recti-
fying the generator output
AC, the output is proportional
to the generator terminal
voltage as shown in the fig-
ure. In the following calcula-
tion cases only G1 (1.3 GVA
machine) is furnished with
AVR/PSS.
Fig. 7.13 shows for the case
Fig. 7.12 AVR/PSS diagram applied to G1 shown in Fig. 7.7 (over
loading condition) with and
without AVR/PSS as for rotor
angle swing. The transient is
well suppressed and in short
time steady state is attained.
Also the maximum swing
amplitude is much damped.
Introducing AVR/PSS, en-
hancement of transmission
power is possible.
Fig. 7.14 shows AVR/PSS
variables during the phe-
nomena. During increase of
the rotor angle, as the results
of the input variables to
AVR/PSS, the exiting voltage
is much enhanced.
Fig. 7.13 Effect of AVR/PSS in one circuit of transmission line open-
ing.
 5

Thus significant effect of ARV/PSS for

Fig. 7.14 Variables in AVR/PSS (for Fig. 7.13)
Fig. 7.15 3LG --- one circuit opening like Fig. 7.9 case 1
stability enhancement is proved.
Then, as typical transient stability cal-
culation cases, many of the similar
cases of which are done, transmission
line faulting followed by clearing of the
faulted section are surveyed. Calcula-
tions without AVR/PSS are shown in
Fig. 7.9 and 7.11. Introducing
AVR/PSS, the calculation results are
shown in Fig. 7.15 and Fig. 7.16. In
Fig. 7.15, the rotor angle swing during
the transient is shown; where also for
overloading case (1.23GW) is added.
Even for the overloading, the swing is
well suppressed and thus the stability
limit can be enhanced with still some
margin by introducing the field excite
controlling system. Also the time in-
terval of the disturbance is signifi-
cantly shortened. Without such sys-
tem, as shown before, by 1.17GW of
transmission power, the system can-
not be kept stable. Fig. 7.16 shows
the AVR/PSS variables during the
transient, where, PSS out put very
quickly raises at the first stage and
thus enhancing the exciting voltage,
the rotor swing is strongly suppressed.
In the phenomena, due to such great
change of the voltage as
short-circuiting, AVR/PSS variables
show significant performances.
Note:
Great care should be taken as for ini-
tialising the AVR/PSS variables for
accurate calculations. In the EMTP
data, typing 77 in the end part of
TACS in column 1 and 2, then initial
values of TACS variables are written.
For details, see the attached data
files.

In Fig. 7.17, two generators Vs infini-

tive bus case is shown. The system
layout is shown in Fig. 7.10 where
also No. 2 generator is involved. As
shown before, only No. 1 generator’s
Fig. 7.16 AVR/PSS variables in Fig. 15 field exciting is controlled by AVR/PSS.
No. 2 generator’s exciting voltage is
kept constant during the transient.
The calculated result is shown in Fig. 7.17 as for the generators’ swing angles. G1’s, which field exciting
is strongly controlled by AVR/PSS, swing is significantly damped as a natural result. Also G2’s swing is
to some extent suppressed. In Fig. 7-18, G2’s torque during the phenomena is compared ------ with and
without control of G1. The phenomenon is much complicated and the swing period of each machine may
influence each other. These might be beyond the scope of this chapter.
For more sophisticated case study, 8 generator vs. infinitive bus case, where 3-phase short-circuit and
clearing case is calculated, is shown in Fig. 7.19 and 7.20. 8 generators have no exciting controlling. For
the data coding, see the attached data file. In the case, calculating longer time duration than 2 second,
some instability appears, so more number of machines introducing, another calculation technique such
 6

Fig. 7.17 Two Gen. Vs. infinitive bus case Fig. 7.18 G2 El. Torque

Fig. 7.19 8 generator vs. inf. bus system Fig. 7.20 Generator swing angle
as applying No. 19 synchronous machine model to be introduced partly, might be necessary. According
to the Rule Book of ATP-EMTP, No. 19 synchronous machine model seems to be more stable for espe-
cially multi-machine case. Therefore machines distant from the disturbance, i.e. short-circuiting, might be
suitable to be modelled as No. 19 machine.

Back swing phenomena

As shown in the previous chapter, during usual short-circuiting with DC component in the short-circuit
current, more or less decelerating direction of torque acts to the generator. This may influence the tran-
sient stability in the relevant power system. As shown in the chapter, the cause of the torque is the
trapped flux in the armature coil of the generator during short-circuiting. The phenomena is not involved
in power frequency phasor domain analysis usually applied.
Picking up the case shown in Fig. 7.8 and 7.9, the line faulting initial detailed phenomena are surveyed
regarding both under full of DC component and less in the fault current.

a) Fault current with full DC b) Fault current with less DC c) Torque under full/less DC

Fig. 7.21 Fault current with/without DC component

In Fig. 7.21 fault current and generator’s air gap torque for both full of and less DC component are shown.
DC component condition depends on the point on wave fault initiation timing. Significant difference be-
tween the two conditions is found in c). Nevertheless, difference in the swing angle is not so significant
as shown in Fig. 7.22. Also for full DC condition, which is possible only in time domain analysis (EMTP),
corresponds to less severe condition under full load condition such as the present case.
 7

Under very light loading condition (less power

Fig. 7.22 Rotor swing angle (Full loading)
output), much more significant difference in
torque as shown in Fig. 7.23 is observed. Then,
as shown in Fig. 7.24, even negative direction of
swing occurs. This is the cause of the name
“Back swing”. In very light loading condition,
negative direction of out of step might occur. As
talked before such phenomena are only studied
by time domain analysis such as EMTP.
More severe condition is exists in pumping sta-
tion where the machine works as a motor. The
mechanical torque is in inverse direction, to which
the electrical back swing torque is superimposed.
So, under heavy load of pumping-up condition,
DC component in the fault current may introduce
extremely severe condition.

Attached data files

- Data7-00.dat: 1G(No. 58 SM) vs. inf. bus, full
loading initialised by CAO LOAD FLOW.
- Data7-01.dat: Ditto, but one circuit of double
circuited transmission line dropping.
- Data7-02.dat: Ditto, but 105% overloading.
- Data7-03.dat: Ditto but 3-phase earthing fault
and clearing by dropping one circuit (full
Fig. 7.23 S.C. torque under light loading length), by critical loading condition (96%).
- Data7-04.dat: Ditto, but half length of trans-
mission line, by full loading condition.
- Data7-05.dat: 2G vs. inf. bus system,
3-phase earthing fault and clearing by drop-
ping one circuit (half length) of the line.
- Data7-11.dat: Same as –02 case but
high-speed AVR/PSS is introduced to the
generator.
- Data7-12.dat: Same as –01 case but
high-speed AVR/PSS is introduced to the
generator.
- Data7-13.dat: Same as –03 case, but
AVR/PSS introduced.
Fig. 7.24 Rotor swing angle (Light loading) - Data7-14.dat: Same as –04 case, but
AVR/PSS is introduced to one generator.
- Data7-15.dat: 8 generators vs. infinitive bus
case, all are modelled by “No. 58 synchronous machine”.
- Data7-16.dat: Same as –05 case, but one generator is modelled by Universal Machine model (Type
59 format).
- Data7-17.dat: Ditto, but general Universal Machine’s Synchronous Machine model applied (Stan-
dard U.M. format).
- Data7-21.dat: Like –03 case, but maximum of DC component in the fault current condition intro-
duced.
- Data7-22.dat: Ditto, but minimum DC component in the fault current condition introduced
- Data7-31.dat: Like –21 condition but under very light loading condition.
- Data7-32.dat: Like –22 condition but under very light loading condition.
- Data7L01.dat: 50km, double circuited transmission line parameter calculation, Pi representation.
 8

Appendix 7.1 Modelling by No. 19 Universal Machine

Fig. 7A.1 G2 current by 3 type of modelling
Fig. 7A.2 G2 El. torque by 3 type of modelling
Fig. 7A.3 G1 rotor swing by 3 type of modelling
In G2
It is known, for type No. 58/59 synchronous ma-
chine, the number of machine is limited. Actually
by Data7-15 case where 8 machines are intro-
duced, occasionally instability or even divergence
is experienced. While, according to the rule book,
by No. 19 universal machine modelling multi
machine case is easier with no limitation in the
number. Also by No. 19 machine synchronous
machine is applicable, though the modelling is
not so sophisticated as type 58/59 synchronous
machines.
In the universal machine menu, two kind of syn-
chronous machine modelling is applicable. :
* Synchronous machine in Type-59 format
* Synchronous machine in Standard U.M. format
Both cases were applied in modelling G2 of
Data7-14 case (Fig. 10 and 12, where AVR/PSS
is applied to G1). The following points are to be
noted. :
Type-59 format
- Only No. 59 SM is applicable, but not 58.
- Parameter Fitting is < 2.0, i.e. only open cir-
cuited time constants are to be applied.
- English unit for mechanical constants man-
datory.
- The second card of Class 3 data card is to be
excluded, since common saturation charac-
teristics for d- and q-axis is applied.
- Rn, Xn (for neutral earthing) and Xcan (Ca-
nay’s reactance) are to be excluded since not
applicable in the program.
- Typing output option is different from No.
58/59 SM.
- Connecting to TACS is districted.
Standard U.M. format
- For U.M. parameter calculation, usage of
INDSYNW.EXE, which is down-loadable from
your convenient ATP web-site, is highly re-
commended.
- Some tuning according to your calculation is
to be done, i.e. node name, initialisation, etc.

For both modelling initialisation by FIX SOUCES / CAW LOAD FLOW is not suitably applicable. To the
author’s experience, giving the generator terminal voltages and phase angles to all generators has been
suitably applied. For No. 58/59 machines and U.M. in type-59 format, values are directly typed. In U.M.
by standard format, as automatic initialisation of U.M. the values are also applicable. For details, see
Data7-14, -16 and 17, also Rule Book. Obtaining these initial values (terminal voltages and phase an-
gles), another power flow calculation is necessary, where, No. 14 alternating current voltage sources
instead of generators and FIX SOURCES menu are best applicable.
In Fig. 7A.1 --- 3, calculation results by three type of S.M. modelling for G2 are shown where in the
graphs three kind of results are drawn superimposed. Difference between the modelling methods is not
significant, so any kind seems to be applicable depending on your choice.
 1

8. Induction machine, doubly fed machine

In this chapter, cage-rotor induction machine and doubly fed machine are taken up, and some simulation
examples are shown. These machines are modelled by “No. 19 Universal machine” menu in ATP-EMTP.
Doubly fed machine is an application of wound rotor type induction machine. Some other types of ma-
chines are applicable to No. 19 Universal machine menu. For details, refer the Rule Book of ATP-EMTP.

Cage-rotor induction machine

Machine parameters and basic calculations
In producing machine parameters such as coil leakage inductances, magnetising inductances, moment
of inertia, etc, usage of “Indmot.exe” or “Indsynw.exe”, programmed by Mr. Gabor B. Furst and down
loadable from ATP-website, is strongly recommended. Otherwise, machine design work is to be done for
the relevant type/rating of a machine. The former is for induction machine and the latter is for both in-
duction and synchronous machine in universal machine modelling. In this section, the former will be
used. When applying the program to calculate machine parameters, the following window appears when
Catalogue value inputting.
The author’s experience
shows:
- Inputting approx. 75 - -
- 80% of the Rated
horsepower value, i.e.
kW value rather than
Hp value, produces
somehow more ap-
propriate/realistic re-
sult than 100% value,
especially for modern
small sized machine.
For other values,
Catalogue values are
to be inputted.
- As the results of the
program, both satu-
rated and unsaturated
leakage inductances
Fig. 8.1 Indmot.exe data input window are output. Application
of saturated one pro-
duces better results for general service conditions.
Let’s take up the following catalogue values of machine.

Type Deep-bar coil Rated voltage 3.3kV Rated power 500kW

Rated frequency 60Hz Power factor 86.3% Rated slip 1.7%
Efficiency 94.7% Starting current 620A Starting torque 80%
Max. torque 180% Inertia constant --------

No. 19 Universal machine input data is based on T-type equivalent circuit. Inputting these catalogue
values, but 500Hp instead of 667Hp, the following machine parameters are output. As for the details of
inputting and outputting data, see the attached files and/or text file attached to the program.
(As induction machine is of non-salient configuration, common values are applied to both d- and q-axis.
Also, in No. 19 UM, rotor winding is modelled in the same turn number as the armature.)

Magnetising branch inductance 0.180685 H

Armature resistance 0.489256 ohm
Armature saturated leakage inductance 0.005149 H
Rotor coil resistance, No. 1 0.587099 ohm
Rotor coil saturated leakage inductance, No. 1 0.005149 H
Rotor coil resistance, No. 2 2.062925 ohm
Rotor coil saturated leakage inductance, No. 2 0.016865 H
Note:
- Deep bar rotor coil is modelled as two coils with respective L and R values, located in parallel
 2

- If test/measured values are available, the values are most preferably to be applied.
- For magnetising branch, saturation characteristic is applicable in No. 19 program, if necessary. For
leakage inductance saturation, if necessary, TACS/MODELS controlled additional inductances are to
be connected outside of the model.

Also the Indmot.exe program produces PCH file, the format of which is directly applicable to EMTP
calculation. Using the PCH file, the machine’s starting was calculated. For detail of the program data,
see the attached file.
Note:
- In the attached data file, spe-
cial initialising technique is ap-
plied, which is applicable also
for multi-machine case. Detail
will be explained later.

Applying the original PCH file to the

a) Air gap torque vs. velocity when starting
b) Armature current
b) Rotor coil current
Fig. 8.1 Induction motor starting --- original parameters
data file, characteristic of starting
from stalled condition was calcu-
lated. Some results are shown in
Fig. 8.1. From the results we can
check that the motor is appropri-
ately modelled regarding the cata-
logue values, i.e. slip at rated out-
put, power factor, efficiency, start-
ing and maximum torque, etc.
Nevertheless, at the starting initial
stage, great amplitude of torque
swing occurs and evaluation
seems to be not easy as for the
steady state.
As shown in Chapter 6 as for syn-
chronous machine, such swing
seems to depend on asymmetry
and/or DC component in the coil
current. Then, let’s try to reduce
such asymmetry and/or DC
component.
In the original PCH file, the zero
sequence circuit of the armature is
not modelled. So some disturbance
especially for asymmetrical condi-
tion might be introduced. So, zero
sequence parameters are arbitrar-
ily introduced, where, zero se-
quence armature resistance is the
same as d/q and inductance is
approx. 50% of d/q. For details,
see the attached data file. The
neutral point is earthed though high
ohmic resistor. The circuit is in high
ohmic earthed condition.
Then, for minimising the DC com-
ponent in the armature current,
point on wave closing is applied, i.e.
phase b and c are connected the
source at b – c voltage maximum,
and phase a is connected 90 de-
gree later (at the maximum of the
phase voltage). Results are shown
in Fig. 8.2.
 3

In a) torque vs. velocity character-

istic is shown, where, comparing to
the former case, the torque swing
is significantly damped at the initial
stage. Armature current in b)
shows good symmetry also com-
paring the former. Also as for the
rotor current in c) good symmetry is
obtained. At the final stage of the
rotor current, the frequency, which
is equal to the slip, is approx. zero,
i.e. the motor is running in the syn-
chronous speed at the final stage.

By these results, evaluation of

some values seems to be far eas-
ier than by the former.
a) Air gap torque vs. velocity when starting Fig. 8.2 d) shows active-, reactive-
and apparent powers during start-
ing.
The next values are obtained.:
Starting torque 2000N-m, 74%
Max. torque 6800N-m, 252%
Starting current 540 A
Slip at rated Tq. 2.49%
Efficiency* 94.5%
Power factor* 90.4%

For more accurate calculation

along the catalogue values, precise
tuning of the values in the PCH file
is to be performed. But for general
system engineering purpose, the
accuracy seems to be sufficient.
b) Armature current when starting

d) Active power, Reactive power

and Apparent power
during starting

c) Rotor coil current when starting

Fig. 8.2 Induction motor starting --- modified parameters

In the program, mechanical system is represented as electric circuit, i.e. Torque (N-m) is in Current (A),
2
and Velocity (radian/sec) is in Voltage (V). Therefore, Moment of inertia (kg-m ) is by Capacitor (F) and
Viscosity (N-m/radian/sec) is by Resistor (ohm).
A few examples are shown next regarding these.
 4

Fig. 8.3 Sudden rated torque application under no-load operation condition

a) Velocity & torque b) Active/Reactive/Apparent power

c) Rotor coil current d) Mechanical load & torque converter

equivalent circuit

Fig. 8.4 Connecting mechanical load via clutch/torque converter

In the first case (Fig. 8.3), mechanical torque is suddenly increased to almost the rated value. Torque is
dominated by the current source in the equivalent electric circuit. (See the attached data file.) Velocity
decreases rather gradually and also active/reactive/apparent power enhances. Active power component
is far higher than reactive one in the on-load region.
In the last case (Fig. 8.4), mechanical load with certain moment of inertia and friction loss is connected
via clutch and torque converter. In the electric equivalent circuit, clutch and torque converter can be
represented by a switch and a non-linear resistor respectively as shown in Fig. 8.4 d).
In a) (Velocity and torque) the load smoothly accelerates and at the initial stage highest torque is trans-
ferred from the moment of inertia of the motor. By decrease of the velocity motor torque increases and
then the velocity recovers. At the initial and the final stage, the difference of torque between the motor
(air gap) and the load corresponds to the motor friction loss. The velocity decrease is rather high (over
loading condition), so reactive power increase is higher.

Note:
 5

Active/reactive/apparent power is calculated by the next equations.:

Active power = Va I a + Vb I b + Vc I c
Re active power = {(Vc − Vb ) I a + (Va − Vc ) I b + (Vb − Va ) I c } 3
Apparent power = ( Active power ) 2 + (Re active power ) 2
For inductively reactive power, minus value appears by the equation.

Multi machine case

The restrictions in multi machine case are, :
- Uniform initialisation mode is to be applied to any machine in No. 19 universal machine menu.
- In initialisation, giving slip to every machine produces most stable result to the author’s experience.
- PREDICTION and solidly earthed armature coil neutral are mandatory for multi machine case.
- For cases of more than 3 machines (generally), “ABSOLUTE U.M. DIMENSIONS” card is to be ap-
plied. Details are shown in the Rule Book.
In Fig. 8.5 a), M1 is in full loading operation. Then M2 (stalled) is connected to start. For M1, giving slip,
initialisation is easily introduced. But also for M2, which is stalled at the initial stage, the same initialisa-
tion procedure is to be applied. Therefore, bridging the starting switch by high ohmic resistor and giving
100% of slip, quasi-stalled condition is realised, and thus the same initialisation manner can be applied
to both machines. For details about these, see the attached data file.

a) Two-motor layout b) Velocity of two motors

c) Air gap torque d) Active/reactive/apparent P e) M1 current

Fig. 8.5 Two-motor case, one is under operation and the other starting

In Fig. 8.5 b) ---- e) calculated results are shown. In b), M1’s velocity downs by approx. 0.6% during M2’s
staring due to the terminal voltage down. Nevertheless, in c), the torque is kept quasi constant which is
the given condition. In d) M1’s powers are kept approx. constant and, in e), the current is enhanced a
little.
Note:
- Applying the principle given in the attached data file, up to several tens of machine case can be
calculated.

Quasi-constant power load

As shown above (Fig. 8.5e), when the terminal voltage goes down, the induction motor’s current tends to
increase. Let’s check the matter quantitatively. In Fig. 8.6, the source supplying voltage changes as 100
--- 90 --- 80% of the rating. At that time some variables are calculated.
In Fig. 8.6 a) the motor current goes up by the decrease of the voltage, while, the velocity goes down by
a little bit (approx. 1.5% by 20% of voltage drop). At the same time torque is kept constant as the given
condition as usual the case of mechanical load torque (less velocity change). As the result, as shown in
c), Active/inductively reactive/apparent power is kept quasi constant.
As the result, if mechanical load torque changes little by a little change of velocity as usually the case,
 6

a) Terminal voltage and current

b) Air gap torque and rotating velocity c) Active/reactive/apparent power

Fig. 8.6 When voltage going down

induction motor seems to be a constant power load for the system irrespective of the applied voltage.
Great care should be taken of the over current by the voltage drop.
The phenomena might be of great importance as voltage stability (voltage collapse) of power system, as
voltage stability is quite vulnerable to ruin by constant power load.

VVVF starting
Owe to development in
power electronics, any
kind of voltage/frequency
source can easily be ob-
tained. As shown before,
when starting induction
machine by direct
switching on, extremely
high current/power flows.
But applying suitable
power electronics con-
trolled source, more so-
a) Equivalent circuit b) V1 vs. E0 phisticated starting is
realised.
Fig. 8.7 Induction motor equivalent circuit & voltages Fig. 7a) shows an induc-
tion motor equivalent
circuit in simplified one-phase representation. The following equations are introduced by the circuit.
E (R2 ω s ) 2 + (M + L 2 )2 E0
2
R2 ω s
I1 = 0 T =3
ωM ( R 2 ω s )2 + L 2 2 ω 2
(R2 ω s )2 + L 2 2
Then, keeping E0/ω and ωs to be constant respectively, constant current and constant torque driving is
realised, where ωs is slip frequency in angular velocity.
 7

So, supplying linearly rising voltage with linearly rising frequency, starting with constant torque, i.e. ac-
celeration, and constant current is expected. This is the most simplified VVVF controlling. For more
sophisticated controlling, turning of V1 (terminal voltage) as shown in Fig. 8.7 b) is to be applied.
In the following example, TACS controlled voltage source is applied, where the voltage wave shape is
mathematically created in the TACS. For details, see the attached data file.
Actually such voltage source is realised by power electronics circuit, which will be explained in the fol-
lowing chapter (chapter 10).

a) Basic signal b) Created VVVF source basis

c) Velocity and torque d) Armature current

e) Power consumption by VVVF and direct

Fig. 8.8 Induction machine starting by VVVF source

Fig. 8.8 shows calculated results, where the next features exist. :
- Equations before shown correspond to steady state. Actually another transients may be introduced.
So, for smoother controlling, mitigated originally rising signal, shown in Fig. 8.8 a) is applied. In
 8

TACS, it is created by time-delaying function (s-block).

- The voltage source controlling TACS signal is created (Fig. 8.8 b) ), where both the amplitude and
the frequency are proportional to the signal value. Care should be taken that, if ω in (cos ωt) is not
constant (time-varying), the frequency of (cos ωt) is not ω. The time-integration of angular velocity is
to be applied to θ in (cos θ). See the attached file.
- The signal is specified to realise the similar starting characteristics as by the direct source connect-
ing start before shown. Quasi-constant torque excepting at the initial time interval and linearly rising
velocity characteristics are obtained. See Fig. 8.8 c)
- Armature currents between both start method are significantly different, as in Fig. 8.8 d)
- Most remarkable difference is in power consumption as shown in Fig. 8.8 e). As for the integration of
the apparent power, the value in VVVF is only approx. 10% of in the direct one. Also as for active
power, only approx. 25%.

Doubly fed machine

Originally wound rotor type induction machine was used for obtaining higher starting torque. Owing to
development in power electronics, such usage has been decreased and higher efficiency of cage-rotor
type has been applied as shown before, such as VVVF inverter starting. Today’s main usage of
wound-rotor type is application to doubly fed machine as variable speed Motor/Generator in pumping
station. Also the usage for flywheel generator is expected. In this section, basic feature/response of
doubly fed machine is surveyed.
Fig. 8.9 shows doubly fed machine’s
state of operation by phasor vector
diagram. Influence by resistance is
disregarded due to less dominance.
E1 and sE1 are the primary and the
secondary side induced voltages re-
spectively. Φ is the common flux. I0 is
the magnetizing current. “s” is the slip
value. X1 and X2 are leakage reac-
tance of the primary and secondary
sides respectively. Other variables
are thought to be self-explanatory.
The machine in the figure is supply-
ing lagging power factor of load
power.
V1 is usually fixed in power system.
Giving I2, the whole diagram can be
drawn, i.e. the machine is controlled
by I2. Also by V2, the machine is con-
trolled, but, by experiences, very
often instability is created, especially
for control with rapid changing.
Care should be taken that the dia-
gram is the primary side view. Actu-
ally the feeding to the secondary (ro-
tor) side is done via slip ring. There-
Fig. 8.9 Phasor vector diagram of doubly fed machine fore the actual secondary side feed-
----- Primary side view ---- ing is to be based on the rotor angle
position. For the purpose, the rotor
angle position is to be obtained.
For obtaining the rotor angle position, sensor-less method is thought to be a trendy solution due to less
maintenance necessity. In the machine, both primary and secondary side voltage and current informa-
tion is obtainable. From these the rotor position can be obtained, i.e. the angle difference between the
secondary side currents or voltages of what is calculated from the primary side (primary side view) and
the directly obtained ones at the secondary side corresponds to the rotor angle position. Calculation of I2
of the primary side is to be based on Fig. 8.9. For obtaining voltage/current vector component, Clarke’s
coordinate method can be suitably applied.
For doubly fed machine parameters, wound rotor type induction machine menu in INDSYNW.EXE is
applicable. When actual parameter values such as test values are obtained, those are, of cause, pref-
erable to be used calculations.
 9

Firstly, let’s try basic calculation of doubly fed machine.

Assuming application to a flywheel generator for power system dynamic stability enhancement, the fol-
lowing machine is taken up.
Type Wound rotor induction machine Frequency 50Hz
Rated voltage 24kV Rated power 100MW
Nominal speed 500r.p.m. + 20% Rated power factor 0.9
Rated load efficiency 0.97 Direct starting current 5p.u.
Inertia const. 10s
Inputting these values to INDSYNW.EXE, the following values are obtained. :
Common inductance (d/q axis) 0.088234H
Armature leakage inductance (d/q axis) 0.001617H (saturated)
Armature resistance 0.086179Ω
Rotor leakage inductance (d/q axis) 0.001617H (saturated)
Rotor resistance 0.127258Ω
Also PCH file data directly applicable to calculation data file is out put. When using the PCH file, occa-
sionally some tuning is to be introduced likewise as the previous induction machine case.
The first example is to calculate steady state, the data of which are shown in Data8-11.dat and
Data8-12.dat. In the former, the secondary side is fed by voltage source and in the latter, current source.
For both cases, the machine is supplying lagging load current. For such steady condition, both voltage
source and current source control are thought to be applicable. See Fig. 8.10.
The machine is supplying approx. 70% of the rated current (lagging) to the system and in the secondary

a) Terminal voltage & out-going current b) Secondary out-going current

c) Air gap torque & velocity

Fig. 8.10 Doubly fed machine steady state calculation

side, the slip frequency of current (0.05Hz) is supplied. Small plus value of air gap torque exists for each
case, i.e. generator mode. The mechanical torque is supplied from outside corresponding to the current
source supply.

In the next example, let’s introduce dynamic controlling. As shown in Fig. 8.9, specifying I2 vector, i.e.
secondary side current, the machine is controlled.
Note:
- For various controlling mode of the machine, details will be shown in the Appendix.
 10

If the machine output is specified as generator without changing the mechanical torque, depending on
the air gap torque and moment of inertia, the machine decelerates. By motor mode, it accelerates.
Based on the vector diagram in Fig. 8.9, the secondary side current vector can be calculated by the chart
shown in Fig. 8.11. For the details of the vector calculation equations, see the attached data file, where
vector calculation is represented in FORTRAN equations in the TACS part.
The left side flow shows
calculation of the second
side command current seen
from the primary side. The
chart can be perfectly
based on Fig. 8.9.
The right side flow is for
calculating the rotor position
angle. The angle can be
obtained from the calcu-
lated primary side view of
the secondary side drive
current and the actual sec-
ondary side drive current.
For both side vectors, ma-
chine parameters and/or
measured constants are
applicable. Then, without
rotor position sensor the
rotor position angle is ob-
tained which is to be ap-
Fig. 8.11 Calculation of secondary side commanding current plied to calculate the sec-
Based on the rotor position ondary side (rotor) drive
V1: Primary terminal voltage PP, QQ: Target output (Act./React) current.
X1: Primary leakage reactance X0: Magnetising reactance In the example case where
I1: Primary target current E1: Internally induced voltage the machine is in operation
I0: Magnetising current I2: Primary side view of command as a fly-wheel generator,
I10: Current primary current I20: Current secondary current the machine is primarily in
I21: Current calculated secondary current based on Primary operation by 110% of speed
under mostly no-load condi-
tion. Then, approx. 150% of
output (generator mode) power value is applied. The machine decelerates. It should be noted that the
magnitude of the current in the mechanical network, i.e. torque is in the order of MN-m. So the con-
necting resistance in the circuit is to be very low, otherwise abnormal velocity violence may be created.
Active, reactive and apparent powers of both primary and secondary sides are shown. It should be noted
that the secondary side power depends on the slip velocity, i.e. mostly in proportion to the slip values.
The secondary power source is TACS controlled current source. See Fig. 8.12 for details.
As shown in Fig. 8.12 e) and f), the secondary power source is to be in proportion to the slip value for
constant primary side output, high value of mechanical moment of inertia corresponds to lower secon-
dary side power source capacity due less velocity change from the synchronous velocity.
Note:
Lately, during editing this chapter, WINDSYN.EXE was released which seems to be a well developed
INDSYNW.EXE mainly regarding GUI (Graphic User Interface) for calculating machine parameters and
creating PCH files. Details will, hopefully, be shown elsewhere.

Attached data files:

- Data8-01.dat: Cage rotor deep bar induction machine, starting from stalled condition.
- Data8-02.dat: Ditto, but with minimum DC component in the starting current.
- Data8-03.dat: The same machine under approx. rated loading condition.
- Data8-04.dat: No load ------- Sudden mechanical torque application.
- Data8-05.dat: Sudden mechanical load connection via clutch.
- Data8-06.dat: Two machines, one of which is in full load operation and the other starting from stalled
condition.
- Data8-07.dat: The source voltage dropping case.
 11

- Data8-08.dat: Starting by VVVF source (TACS controlled) for constant torque/current, minimum
power loss.
- Data8-11.dat: Doubly fed machine, approx. no-load condition, voltage source controlled at the sec-
ondary side.
- Data8-12.dat: Ditto, but current source controlled at the secondary side.
- Data8-15.dat: Ditto, but the output is controlled by sensor less vector controlling principle.
- DFED.DA: INDSYNW.EXE input and output data for induction machine.
- DFED.PCH: Ditto PCH file applicable to case calculation data file.

a) Terminal voltage & outgoing current b) Secondary side current

c) Rotor position angle d) Air gap torque & velocity

e) Primary side output powers f) Secondary side output powers

Fig. 8.12 Doubly fed machine fly-wheel generator operation

 12

Appendix 8.1 Doubly fed machine vector diagram as fly-wheel generator operation

For a few cases of doubly fed machine operations, vector diagram are drawn as follows.

Same as Fig. 8.9

S > 0, lower speed than synchronous

one

Outputting active and slightly induc-

tively reactive powers.

S < 0, Over speed

Outputting active and capacitively

reactive powers

S > 0, Lower speed than synchro-

nous one

Inputting active and inductively reac-

tive powers
 1

9. Typical power electronics circuits in power systems

More and more power electronics technologies have been widely applied to power systems. In the
chapter, several typical and primitive circuits are surveyed regarding the functions.

9.1 HVDC converter/inverter

Fig. 9.1 a) and b) show basic HVDC converter and inverter respectively. In the figure only plus polarity
units are shown. In actual cases, also minus polarity ones, which are the mirror image like, exist so the

a) HVDC converter circuit b) HVDC inverter circuit

Fig. 9.1 HVDC converter/inverter circuit layout ---- Plus polarity only

ground (return) current is minimised.

In the figure, some supplemental elements, such as snubbers, capacitances around transformers, etc.
are not shown. For details, see the attached data file.
Firstly the performance of the converter is surveyed. Connecting 50Hz source together with the source
impedance to the left side, and load resistor to the right side, calculation is made. The key point is the
timing of the gate signals. In the data file, TACS is applied for the purpose. Typical results are shown in

a) Upper side phase current and voltage b) Lower side phase/transformer currents

c) 50Hz system side phase current and voltage c) 50Hz current Fourier spectrum
(Fig. 9.2 Converter circuit variables ------ continuing to the next page.)
 2

e) Upper side valve gate signals vs. voltage f) DC output voltage

Fig. 9.2 Converter circuit variables ----- continued from the previous page
Fig. 9.2.
As shown in the circuit diagram, valve switching side is constructed by two groups, the phase voltage
angle difference between two groups is 30 degree by means of Delta/Star transformer winding connec-
tions. By such arrangement, higher DC voltage is easily obtained, and at the same time, harmonics in
the AC side current is diminished. Fig. 9.2 a) --- d) show such effect. Each top or bottom side bridge
phase current is square formed one. But, combining both side currents, AC side current is well formed.
The effect is clearly shown in the Fourier spectrum (d), where low value of (12n + 1)’ order harmonics
exist. Filter’s capacity for eliminating such high frequency of harmonics can be rather low compared to
lower frequency of harmonics.
Valve gate signals are to be based on the phase-to-phase voltage’s phase angle, which is shown in Fig.
9.2 e). In the case, so called ignition delay angle (Alpha) is 18 degree. In f) output DC voltage is shown,
together with the case of ignition delay (Alpha) equal to 30 degree. Theoretically, by primitive estimation,
the output voltage is proportional to cosine of the delay angle (cosα). For further eliminating the ripple in
DC, higher value of DC reactor can be applied.
Next, let’s study externally communicated inverter circuit simulation. For higher capacity of systems such
as power utility ones, due to economical and efficiency point of view, externally communicated systems
are exclusively applied, where relatively cheep and high capacity of thyristers can be applied.
Connecting DC source to the right side of Fig. 9.2 b), where for easier understanding the directions of the

a) Upper side phase voltage and current b) Down side phase current

c) 60Hz AC side voltage and current d) Upper side valve gate signals vs. voltage
Fig. 9.3 Inverter variables ----- DC --- 60Hz AC
 3

thyristers are reversed, and 60Hz of AC source to the left side, the performance is analysed. Some re-
sults are shown in Fig. 9.3.
It should be noted that the gate signal timing (for phase “a”) is advanced from the zero point of the ap-
plied voltage (Va – Vc) as shown in d), resulting in normal externally communicating inverter perform-
ance. This is called advancing angle (Beta or β). Phase currents for both upper and down sides are
square wave formed ones like in converter, and combining these in AC side via the Delta – Wye con-
nected transformer, well formed AC current (60Hz) is produced. The current value is controlled by both
DC voltage and advancing angle.
Finally, connecting the right side of the converter to the right side of the inverter, excluding DC source

a) AC side voltage wave shape (50Hz/60Hz) b) AC side current wave shape (50Hz/60Hz)

c) DC voltage and current, (α = 45 deg.) d) DC voltage and current, (α = 35 deg.)

Fig. 9.4 HVDC 50Hz – DC – 60Hz transmission system variables

and DC load resistor, single pole HVDC transmission system, transmitting power from 50Hz AC to 60Hz
AC via DC transmission, is set up. The calculation results as for starting up of the system are shown in
Fig. 9.4 Lower alpha corresponds to higher DC voltage and transmission power as shown in c) and d). In
actual systems, high accuracy of gate ignition control seems to be most important.

9.2 SVC (Static Var Compensator/ Thyrister Controlled Inductor)

Fig. 9.5 Three-phase SVC circuit
As most-generally applied SVC, controlled inductor type is
taken up. The system itself controls only inductively reactive
power. For controlling also capacitively reactive power, ca-
pacitor bank is to be connected in parallel.
Fig. 9.5 shows basic three-phase SVC circuit, where some
additional elements, such as snubbers, stray capacitances,
etc. are not shown. For the continuity of the circuit, as the
reactor current is not continuous, thyrister controlled induc-
tors are installed between phases (Delta connection).
Detailed circuit constants are shown in the attached data
files. By controlling the current flowing time-interval by thy-
rister in each cycle, the equivalent inductively reactive power
is controlled. Narrow current window corresponds to lower
reactive power. The current is no more sinusoidal.
Here, 6.6kV, 3000kVar (at maximum) three-phase SVC is
analysed.
 4

a) α = 30 degree b) α = 30 degree, phase current

c) α = 45 degree, phase current d) α = 55 degree, phase current

e) Reactive power vs. Alpha f) Fourier spectrum of current in b)

Fig. 9.6 Thyrister controlled inductor performance

Some calculated results are shown in Fig. 9.6. SVC controlling is based on α (Alpha)---- ignition delay
angle, by which the current flowing window is controlled, together with the crest value.
a) Phase to phase voltage and inductor current connected in between by α = 30 degree. The current is
no more sinusoidal.
b) Phase current and within delta current at the top of the delta. The phase current wave shape is well
formed. Fourier spectrum is shown in f).
c) Ditto but α = 45 degree.
d) Ditto but α = 55 degree
e) Reactive power calculated for α = 5, 30, 45, 55 degree. The calculation basis is 3-phase balanced
sinusoidal wave shape, so the absolute values may be questionable. For the correct values, calcu-
lations based on the fundamental component of the Fourier spectrum are to be performed.
f) Fourier spectrum of the phase current in a)
 5

9.3 PWM inverter, 3-phase, triangular carrier wave principle

The basic principle of PWM inverter is similar to DC step-down chopper, where constant frequency of
pulses with constant crest value and width proportional to the target voltage (duty ratio) produces current
approximately equal to one by the target value of DC voltage. By relatively slower change of pulse width,
current change is similar to one by the corresponding voltage change. As the most primitive method to
obtain appropriate pulse width, principle by triangular carrier wave shape compared to the target (ref-
erence) AC wave shape is often applied.
The principle circuit diagram is shown in
Fig. 9.7. Some additional elements such
as snubbers, stray capacitances, etc. are
not shown in the figure. For details, refer
the attached data files. When bi-polar
switching elements are applied, the
switching elements can be as shown in
the figure. In case mono-polar switching
elements such as GTOs, diodes are con-
nected in parallel to the switching ele-
ments. Please refer some power
electronics text books for details. In EMTP,
Fig. 9.7 3-phase PWM inverter circuit No. 13 switching element is an ideal
bi-polar switch, so circuit diagram as
shown in the figure is applicable.
The control principle in Fig. 9.8, where
tri-angular wave shape is compared to the
reference voltage wave shape, can pro-
duce appropriate pulse width (duty ratio)
corresponding to the phase-to-phase
voltage.
Care should be taken that, in Fig. 9.7, ap-
propriate phase-to-phase voltage to the
load circuit is produced, but the voltage at
Fig. 9.8 Tri-angular & reference waves the neutral point (at NN) fluctuates.
Therefore, the neutral can never be solidly
earthed. For solidly earthed neutral load circuit, another circuit diagram is to be applied.

a) Control signals in TACS b) Phase A to phase B voltage c) Fourier spectrum of b)

d) Current in phase A branch e) Fourier spectrum of d)

Fig. 9.9 Some calculated results of PWM inverter in Fig. 9.7

Some calculated results are shown in Fig. 9.9. a) shows control signals in TACS by which gate signals to
switch elements in the inverter are created. b) shows actual applied voltage wave shape to phase A to B.
At approx. 40ms, the control signal VA0 – VB0 in a) is maximum. At that timing in b), pulse width is
 6

maximum, i.e. the pulse width is well controlled, proportional to the crest value of the voltage. c) shows
Fourier spectrum of the voltage in b), where harmonics of the carrier wave frequency and its integral
numbers are significant. As inductively reactive components are involved in the load circuit, harmonics in
the load current is not significant as shown in d) and e).

As an application of PWM inverter, a

Fig. 9.10 Self-communicating static var compensator
a) System side voltage and current ----- phase A
b) System side 3 phase currents
Fig. 9.11 System side voltage and current
under capacitively reactive power operation
wave frequency is necessary. Try and error method seems to be suitable for survey the matter.
- The trapped voltage in the capacitor is controlled by phase angles between Vcont (inside reference
voltage) and the system voltage, similarly to active power transmission control via an inductor.
self-communicated type static var
compensator is shown in Fig. 9.10
which is the most simplified circuit dia-
gram. A three-phase PWM inverter is
connected to a power system via in-
ductors. DC source can be a capacitor
instead of voltage source. Any side of
inverter or system is to be floating by
this inverter circuit as shown before. So,
in the case, the system side is
high-ohmic resistor earthed transformer
as shown in Fig. 9.10. Therefore, the
transformer neutral voltage is much
fluctuates.
Some calculated results are shown in
Fig. 9.11. Depending charged voltage in
the capacitor or target control voltage in
the controller (i.e. TACS in the case),
any of capacitively or inductively reac-
tive power mode is applicable. For
higher inverter side voltage than the
system side, capacitively reactive mode
is represented as shown in Fig. 9.11. In
a), the leading current value is approx.
500A (crest), i.e. approx. 2MVA of ca-
pacitor mode operation.
As for details of the circuit parameters,
see the attached data file.
Note:
- Miscellaneous elements such as
stray capacitances, snubbers, etc.
are excluded in the case. For de-
tailed practical cases, such are to
be introduced.
- In actual cases, especially for
higher capacitance to earth in-
volved cases, neutral floating sys-
tem may not be appropriate.
- The initialisation in the calculation is
complicated. In the calculation, the
initialisation is not optimised.
- Relatively high capacitance value is
necessary for the DC source ca-
pacitor. Also, relatively high carrier

9.4 Cycloconverter
For relatively low frequency of power source such as 10 --- 20 Hz, cycloconverters have been widely
applied, the special feature of which is that high power and relatively low price thyrister is applicable as
the switching valve element, and the efficiency is high due to direct frequency converting.
In Fig. 9.12 one-phase of cycloconverter circuit is shown, three sets of which compose a three-phase
cycloconverter. In a three-phase cycloconverter, minimum 36 arms of switching elements are involved
 7

such as in the attached

data file.
Each phase consists of
plus and minus side
blocks and one block is a
three-phase thyrister rec-
tifier bridge such as in Fig.
9.1 (converter). In thyris-
ter converter circuit, as
shown before, the out-put
DC voltage is propor-
tional to cosine α, where
α is ignition delay angle,
therefore by slow chang-
ing of α produces slow
changing DC voltage.
Therefore, in the upper
side of the converter
bridge in Fig. 9.12 can
produce positive polarity
of half wave, and lower
side, negative polarity of
Fig. 9.12 One-phase of cycloconverter circuit one. Thus the circuit can
produce relatively low
frequency of alternating
current. Turning over from one polarity to the other is to be smooth. In the case, fortunately automatic
smooth turning over is obtained without any special means as shown later (Fig. 9.13c).
Some calculated results are shown as follows. :

a) Across bridge voltages b) Fourier spectrum of the voltage

c) Through bridge & load currents d) Fourier spectrum of the load current

Fig. 9.13 Cycloconverter variables (continuing)

 8

e) Voltage and current of load f) Ignition delay angle calculation basis

Fig. 9.13 Cycloconverter variables (continued)

f) shows the system (60 Hz) phase to phase voltage based saw teeth waves (three phase) and cosine of
the target voltage basis (15 Hz), by which the ignition delay angles (alpha’s) are calculated in TACS.
a) shows across-bridge voltages of both polarity converter bridges. Each bridge produces one polarity of
voltage but due to the connection each other, both polarity of voltages are induced on the terminals.
b) shows the Fourier spectrum of the voltage, where relatively high order of harmonics are involved. Six
times of switching per cycle are performed in the converter bridge and the out-put frequency is one forth
of the system frequency. Therefore the number of harmonic orders are around 6 X 4 = 24.
c) shows both bridges’ currents and the load circuit one. Around the load current zero time interval, cir-
culating current through both bridges are observed, producing continuity of the load current at the zero.
d) shows the Fourier spectrum of the load current, which involves less harmonics, i.e. little distortion of
the wave shape.
e) shows the load voltage and the current wave shapes. The instantaneous voltage in the power system
including, especially, around the current zero time interval, are high. This corresponds to very low power
factor of load current in the power system. This is typical demerit in cyclocoverter. Details will be shown
in the next chapter regarding rotating machine driving application.

9.5 Current-regulated inverter ------ Hysteresis comparator

Similar inverter to one in Fig. 9.7 is applicable to current-regulated electric source, which will be applied
in the next chapter as a current source for a doubly fed machine. As shown in the previous chapter,
doubly fed machine requires quasi-current source for quick and stable controlling.

a) Current regulated inverter circuit b) Current regulating principle

Fig. 9.14 Current-regulated inverter ------ Hysteresis comparator

The basic and most primitive circuit is shown in Fig. 9.14 a), where, for general applications, the neutral
of both source and load are solidly earthed. Therefore, three independent phase controlling is possible. If
source impedances, stray capacitances, etc. are introduced, for eliminating switching over-voltages,
suitable snubber is to be attached. For non-bipolar switching elements, diodes are to be connected in
 9

parallel to the switching elements. Current regulating principle is shown in Fig. 9.14 b). The actual cur-
rent shows zigzag wave shape within the upper and lower limit band, the centre of which is the target
reference current wave shape. Care should be taken that the switching frequency of the switching ele-
ment is higher by narrower limit band and higher DC voltage. The minimum DC source voltage in Fig.
9.14 a) depends on the load impedance, the highest output current, internally induced voltage if any and
the frequency. The gate signals for the switching elements can be composed in TACS as shown in the
data file. See the attached data file. Dr./Prof. Ned Mohan (University of Minnesota), in the text book for
ATP-Exercise, introduced an excellent algorism for the purpose, the principle of which is introduced also
in the data file.
Some calculation results are shown below, where minimum possible DC voltage is applied. :

a) Command & actual currents b) Switch control signal status

c) Phase voltage on the load d) Phase voltage Fourier spectrum

e) Output currents (3-phase) f) The current Fourier spectrum

Fig. 9.15 3-phase hysteresis comparator output variables

As shown in a) and b), the current is well regulated within the tolerance band according to the hysteresis
comparator principle. The voltage wave shape on the load circuit involves a lot of harmonics as shown in
c) and d). But the current wave shape involves quite less harmonics, i.e. well regulated beautiful wave
shape. There are fairly long time intervals with non-switching, i.e. constant DC voltage application. That
shows the DC voltage value is critical (minimum possible) for the circuit condition.
 10

Attached data files for this chapter

- Data9-01.dat : HVDC transmission converter circuit, 50Hz, 275kV – DC, 250kV, Alpha = 18 degree
- Data9-02.dat : HVDC transmission inverter circuit, DC, 250kV – 60Hz, 275kV, Beta = 120 degree
- Data9-03.dat : HVDC transmission circuit, 50Hz, 275kV – DC +250/-0 kV – 60Hz, 275kV, Alpha = 45
degree, Beta = 120 degree, approx. 100MVA transmission
- Data9-04.dat : Ditto, Alpha = 35 degree, Beta = 120 degree, approx. 150MVA transmission
- Data9-11.dat : 3-phase thyrister controlled reactor (SVC), 6.6kV, 1000kVA, Alpha = 30 degree
- Data9-12.dat : Ditto, but 500kVA, Alpha = 45 degree
- Data9-13.dat : Ditto, but 200kVA, Alpha = 55 degree
- Data9-14.dat : Ditto, but 3000kVA (Rated), Alpha = 5 dgree
- Data9-21.dat : 3-phase PWM inverter, basic/most simplified circuit
- Data9-22.dat : Ditto, but with DC source impedance elements involved
- Data9-23.dat : Ditto, but snubbers are connected
- Data9-24.dat : Ditto, but VVVF starting wave creating
- Data9-25.dat : 3-phase PWM inverter applied on SVG
- Data9-31.dat : 3-phase cyclo-converter circuit, creating 15 Hz of voltage from 60 Hz source
- Data9-41.dat : 3-phase current-regulated inverter circuit ---- hysteresis comparator
 1

10. Machine drive applications

10.1 Small scale system composed of synchronous generator(s) and induction motors
In power systems significantly influenced by rotating machine dynamics, time domain dynamics analysis
is of great concern. Today, typical small scale power systems such as IPP’s ones involve synchronous
generators as the supply and induction motors as the significant part of the load. In this sub-chapter,
such system is taken up.

a) Basic small size system layout b) Induction machine VVVF starting

c) Detail of the VVVF starting circuit layout

Fig. 10.1 Small size system layout with SM and IMs

A simplified such system is shown in Fig. 10.1, where the system involves a synchronous generator and
two induction motors.

Initialisation
Firstly, the initialisation technique in ATP-EMTP for such system is to be established. In Fig. 10.1 a) the
basic simplified system layout is shown where power to two induction machines are supplied by a syn-
chronous generator. Assuming one induction motor is in full loading and the other is in very light loading
conditions, the following mode of initialisation is applied as in the attached data file (Dat10-01.dat). :
- As all universal machines are to be initialised in uniform initialisation mode, slip conditions are given
to the two machines.
- Voltage amplitude and phase angle are given to the synchronous generator terminal.
- No Fix Source nor Cao Load Flow option is specified, as these are not suitably applicable to uni-
versal machine by the author’s experiences.
- In Fig. 10.1 a), AVR is not in service and the switch for IM2 is permanently closed.
Some calculation results are shown in Fig. 10.2, where, for convenient comparison purpose, 2P and 4P
machines’ variables are shown in common graphs in relevant respective scale sizes. In a) each ma-
chine’s velocity is a little by little increasing during the transient calculating time interval. In b) the torques
of two machines is mostly steady especially after 0.2s. A little bit of miss matching in the initialisation
seems to be introduced by the calculation. Especially by the initial stage of the torques (in Fig. 10.2 b))
such phenomenon is expected. Nevertheless, the initialisation method seems to be suitably applicable to
transient calculations, especially, of time interval of up to several seconds.

Induction motor starting

The next trial is the second motor’s (IM2 in Fig. 10.1) starting from the stalled condition. As initialisation,
in order to represent “stalled condition” and to satisfy “uniform initialisation mode” condition, the starting
switch, which is initially open circuited, is shunted by very high ohmic resistors, i.e. very low voltage is
 2

a) Rotating velocities b) Air gap torques

Fig. 10.2 Rotating velocities and air gap torques

One synchronous generator (2P) & two induction motors (4P)

a) Bus voltage at BUS0 b) Generator & motor velocities

c) Generator & motor torques d) IM1 (MOT2) current

Fig. 10.3 One motor is starting during the other is in full load operation

applied to the motor, and 100% of initial slip value is given to the motor. Then the starting switch is closed.
For details see the attached data file (Dat10-02.dat).
Calculated results are shown in Fig. 10.3. Shortly speaking the results show typical “voltage collapse.” In
a) the bus voltage is being collapsed gradually during starting of MOT2. By the starting current of MOT2,
the generator’s terminal voltage drops, so, for keeping MOT1’s torque constant, MOT1’s current in-
creases as shown in d). The bus voltage furthermore drops. MOT1’s velocity can never been kept as
shown in b), while acceleration of MOT2 is very low. By the voltage drop, the generator supplies less
power, i.e. less air gap torque as shown in c), the generator accelerate gradually as in b) due to the
constant mechanical input torque. As the result, MOT2 can never start appropriately in the system.
 3

Application of AVR
The most important requirement in the system above is to keep the voltage. AVR is the first priority for
the purpose. So, let us introduce AVR to the generator. In chapter 7 (See Fig. 7.12) AVR was discussed.
In this chapter, the same AVR (but without PSS) is introduced. Chapter 7 relates to very high capacity of
generators, but for simplification, the same one is applied also to relatively low capacity of generator in
this chapter. For details, see the attached data file (Dat10-03.dat).

a) Generator terminal voltage b) Generator field exiting voltage – AVR output

c) Generator field exiting current d) Generator/Induction motor velocities

e) Generator/Induction motor torques. f) Induction motor Act/React/App powers

Fig. 10.4 Induction motor starting in a system supplied by an AVR furnished generator

Calculated results are summarized in Fig. 10.4. a) shows generator terminal voltage, where, though
voltage drop of short time interval appears at the initial time, the voltage is kept approx. constant value.
The generator exiting voltage, which is the output of AVR shows (in b)) the initial steep enhancement
and the following approx. constant value of 250% of the original one during the motor starting time in-
terval. After the start has been established, the value comes back to approx. the original value. The ex-
iting current (in c)) shows the similar variation.
d) shows the motor (MOT 2) started normally. But the system frequency, i.e. the synchronous genera-
tor’s velocity, lowered a little. The generator air gap torque, shown in e), due to the enhancement of the
field exiting voltage, enhanced a lot during the starting, whereas the mechanical input torque is kept
 4

constant due to non-governor controlling. Therefore, the generator is decelerated.

f) shows that induction motor consumes extremely high inductively reactive power during starting.

Inverter controlled VVVF starting

As shown in Fig. 10.4 f), cage-rotor induction motor’s starting consumes extremely high inductively re-
active power. While, as shown in chapter 8, VVVF starting with linearly rising voltage and frequency
provides highly efficient starting. For such purpose, power electronics technology, i.e. inverter, is suitably
applicable. The next trial is applying such power electronics technology to the case. Fig. 10.1 b) and c)
show the circuit layout applied. In chapter 9, PWM inverter is introduced, where practically any kind of
AC voltage wave can be produced corresponding to the reference voltage signal wave shape. So, in-
troducing linearly rising amplitude and frequency of wave shape as the reference wave, suitable VVVF
source is realised in Fig. 10.1.
Care should be taken that PWM inverter shown in Fig. 10.1 (also in Fig. 9.7) produces relevant correct
voltage for phase-to-phase, but not for phase-to-earth, i.e. zero sequence voltage component exists. On
the other hand, induction machine armature coil is to be solidly earthed for automatic initialisation due to
the restriction in ATP-EMTP. So, un-due current of zero sequence component may flow in the armature
coil, though the current introduces little effect on the rotation of the machine. Nevertheless, the current
may produce undue joule loss. To exclude such zero sequence current component, any of the following
means can be applied. :
- Applying solidly-earthed-neutral type inverter.
- Inserting star-delta connected transformer for infinitive zero sequence impedance in the source side.
- Coupled reactor with very high zero sequence impedance inserted.
In Fig. 10.1, the third method seems to be most simple, so this method is applied, though this is not re-
alistic. Fig. 10.5 shows calculation results without such consideration. Though the rotation phenomenon
seems to be normal, typical un-due armature current with high zero sequence components is resulted.

a) Velocity change b) Motor armature current

Fig. 10.5 Variables in earthed neutral system in both motor and system sides

a) Reference voltage wave --- initial part b) Reference voltage & tri-angler wave
in TACS in TACS
Fig. 10.6 ------ continue to the next page -----

With significantly high value of zero sequence reactance in the reactor between the source and the rec-
tifier bridge in Fig. 10.1, and with, also, high impedance for the capacitor neutral earthing (at CAPN),
 5

-------- continued from the previous page -----------

c) Motor terminal phase-to-phase voltage d) Same as the left but enlarged time resolution

e) Generator & motor velocities f) Generator & motor torques

g) Direct & VVVF starting currents h) Active / Reactive / Apparent powers

Fig. 10.6 Comparison of VVVF starting with direct starting

some calculation results are shown in Fig. 10.6. For details of the circuit parameters, compare the at-
tached data files (Dat10-04.dat and Dat10-05.dat. Dat10-06.dat is only for fine time resolution output.).
The followings seem to be noted for each figure. :
a) 3-phase reference voltage wave shape is shown for the first 1 second, the amplitude and frequency
of which are linearly rising to the certain specified values.
b) Tri-angular carrier and 3-phase reference voltage wave shapes in TACS are shown for the inter-
mediate time. By the comparison of the waves the gate signals to the inverter valves are produced
in TACS for producing correct phase-to-phase voltage to the motor. For details, see sub-chapter
9.3.
c) Motor terminal phase-to-phase PWM inverter output voltage is shown for the first 2 second.
d) Same as c), but in very fine time resolution representation for the intermediate time interval.
e) Generator and motor velocity changes by VVVF starting are shown in comparison with direct start-
ing ones. By similar starting performances of both cases, VVVF brings far less influence to the
system, i.e. less descending in synchronous machine velocity/frequency.
 6

f) Time-integration of the starting motor’s torque, i.e. the area below the torque-vs.-time curve is to be
equal for both cases. Nevertheless, generator’s torque curves shown great difference between two.
Significant electrical loss is to be produced, most provably by the winding’s joule loss.
g) Instead of the mostly similar starting characteristics by both, the starting motor currents show great
difference each other. This is the most typical feature of VVVF starting of induction machine, i.e.
highly efficient starting.
h) Active, inductively reactive and apparent powers during starting by both direct and VVVF startings
are compared in the figure. (For the output of VVVF starting, due to non-symmetrical three-phase
variables creating lot of fluctuations, the outputs are smoothed in TACS.) Great energy saving in
VVVF, especially for starting is significant. Also little reactive power is consumed. Within the inverter
circuit, reactive power can be produced.
Fig. 10.7 shows generator’s field exiting
voltages by both direct and VVVF starting,
both are controlled by AVR. By VVVF start-
ing, high response of AVR seems to be al-
most un-necessary.

VVVF controlled cage-rotor induction motor

seems to be applicable for various variable
speed controlled usage.

Attached data files for the sub-chapter:

- Dat10-01.dat : Initialisation of a system
composed of one synchronous genera-
Fig. 10.7 Field exiting voltage comparison tor and two cage-rotor induction motors
- Dat10-02.dat : Ditto system, but one of
the motor is directly starting, resulting in
voltage collapse
- Dat10-03.dat : Ditto system but the generator is furnished with highly sensitive AVR, resulting in
successful starting
- Dat10-04.dat : Ditto system but the starting motor is driven by VVVF inverter source, the neutral
potential of which is restricted, resulting in un-due zero-sequence motor current.
- Dat10-05.dat : Ditto system but VVVF inverter source side is in neutral floating condition, inserting
high zero-sequence reactance of reactor between the system and the converter-inverter
- Dat10-06.dat : Ditto, but only for very fine time resolution of output usage
 7

10.2 Cyclo-converter driven synchronous machine

Some rolling machines in iron industry are driven by synchronous motors, the power sources of which up
to today are cyclo-converters. Therefore, as the next example, cyclo-converter driven synchronous
machine is taken up. In addition, comparison with inverter driven system will be shown.

Fig. 10.8 Cyclo-cnverter driven synchronous motor circuit layout

Fig. 10.8 shown circuit layout applied. The followings are to be noted. :
- In sub-chapter 9.4, detail of one-phase cyclo-converter is explained. Three of the same converter
systems are applied for driving 3-phase synchronous machine, the ratings of which are 3.3kV, 15Hz,
1MVA, 6P, etc.
- Transformer secondary side (converter valve side) is to be non-solidly earthed condition in each
phase. Therefore, 2 sets of high-ohmic resistor earthed star windings are applied for each phase as
shown in the figure. The primary side could be a common one set of 3-phase winding. In the case,
for simplification, three sets of star connected windings are applied for 3-phase.
- 3-phase reference voltages are to be given to 3-phase converter controlling (in TACS).
- For initialisation very fine tuning is required, especially between the reference voltage and the initial
machine terminal voltage, regarding the amplitude and phase angle.
The first example is to apply sudden mechanical load to the rotating motor in almost no-load condition.
The initialisation and transient calculation process applied is (as the most simplified one):
- Initially the motor is disconnected from the cyclo-converter.
- Automatic initialisation is highly recommended for synchronous machine. The motor is rotating in
very lightly loaded generator mode, i.e. giving the terminal voltage with the relevant frequency, and
high-ohmic resister is connected to the terminal of the machine for the purpose of easy and proper
initialisation.
- As the next step, the machine is connecter to the cyclo-converter source for motor operation.
- Then afterwards, sudden mechanical load is applied such like in rolling machine by means of TACS.
For details, see the attached data file (Dat10-12.dat).

Some calculation results are shown in Fig. 10.9.

a) As details are shown in chapter 9, cyclo-converter output voltage involves certain amount of
high-frequency components.
b) Synchronous motor current, due to reactance components in the circuit, does not involve significant
 8

a) Cyclo-converter output voltage b) Synchronous motor current

c) Motor current Fourier spectrum d) Mechanical & air-gap (EL) torques

e) Motor current (total time range) f) Rotor position and velocity

g) Active/Reactive/Apparent powers h) Cyclo-coverter output currents

Fig. 10.9 Cyclo-converter driven synchronous motor ----- continuing to the next page

amount of high-frequency component. The current amplitude changes a lot depending on the load
condition.
c) Fourier spectrum of the current clarifies less high-frequency component.
 9

-------- continued from the previous page ------

i) Current & voltage --- highly loaded j) Current & voltage --- load ejecting

Fig. 10.9 Cyclo-converter driven synchronous motor

d) Suddenly applied mechanical torque (TACS controlled) and calculated air gap torque are shown.
Due to sudden application and ejection of the torque, significant swing of the air gap torque is pro-
duced.
e) By the swing, the motor current (in total time range) changes a lot.
f) The swing is observed in, also, rotor position angle and velocity.
g) As shown in chapter 9, cyclo-converter driven system consumes a lot of reactive power. In many
cases, compensation facilities (capacitor bank) are required.
h) Positive and negative polarity converter bridge work well at turning over.
i) At highly loaded instant, the power factor seems to be high. Fig. g) clarifies this.
j) At the load eject instant, the current drastically changes, especially, in phase angle. Turning over
between the positive and negative bridges seems to be suitable from the current wave shape.

In the next example, quick starting of cyclo-converter driven synchronous motor is taken up.
In chapter 6 --- Appendix 6.2, synchronous machine starting as induction machine is demonstrated,
where, to represent short-circuited field coil, very low voltage is generated while initialisation. Now, in this
case, properly exited synchronous machine is to be driven by cyclo-converter. Then, the following
initialisation process is to be applied. :
- The machine’s initial velocity is to be as low as possible within restriction of ATP-EMTP synchronous
machine initialisation menu. In this case, 0.5 Hz is applied.
- The motor-internally generation voltage is to be proportional to the velocity, i.e. 0.5 / 15 = 0.033 times
of the rated voltage where the rated frequency of the motor is 15Hz.
- The applied voltage is to correspond to the machine induced voltage. So, cyclo-converter output
voltage is to be linearly rising frequency and amplitude one, corresponding to linearly rising velocity.
For details of the input data file, see attached data file (Dat10-13.dat)

Some calculation results are shown in Fig. 10.10.

a) The command (reference) velocity, which is the base of the frequency and the voltage amplitude,
and the resultant calculated motor velocity (represented in electrical angular velocity) are shown.
Certain mitigation to the velocity change, for smooth mechanical response, is applied applying
s-block function in TACS. See the attached data file (Dat10-13.dat). A little bit of un-stability in the
motor velocity, especially in higher velocity region, is observed.
b) 3-phase reference voltage wave shapes. As shown in chapter 9, cyclo-converter output voltages
correspond to these wave shapes. Linearly rising amplitude and frequency of waves are repre-
sented.
c) Cyclo-converter created applied voltage and motor current of 1-phase is shown for total time range.
The current amplitude is not constant.
d) Detail of the initial part of figure c) is shown, where, mainly reactive current flows.
e) Detail of figure c) when higher torque outputting. The power factor seems to be higher, at least
around the motor part. For the total driving system circuit, detail will be shown later.
f) Ditto, but for after started and rotating by no-load. The power factor seems to be low and the current
amplitude, also, is low.
g) The motor air gap torque is shown in contrasted with the velocity. Un-stability is clearly shown, most
probably due to mechanical and/or electrical parameters. For more smooth response, farther more
 10

a) Command (reference) & resultant velocities b) Reference voltage wave shapes

c) Output voltage & motor current d) Initial part of c)

e) High torque output time interval of c) f) Steadily rotating time of c)

g) Torque & velocity h) Active/reactive/apparent power & p-factor

Fig. 10.10 Quick starting of cyclo-converter driven synchronous motor

stability study seems to be necessary. Powerful feed back control system may be effective.
h) Active power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor measured at the power frequency
inputting point are shown. At t = 0.9s, when the motor torque is highest, the power factor is still not
so high, i.e. around 0.3p.u. For such reason, compensation facilities (capacitor bank) are installed
by some cyclo-converter systems.
 11

Comparison with inverter driven system will be shown in the following cases.
Firstly, “sudden mechanical load application” is introduced to inverter driven system. In the inverter
driven system, mostly equal to one in the previous sub-chapter is applied, i.e. the inverter circuit layout in
Fig. 10.1 c) is applied. As for the detail, see attached data file (Dat10-15.dat). The reference voltage to
control inverter output is identical to one in the cyclo-converter.

a) Inverter output voltage & current b) Mechanical & air gap torques

c) Rotor position angle & velocity changes d) Active/reactive/apparent powers

Fig. 10.11 Comparison of inverter with cycle-converter

Typical comparisons between two are shown in Fig. 10.11.

a) Inverter output voltage and motor current for mainly heavy mechanical loading time interval is
shown. The power factor seems to be very high. By no-loading time interval (not shown), on the
other hand, the power factor at the motor input is very low.
b) By sudden mechanical load torque, air gap torques by both case are compared. Both are mostly
identical, i.e. the responses are almost equal by both source circuits.
c) Small difference is observed as for the rotor position angle between by two sources. Though the
reference voltage wave is identical each other, small difference may be introduced between two
created voltage wave shapes. The cause might be the finite time step length of controlling.
d) Great difference is shown in the power frequency source supplying inductively reactive power be-
tween two source circuits. By inverter, power frequency side reactive power is negligibly small. As
written in a), for no mechanical load time interval (especially after 1.5s) the motor consumes some
reactive power, nevertheless, the power frequency side reactive power is negligible. Inverter itself
supplies reactive power from the capacitor in the circuit.
Note:
Calculated power outputs by inverter are smoothed by s-block function in TACS. As the calculation
principle is based on balanced three-phase variables, such mitigation is to be applied for variables
with high frequency components.

In the next, quick starting by inverter driven is taken up. The reference velocity/voltage condition to
control the inverter is identical to cyclo-converter case. Great care should be taken that, by inverter,
especially for very low velocity of condition, the total system tends to be unstable. The phenomenon is
observed in Fig. 10.12 d). The cause of the un-stable seems to be mechanical and / or electric circuit
condition of the system. Detail has not been clarified by the author. In the following exercise, the resis-
tance value in the reactor between the inverter and the motor is doubled compared to the case by
cyclo-converter. For detail, see attached data file (Dat10-15.dat). Otherwise, the motor performs
un-stableness. The reader should try the case by “Dat10-1X.dat”, where the resistance value is equal to
 12

the original one.

Some calculation results (with the increased resistance) are shown in Fig. 10.12:

a) Rotor velocity in El. angle b) Motor currents by both kind of source

c) Inverter voltage and motor current d) Air gap torques by both kind of source

e) Active/reactive/apparent power f) Power factors

Fig. 10.12 Inverter driven synchronous motor ---- quick starting

a) Mostly identical starting characteristics are obtained by both (inverter and cyclo-converter) source
driven systems, though in inverter, the connection reactor’s resistance value is doubled.
b) Motor input currents are compared between both cases. By identical reference voltage conditions
by both, the actual and effective output voltage may more or less differ each other, as details of the
voltage wave shapes, including high frequency components, are different by each other.
c) When the maximum torque is created, the motor current is of very high power factor such like in
cyclo-converter driven case. After establishing the velocity (not shown), however, the motor current
power factor is low. Still the power factor of the power from the power frequency source system is
high as shown later.
d) From the air gap torque characteristics, the following is clear.
Inverter driven tends to be unstable in very low velocity region but stable in higher velocity region.
Cyclo-converter driven tends to be opposite, i.e. stable in low velocity and un-stable in higher ve-
locity. As the countermeasure for mitigation, powerful feed back system could be applied.
e) Active, (inductively) reactive and apparent powers are compared between both systems. Inverter
system’s high power factor feature is remarkable.
f) In power factor graph, also, the tendency is clearly shown. By inverter, power frequency source side
 13

power factor is always approx. 100%. While, by cyclo-converter, the power factor is only more or
less than 20%. By inverter, though the motor current power factor is not always high, the power fre-
quency side one can always be high. This means inverter can provide reactive power by itself. On
the other hand, by cyclo-converter, even though the load current power factor is high, power fre-
quency side power factor can never be high enough due to the frequency converting principle.

As for cyclo-converter system with relatively low const, low power factor in consuming power, necessity
of capacitor bank, limitation in output frequency, and as for inverter system with higher cost, high power
factor, non-necessity of compensation, possibly higher output frequency, not only qualitative but also
quantitative comparison could be exercised by ATP-EMTP simulation, such as shown above.

Data files attached:

- Dat10-11.dat: Cyclo-converter driven synchronous motor is initialised. Firstly it is in service as a
no-load generator, and then cyclo-converter source is connected so as to motor operation.
- Dat10-12.dat: Ditto, but sudden mechanical torque is applied. The torque is suddenly dropped a little
later time.
- Dat10-13.dat: The synchronous motor very quickly starts from stalled condition by VVVF output of
the cyclo-converter.
- Dat10-15.dat: The same synchronous machine operating condition as Dat10-12.dat case, but in-
stead of cyclo-converter, diode-bridge rectifier and PWM inverter are applied. The reference voltage
to control the inverter is identical to in Dat10-12.dat case.
- Dat10-16.dat: The machine’s quick start, same condition as in Dat10-13.dat, but via PWM inverter.
In the case, for the mitigation of violence in the low velocity region, synchronous motor side resis-
tance in the reactor is doubled compared to Dat10-13.dat case.
- Dat10-1x.dat: Ditto, but the resistance is in the original value. Some instability occurs in the low ve-
locity region.
 14

10.3 Fly-wheel generator ---- Doubly fed machine application for transient stability enhancement
As shown in chapter 8 (in the final part), doubly fed machine can produce, though for relatively short time
interval, both active and reactive powers. In chapter 7 transient stability phenomena is explained with
relation to energy balance in the relevant power system. From these combined, applying doubly fed
machine as fly-wheel generator to power system, transient stability enhancement effect is expected.
In Fig. 10.13 shows power system layout for analysing such effect in single line diagram.

Fig. 10.13 Single line diagram of fly-wheel generator equipped one generator vs. infinitive
bus system for analising transient stability enhancement

In the figure, one generator vs. infinitive bus power system is identical with one in chapter 7 (Fig. 7.1).
The doubly fed machine as a fly-wheel generator is identical with one in chapter 8. The current regulated
inverter to energise the doubly fed machine rotor is identical with one in chapter 9.
In the figure, infinitive DC voltage source is applied for the power source of the current regulated inverter.
In actual cases, the DC source energy is to be supplied from the main power system. So, the actual ef-
fect of the fly-wheel generator may be increased/decreased depending on the velocity of the doubly fed
machine. Please refer Fig. 8.9 and Appendix 8.1 in chapter 8. It should be noted that the DC supplying
system for the inverter is to be bi-directional, i.e. rectifying/re-generation system, as in certain operating
state the doubly fed machine rotor supplies energy towards the inverter side.
For controlling the fly-wheel generator to absorb/exhaust energy, usage of the information from the as-
sociated bus voltage is thought to be realistic. So in the case, frequency change of the bus voltage is
pick up and applied to control the inverter, i.e. the primary side absorbing power (both active and ca-
pacitively reactive) is set to be proportional to delta F. The detailed controlling algorism is shown in Fig.
8.11. This output is applied as the reference current of the current regulated inverter.

Initialising
Though each component in Fig. 10.13 could be appropriately initialised in each respective mode, com-
bining plural components, an unified mode of initialisation is to be applied according to the restriction of
ATP-EMTP. In the case, “step by step” and/or “try and error” procedures seem to be convenient.

Synchronous generator: In chapter 7 where only synchronous generators are applied, CAO LOAD
FLOW option is quite appropriately applied for each case initialisation. However, in the case with also
universal machine(s), the option has not been successfully applied. Therefore, in this case, another
mode, which is compatible with also universal machine, is to be applied to the synchronous generator
initialisation. As shown in sub-chapter 10.1, where synchronous machine and cage rotor induction ma-
chine (universal machine) exist in a common system, inputting terminal voltage amplitude and phase
angle for the synchronous machine, and slip value for the cage-rotor machine produces appropriate ini-
tialisation result. So, in principle, let’s try the same mode of initialisation.

In the first step, the one generator vs. infinitive bus system (without fly-wheel generator) is automatically
initialised applying CAO LOAD FLOW option. For details, see Dat10-21.dat attached. The precise initial
generator terminal voltage amplitude and phase angle can be obtained.
 15

In the next step, excluding CAO LOAD FLOW

Fig. 10.14 Precisely tuned generator’s current and
air gap torque compared to Automatic
Fig. 10.15 Initial stage of the fly-wheel generator
--- Currents are in generator direction ---
option and applying the above obtained volt-
age amplitude and phase angle to the gen-
erator terminal, calculation is to be done. Very
fine and precise tuning may be necessary,
especially for the phase angle. For details,
see Dat10-22.dat. By the calculation, the
identical result with the former automatic ini-
tialisation case is obtained. Please compare
both calculation results. Fig. 10.14 shows
some examples. Small amplitude of ripple in
the air gap torque is due to the asymmetry of
the transmission line (non-transposed).
In the third step, the fly-wheel generator is to
be initialised. As shown in Chapter 8 (final
part before Appendix), doubly-fed machine is
well initialised by introducing the primary side
terminal voltage condition, slip value and
secondary side current condition. The primary
side voltage condition is obtained from the
bus voltage via the step up transformer (Fig.
10.13). Initial slip value is selected to 5% as,
due to the primary stage of excess energy in
the power system source part in transient
stability phenomena, lower velocity seems to
be appropriate to absorb the excess energy.
Setting the fly-wheel initial condition as ca-
pacitor mode, by very fine tuning of the sec-
ondary current condition, the machine is well
initialised, see attached data file
(Dat10-23.dat). Some results are shown in
Fig. 10.15. The main flux magnetising current
is supplied from the secondary side, so the
amplitude of the secondary side current is
higher. 2.5 Hz (corresponding to 5% of slip) of
secondary side current appears. In the case,
the secondary side is supplied by a fixed
current source (2.5Hz).

The forth step is to investigate the UM con-

trolling reference current calculation algorism
shown in Fig. 8.9 and 8.11. For details, see
Dat10-24.dat attached. Typical result is
shown in Fig. 10.16, comparison of the actual
Fig. 10.16 Check of the secondary current calcula- (from out side source) and the calculated ref-
tion algorism by comparing the actual and the cal- erence current which is to be applied to con-
culated reference current trol the current regulated inverter. The input-
ting active/reactive power for the calculation
basis is equal to the actual one. The differ-
ence between two is negligible though, due to mitigating the fluctuation in the calculated reference cur-
rent, small delay-time is introduced. Anyhow, the calculation algorism seems to be quite agreeable for
the purpose.
Then, activating the inverter, the fly-wheel generator’s rotor is energised by the output current of the in-
verter. As shown in Sub-chapter 9.5, the current regulated inverter output current is to be close to the
input reference current. Therefore, applying the calculated reference current by the above shown cal-
culation algorism, the fly-wheel produces the target output power, the rotor being energised by the cur-
rent of the inverter.
For checking the basic fly-wheel generator output power is controlled to be: (For details, see
Dat10-25.dat)
 16

- Initially low inductively reactive output

a) Inverter activated, reference & actual fly-wheel
currents
b) Calculated active, reactive and apparent powers
power
- At 0.2s, the rotor input current is
switched over from fixed source to the
inverter.
- At 0.4s, the fly-wheel output is increased
to -150MW (active power absorbing, i.e.
motor mode).
- Up to 2s the calculation is continued.
Fig. 10.17a shows the reference current to
control the inverter and the machine rotor
actual current (inverter output). Well working
of the inverter and well driving control of the
machine are expected. At around 1.2s, the
rotation of the current is reversed, i.e. the
velocity crosses the synchronous speed
(52.36 rad/s, see Fig. 10.17c below).
Fig. 10.17b shows machine generating
powers which are calculated from the ter-
minal voltage and outgoing current. The ac-
tive power is kept constant to be –150MW,
though some fluctuations exist due to the
inverter switching. The reactive power is
negligibly small accordingly. Both powers are
kept to the input condition. (See PP and QQ
values in TACS of the data file.)
By absorbing active power at 0.44s, the
machine begins to accelerate from 49.74
rad/s (corresponding to +5% of slip) up to
approx. 55 rad/s (approx. -5% of slip) at 2s.
Very precisely speaking, the acceleration
rate is to be inverse proportion to the velocity
due to constant active power value applied.
The air gap torque is to be the same rela-
tionship. In Fig. 10.17c, the air gap torque
shows gradual decrease in the value by the
increase of the velocity.
Some fluctuation also exists due to the in-
verter switching.

Summing up the above, the fly-wheel gen-

erator connected to the source side of the
one generator vs. infinitive bus system
c) Velocity & air gap torque seems to be well appropriately systematised
and initialised. Introducing active and/or re-
Fig. 10.17 Activating inverter to drive fly-wheel gen- active power value to the inverter control
erator terminal, the fly-wheel outputs/absorbs
power with changing the velocity.
Then, the next subject is fly-wheel’s proper power controlling energised by the output current of the in-
verter. The synchronous generator’s AVR/PSS, which is the most powerful mean to enhance the tran-
sient stability, is generally controlled applying the generator’s state, i.e. the terminal voltage, output
power, etc. Fly-wheel generator may not be installed close to the synchronous generator. Moreover,
plural synchronous generators may be covered by fly-wheel generator(s). Therefore, applying informa-
tion directly regarding the synchronous generator may not be convenient. As mentioned at the top of this
sub-chapter, information regarding the voltage at the relevant bus close to the fly-wheel generator seems
to be mostly applicable and realistic for the purpose.
As the most direct relevance between the synchronous generator’s disturbance and the bus voltage, the
voltage frequency change seems to be applicable for the input of the inverter controlling. Fortunately, we
can use FREQUENCY METER in TACS of ATP-EMTP. So, at first the frequency meter should be
checked during disturbance regarding transient stability (during 3LG & 1 circuit of the transmission line
 17
Fig. 10.18 Bus voltage frequency change
during 1LG --- 1cct opening
a) Rotor energising current by inverter
c) Fly-wheel output powers
e) Top & bottom valve switch-over current
Fig. 10.19 Fly-wheel generator activity in transient stability enhancement
opening).
Applying FREQUENCY METER to the bus
voltage where the fly-wheel generator is
connected to, and after some mitigating
processes in the calculation, Fig. 10.18’s
result is obtained. For details of the calcula-
tion, see Dat10-26.dat attached.
Due to the sudden change in the voltage
during 0.3s --- 0.4s (3LG, Fault clearing and
1 circuit opening), the rapid frequency
change in this time interval may be better to
be excluded. However, rather steady fre-
quency change output is obtained and suit-
able application to control the flywheel gen-
erator is expected.
Fly-wheel activity in transient stability
b) Fly-wheel velocity & air-gap torque
d) Synchronous generator d-axis angle
f) HV bus voltage
 18

enhancement
In the first trial, both active and reactive power outputs of the fly-wheel generator are set to be equal and
proportional to the frequency change of the HV bus voltage, i.e. by increase of the frequency, the ab-
sorption of the active power and capacitively reactive power increase. Thus, the synchronous genera-
tor’s acceleration is expected to be damped. The maximum power of the fly-wheel generator is set to be
approx. 200MVA, i.e. 200% loading due to short time interval. Some results are shown in Fig. 10.19.
a) Except the violent transient interval (3LG & clearing), fly-wheel rotor (secondary coil) current is well
appropriately supplied from the inverter.
b) According to the bus voltage frequency change (Fig. 10.18) and along the vector control algorism,
the fly-wheel is driven to absorb power, enhancing the velocity, which is shown in Fig. 10.19b.
c) The figure shows the powers are well controlled. The same value of active and reactive powers is
shown.
d) The synchronous generator’s d-axis angle (swing) during the transient is damped by the function of
the fly-wheel. Due to the relatively low power output of the fly-wheel generator (as for active power,
approx. 13% of the synchronous generator’s), the damping rate is limited.
e) The figure shows top (plus side) and bottom (minus side) valve currents in a certain phase of the
inverter. For certain time interval only one side valve is ON. This means the DC source voltage is
critical and can never be lower.
f) The HV bus voltage is lower during the swing. Therefore, according to equation 7.1 in chapter 7, the
transmitting power is lower, resulting in excess source side energy. Absorbing higher capacitively
reactive power to enhance the voltage, further damping of the swing may be expected.

Active/reactive power effect

In the next case, mainly active power only is absorbed by the fly-wheel with approx. equal value of the
maximum apparent power to the previous case. In TACS of the data file, changing the coefficients of the

a) Rotor currents in both cases b) Active, reactive & apparent powers

c) Synchronous generator swing comparison d) Velocity and air gap torque comparison

Fig. 10.20 Effects by solo-active power and jointing with reactive power
active and reactive powers, the condition is easily introduced. For details, see Dat10-28.dat attached.
Comparing to the previous case, some results are shown in Fig. 10.20.
a) Rotor currents from the inverter are compared between two cases, where due to approx. equal
apparent powers, the maximum crest values are approx. equal by two. On the other hand the phase
angle is shifted relevantly. These can be explained by Fig. 8.9, Fig. 8.11 and Appendix 8.1.
b) Active, reactive and apparent powers of the fly-wheel are shown. Due to the almost zero reactive
 19

power, the value of the apparent power is equal to the active one, which is approx. equal to the
previous case’s apparent one (Fig. 10.19c).
c) Effects on the synchronous generator’s swing (d-axis angle, which is the representative of the
transient stability) are compared. In spite of by approx. equal apparent powers, solo-active power
control is not so effective compared to by both active and reactive power control. Discussion will be
shown later.
d) By solo-active power, velocity change and air gap torque are higher, though the effect is less.

a) Synchronous generator’s swing
b) Synchronous generator’s air-gap torque
Discussion
In chapter 7, transient stability in the identical one
generator vs. infinitive bus system is explained.
Also significant effect of AVR/PSS to enhance
stability is shown. In Fig. 10.21a the effects by
fly-wheel generator and AVR/PSS are compared
under similar initial load flow conditions. The ef-
fect by AVR/PSS is apparently superior. By
AVR/PSS the synchronous machine’s exciting is
controlled, yielding enhancement of the trans-
mission voltage. Therefore, by the increase of the
transmission power according to equation 7.1,
the air gap torque rises as shown in Fig. 10.21b.
The maximum torque is 135% of the initial, and
the difference from the initial one, due to the
constant mechanical input torque, acts to damp
the swing. By the fly-wheel, the maximum torque
is 118% which is limited by the fly-wheel rating
(over loading included). Moreover, the rise by
AVR/PSS is fur more quick. As the result,
AVR/PSS is more effective in this case.
Nevertheless, depending on the system layout,
synchronous generator’s and fly-wheel genera-
tor’s ratings, fault conditions, etc., various results
are obtained, with possible superiority in
fly-wheel.

Data file attached

- Dat10-21.dat : One synchronous generator
vs. infinitive bus system automatically initial-
ised by CAO LOAD FLOW.
- Dat10-22.dat : Manually initialised identically
to the above condition.
- Dat10-23.dat : Above system plus fly-wheel
generator, the rotor of which is energised by
a fixed AC source outside.
- Dat10-24.dat : Ditto, but inverter control pro-
gram is implemented and checked under the
c) HV bus voltage ditto condition. (Inverter non-activated)
- Dat10-25.dat : Current regulated inverter ac-
Fig. 10.21 Comparison of fly-wheel with AVR / tivity is checked energiseing the fly-wheel
PSS as for transient stability enhancement rotor to create the same condition as
Dat10-23.dat.
- Dat10-26.dat : Total system in Fig. 10.13 is
checked where the fly-wheel is controlled by
ΔF of the HV bus voltage under “3LG --- 1CCT opening” condition.
- Dat10-27.dat : Active & reactive power output control (of the fly-wheel) case, where the apparent
power output is approx. 200MVA (200%) at maximum.
- Dat10-28.dat : Active power only control case, where the output is approx. 200MW at maximum.