HINDU LAW

TOPIC:WHO IS A HINDU IN INDIA?

SUBMITTED BY:-

AMIT RAJ

BCOM LLB SEM -III

ROLL NO. -07

GUIDED BY:-

MS. RITUPARNA DE

ASST. PROF OF LAW

Indian Institute of Legal Studies

Dagapur, Matigara,Siliguri, Darjeeling, West Bengal 734010

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With profound gratitude and sense of indebtedness I place on record my sincerest

thanks to Ms. RITUPARNA DE , Asst. Prof In Law, Indian Institute of Legal Studies,
for her invaluable guidance, sound advice and affectionate attitude during the course of
my studies.

I have no hesitation in saying that she molded raw clay into whatever I am through her
incessant efforts and keen interest shown throughout my academic pursuit. It is due to
her patient guidance that I have been able to complete the task.

I would also thank the Indian institute of Legal Studies Library for the wealth of
information therein. I also express my regards to the Library staff for cooperating and
making available the books for this project research paper.

Finally, I thank my beloved parents for supporting me morally and guiding me

throughout the project work.

________________

Teacher’s Signature Student’s Signature

Date: __/__/____ Date:

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 CONTENT

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

01 SYNOPSIS 4

01 INTRODUCTION 5

02 ORIGIN OF HINDUS 7

03 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF 9

HINDU LAW

04 WHO ARE HINDUS 12

05 APPLICABILITY OF HINDU 15

LAW

06 CONCLUSION 18

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 CHAPTER 1:

SYNOPSIS

1. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:

When the question of who is a Hindu is discussed today, we get a multitude of confused
and contradictory answers from both Hindu laypersons and from Hindu leaders.

That we have such a difficult time understanding the answer to even so fundamental a
question as "Who is a Hindu?" is a starkly sad indicator of the lack of knowledge in the
Hindu community today.

2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:
The research objective is to understand mutual consent of Hindu Marriage Act.

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
The research questions are:
1. What is Hindu Marriage Act?
2. Who is hindu?

4. RESEARCH METHOD:
The research method used to complete this project is the secondary method. The
secondary method that is used is the DOCTRINAL METHOD.

5. SOURCES OF DATA:
The sources of data used in completing the project is:
 Books
 Websites

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 CHAPTER 1 :

INTRODUCTION
Hindu law, as a historical term, refers to the code of laws applied to Hindus,
Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs in British India. Hindu Law, in modern scholarship, also refers to
the legal theory, jurisprudence and philosophical reflections on the nature of law found in
ancient and medieval era Indian texts. It is one of the oldest known jurisprudence theories in
the world.

Hindu tradition, in its surviving ancient texts, does not express the law in the canonical sense
of ius or of lex. The ancient term in Indian texts is Dharma, which means more than a code of
law. The term "Hindu law" is a colonial construction, and emerged after the colonial rule
arrived in South Asia, and when in 1772 it was decided by British colonial officials, that
European common law system would not be implemented in India, that Hindus of India
would be ruled under their "Hindu law" and Muslims of India would be ruled under "Muslim
law" (Sharia).

Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously
adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically been used as a geographical, cultural, and
later religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia.

In Hinduism, law is discussed as a subset of dharma which signifies behaviors that are
considered in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes
duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and „„right way of living‟‟. The concept
of Dharma includes Hindu law.

Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. It has multiple
meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a single concise
definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set
of meanings and interpretations. There is no equivalent single word translation for dharma in
western languages.

Dharma root is "dhri", which means „to support, hold, or bear‟. It is the thing that regulates
the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains
constant. Monier-Williams, the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of
Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers numerous definitions of the word dharma:
such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty,

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right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character,
quality, property. Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the combination of these
translations does not convey the total sense of the word. In common parlance, dharma means
„right way of living‟ and „path of rightness‟.

The meaning of word “dharma” depends on the context, and its meaning evolved as ideas of
Hinduism developed over its long history. In earliest texts and ancient myths of
Hinduism, dharma meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well
as rituals; In later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and the Epics, the meaning became refined,
richer, complex and the word dharma was applied to diverse contexts. In certain
contexts, dharma designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in
the universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in
nature, society, family as well as at the individual level. Dharmaencompasses ideas such as
duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate,
correct or morally upright.

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 CHAPTER-2
ORIGIN OF HINDUS
Tthe word "Hindu" came into existence because of mispronunciation of a Sanskrit
word by the ancient Persians some 3000 to 4000 years ago.The word "Hindu" is not a
Sanskrit word. It is not found in any of the thousands of native dialects and languages of
India. Neither it is a religious word. It is a secular word whose origin is rooted in the
language of the ancient Persians, who supposedly shared some common ancestry with the
ancient Indians. It was practically unknown in India till the medieval period, although it was
used in several countries outside the Indian subcontinent from earlier times.
It is said that the Persians who were familiar with the Indian subcontinent, used to refer to the
Indus river as Sindhu, a major river that still flows in the northwestern region of the Indian
subcontinent, partly in India and partly in Pakistan. However due to linguistic barriers, they
could not pronounce the letter "S" correctly in their native tongue and mispronounced it as
"H." Thus, for the ancient Persians, the word "Sindhu" became "Hindu1."
Probably the Indus people who lived on the banks of the river Indus were known to the
outside world by the same name. The ancient Persian Cuneiform inscriptions and the
ZendAvesta refer to the word "Hindu" as a geographic name rather than a demographic or
religious name. When the Persian King Darious 1 extended his empire up to the borders of
the Indian subcontinent in 517 BC, some Hindus became part of his empire and army. Thus
for a very long time the ancient Persians referred to the people of the Indian subcontinent as
Hindus. The ancient Greeks and Armenians followed the same pronunciation. Gradually the
name stuck.
Interestingly the word "India" has the same origin as the Hindus. Those who feel appalled at
the idea of someone referring to all Indians as Hindus should read this. Just as the ancient
Persians and probably Sumerians mispronounced the word Sindhu, the ancient Greeks used
to mispronounce the river Sindhu as Indos. When Alexander invaded India, the Macedonian
army referred to the river as Indus and the land east of the river as India. The Greek writers
who wrote about Alexander preferred to use the same name2.
For the Arabs the land became Al-Hind. The Muslim rulers and travelers who came to India
during the medieval period referred the Indian subcontinent as "Hindustan" and the people
who lived there as Hindus. The British continued the practice and referred in the beginning

1
Agarwala R.K. - “Hindu Law”, 21st edn. 2003, Central Law Agency, Allahabad.
2
Aqil Ahmad- “Mohammedan Law”, 21st edn. 2004, Central Law Agency, Allahabad

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all the natives as Hindoos. Later they began using the word more as a religious term to
distinguish them from Muslims as well as Christians,. At the same time they used the word
"Indian" in a wider and more secular context to refer all the people who were native to the
land. The distinction suited them well to lump all natives as Indians to distinguish them from
the rest of their colonial subjects for administrative purposes, while the word Hindoo served
them well to implement their policy of divide and rule within India3.
For a long time for the native Indians, the Indian subcontinent was Bharata, the land founded
by the famous King Bharata, the progenitor of the Bharata clan. Literally translated, the word
"Bharata" meant lover of knowledge and the people inhabiting the land considered
themselves as such. They believed the religion they followed was an eternal religion and
called it as "sanatana dharma," which meant the same.
The word is neither Sanskrit nor Dravidian and did not originate in India. It was not used by
Indians in their descriptions or writings till the 17th century. By the original definition of the
word Hindu, anyone who lives in the subcontinent is a Hindu and whatever religion he or she
practices is Hinduism. The word Hindu is a secular word and literally translated it means
Indian and the word Hinduism denotes any religion or religions that are practiced by the
multitude of people living in the land beyond the river Indus.
In today's India, the word Hindu is most misunderstood and misused. Many people have no
idea how the word came into existence. The Indus river, with which the word is associated,
now flows mostly in Pakistan although it originates in India. It is no more part of the native
pride. It is almost forgotten or overlooked and its place is being taken over by the river
Ganga. The word "Hindutva" has lost its purity and purpose. Politicians use both the words
Hindu and Hindutva with communal overtones either to promote or oppose some ideology or
party. Many Hindus who proudly proclaim themselves as the swadeshis (sons of the soil) do
not know that the word Hindu is actually videshi (foreign). People have no problem being
referred to as Indians. But it will be a huge mistake if someone refers to all Indians as Hindus,
because the word "Hindu" is no more viewed as a secular word by the present day Indians.
This is one legacy of divide and rule policy of the British that Indians cannot do away with.
They may go on changing the street names and place names all over the country, even the
most historical ones, into native names to obliterate all traces of the colonial past from the
country. But they cannot, as a nation, accept the word "Hindu" as a secular word denoting the

3
www.legalservicesindia.com/article/329/Sources-of-Hindu-Law.html [last seen on oct,12th,2018]

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people of India. It will probably live forever, as a communal word, to identify only those who
profess faith in what we today identify as Hinduism.

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 CHAPTER-3
NATURE AND ORIGIN OF HINDU LAW
The Hindu system of jurisprudence is a well-developed science. It is as old as
humanity itself. It is the storehouse of ancient wisdom, inherited from holy, sages, saints,
philosophers and thinkers whose ideas were derived from imperishable Vedas and who can
literally be described as the torch-bearers of learning and knowledge to the rest of the world
as it then existed. Law, according to Hindu jurists, is the enforceable part of Dharma. Law is
Dharma itself. Manu says that “The Vedas, Smriti, the approved usage, and what is agreeable
to one‟s soul or good conscience, when there is no other guide the wise have declared to be
the quadruple, direct evidence of Dharma or law. There are two extreme views as regards the
origin of Hindu Law. The first view believes it to be of „divine origin‟ whereas according to
the other view it is based upon immemorial customs and usages4.
First View.—According to Hindus, Hindu law is of divine origin, having been derived from
Vedas, which are revelations from the Almighty and which Austin calls the laws of God. As
per this theory, law was independent of the State and it was binding on the Sovereign as well
as on his subjects. Hindu law is considered Apauruseya. “Since law is the king of kings, far
more powerful and rigid than they, nothing can be mightier than the law by whose aid, as by
that of the highest monarch, the weak may prevail over the strong”. It is, therefore, evident
that the theory of Rule of law is not new to Hindus.

Second View.—According to European jurists, who do not accept the Hindu idea ofdivine
origin of law, Hindu law is based upon immemorial customs, which existed prior to and
independent of Brahmanism. When the Aryans penetrated into India, they found that there
were a number of usages either the same as, or not wholly different from, their own. They
accepted these usages with or without modifications rejecting only those which were
incapable of being assimilated, such as, polyandry, incestuous marriages and the like.
Brahmanism modified the current customs by introducing the religious element into legal
conceptions firstly, by attributing pious purposes to purely secular acts; secondly, by adding
restrictions to those acts suitable to those pious purposes; and thirdly, by altering the customs
themselves so as to further the special objects of religion or policy favoured by Brahmanism.

4
https://www.thoughtco.com/theories-about-the-origin-of-hinduism-1770375 [last seen on 3th oct.2018]

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Both the above views, according to Mayne are incorrect: He says that since the publication of
the original text books, translated Commentaries and Digests and the research works, it has
become quite evident that Smritis were in part based upon contemporary or anterior usages,
and in• part, on rules framed by Hindu jurists and rulers of the country. They did not purport
to be exhaustive and, therefore, provided for the recognition of the usages which they had not
incorporated in later Commentaries and Digests. The Commentators and Digest-writers were
equally the exponents of usages of their times in those parts of India where they were
composed. Both the ancient Smritis and the subsequent „Commentaries‟ were evidently
recognised as authoritative statements of law by the rulers and by communities in the various
parts of India. They were mostly composed under the authority of the rulers themselves or by
learned and influential persons who were either their ministers or spiritual advisers. The
prescribed courses of studies for the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas as well as for the rulers of the
country, obviously, the rules in the Smritis which were sometimes all too brief were
supplemented by oral instructions in the law schools whose duty it was to train persons to
become Dharmshastris.

No doubt, Hindu law cannot strictly be said to have been promulgated by any Sovereign. But
in as much as Hindu law is a body of principles or rules recognised and allowed by the
Sovereign to govern the subjects and inasmuch as what a Sovereign can alter can be taken to
have been impliedly commanded by him, even Hindu law can be said, in a qualified sense, to
have been promulgated by the Sovereign within the definition of Austin.

The first orthodox view on the origin of law was gradually modified to certain extent, and the
conception of „positive‟ as distinguished from `divine law‟, presented to us by the
commentators have now generally been accepted as the origin of Hindu law.

It was prudent statesmanship to uphold the system of castes and orders of Hindu society, with
their rights and duties so as to prevent any subversion of civil authority. The Dharmshastris
and the rulers were therefore in close alliance and, if the laws were not substantially in
accordance with popular usages and sentiments it seems inconceivable that those most
interested in disclosing the facts should unite in a conspiracy to conceal it.

Nature of Hindu Law:-According to jurists of modern Europe, “Law is the command which,
the sovereign power, in a political society, imposes on subject or members of the society. As

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the Hindu Codes do not profess to embody the commands of any king on Earth, it might seem
that the Hindus had never such a thing as could be called their law. It is true that our Codes
do not embody the commands of any sceptered monarch. But it must be conceded by
everyone who knows anything of the mechanism of our society that the Brahmins were the
real rulers of the country. So long at least as Hindu Kings occupied the throne of the Hindu
community, the Brahmins enjoyed supreme legislative power, and the commands imposed by
them were generally obeyed”.

Mayne defines Hindu Law “as the law of the Smritis’ as expounded in the Sanskrit
Commentaries and Digests which, as modified and supplemented by custom, is administered
by courts”.

It is one of the most ancient systems of law known to the world. Mayne in his “Hindu Law
and Usage” recognised this fact when he says, “Hindu Law has the oldest pedigree of any
known system of jurisprudence and even now it shows no sign of decrepitude5.

5
https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Culture/Indian-Culture/Who-is-a-Hindu-1.aspx [last seen on 14th nov,2018]

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 CHAPTER-4
WHO ARE HINDUS
The term “Hindu” is a general term embracing all those who are commonly so known. The
term “Hindu” denotes all the persons who profess Hindu religion either by birth, or by
conversion to the Hindu faith.

In Hindu scriptures, the word “Hindu” is not to be found. Yet, long before Western scholars
sat down to invent definitions of “Hindu”, the term already carried a definite meaning. It was
brought into India by the Islamic invaders, and meant: “Indian Pagan”.

The term “Hindu” is the Persian equivalent of the Indo-Aryan term “Sindhu”, “river”, “the
Indus”. The equivalence is a simple application of the regular phonetic relation between the
indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-European language family: initial [s] is retained
in Indo-Aryan but changed into [h] in Iranian, while aspirated voiced stops like [dh] are
retained in Indo-Aryan but lose their aspiration in Iranian. The Iranians used the word
Hinduto designate the river Sindhu and the countries and populations situated around and
beyond the Sindhu. From Persian, the Greeks borrowed the river name as Indos and the
people‟s name as Indoi, hence English Indus, India, Indian.

Indians in Southeast-Asia were never known as “Hindu”, but the Arabs, Turks, Mongolians
and other northern and western foreigners adopted the Persian name as their own word for
“India” and “Indians” and the legal definition of "Hindus" as per the Indian constitution.
India‟s Constitution does not give a definition of the term Hindu, but it does define to whom
the “Hindu Law” applies. It has to do this because in spite of its pretence to secularism, the
Indian Constitution allows Muslims, Christians and Parsis a separate Personal Law. In a
way, this separate treatment of different communities merely continues the communal
autonomy of castes and sects accepted in pre-modern Hindu states, but it exposes the
credibility deficit of Indian secularism.

In the case of “Yagnapurusdasji v. Mulda6s”, the Supreme Court accepted the working
formula evolved by Tilak regarding Hindu religion. According to him, “Acceptance of Vedas
with reverence, recognition of the fact that the means or ways of salvation are diverse and
realization of the truth that the number of Gods to be worshipped is large, that indeed is the

6
1966 AIR 1119, 1966 SCR (3) 242

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distinguishing feature of Hindu religion.” It was also said that a person who carries a Hindu
way of life and who is known by others to be a Hindu can be said to be a Hindu.

The Supreme Court of India defined the features of a Hindu in its 1995 ruling of the case,
“BramchariSidheswarShai and others Versus State of West Benga7l.” At one place, it says
that the court identifies the following seven defining characteristics of Hinduism and by
extension Hindus:

1. Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence as the highest authority in religious and
philosophic matters and acceptance with reverence of Vedas by Hindu thinkers and
philosophers as the sole foundation of Hindu philosophy.
2. Spirit of tolerance and willingness to understand and appreciate the opponent‟s point
of view based on the realization that truth was many-sided.
3. Acceptance of great world rhythm, vast period of creation, maintenance and
dissolution follow each other in endless succession, by all six systems of Hindu
philosophy.
4. Acceptance by all systems of Hindu philosophy, the belief in rebirth and pre-
existence.
5. Recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are many.
6. Realization of the truth that Gods to be worshipped may be large, yet there being
Hindus who do not believe in the worshipping of idols.
7. Unlike other religions or religious creeds Hindu religion not being tied-down to any
definite set of philosophic concepts, assuch.

HINDUS BORN AS WELL AS MADE

It is often said that a Hindu is born and not made, i.e., the status of a person as Hindu is
determined by his birth. This statement is not correct in the context of the present Hindu law.
If a person is born of Hindu parents he is a Hindu unless he changes his existing status by
becoming a member of such a religion as would destroy his status as „Hindu‟ and give him a
new one. A Hindu on his conversion to Christianity,Islam or Zorostrianism ceases to be
governed by the Hindu law.

The term „Hindu‟ includes “those born as Hindus and also those who become converts to
Hinduism”. Hindus are therefore born as well as made and thus the applicability of Hindu

7
1995 AIR 2089, 1995 SCC (4) 646

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Law is not restricted or confined to those persons only who are Hindus by birth. Its
application has been extended to those persons also who have accepted the Hindu religion or
have converted to Hinduism. A non-Hindu may renounce his religion and become Hindu by
conversion by any of the three methods:-

a. If he performs the ceremony of conversion prescribed by the caste or community to

which he converts;

b. If he expresses an intention to become a Hindu and actually lives as a Hindu and the
community or caste into the fold of which he is ushered in accepts him as a member
of that community or caste;

c. If he declares that he is a Hindu and lives as a Hindu.

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 CHAPTER-5
APPLICABILITY OF HINDU LAW

Uncodified Hindu Law applies to the following categories of persons:

 Hindus by birth, and also Hindu by religion,i.e., converts to Hinduism;

 Illegitimate children where both parents are Hindus;
 Illegitimate children where the father is a Christian and the mother a Hindu, and the
children are brought up as Hindus;
 Jains,Buddhists in India, Sikhs and Nambudri Brahmans Except, so far as such law is
varied by custom and to Lingayats who are considered as Shudras;
 A Hinduby b irth who, having renounced Hinduism, has reverted to it after
performing the religious rites of expiation and repentance. Or even without a formal
ritual of reconversion when he was recognized as a Hindu by his community;
 Sons of Hindu dancing girls of the Naik caste converted to Mohammedanism, where
the sons are taken into the family of the Hindu grand-parents and are brought up as a
Hindu;
 Brahmos, AryaSamajists, and Santhals of Chota Nagpur, and also Santhals of
Manbhum except so far as it is not varied by custom;
 Hindus who made a declaration that they were not Hindus for the purpose of Special
Marriage Act,1872;
 A person who is born Hindu and has not renounced the Hindu religion, does not cease
to be a Hindu merely because he departs from the standard of orthodoxy in matters of
diet and ceremonial observances.

The enacted Hindu Law is now applicableto Hindus on their personal matters. For
example, the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, Hindu Succession Act of 1956, Hindu
Adoptions and Maintenance Act of 1956 and Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of
1956 apply to a person who is Hindu8.

8 th
https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Culture/Indian-Culture/Who-is-a-Hindu-1.aspx[last seen on 30 nov,2018]

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 Following persons are Hindus for the purpose of these Codified laws,
I. Any person who is Hindu by religion in any of its forms or developments including
a. a Virashaiva
b. a Lingayat
c. a follower of the Brahmo, prathana or AryaSamaj
II. Any person who is either
a. a Buddhist by religion, or
b. a jain by religion, or
c. a sikh by religion
III. Any other person domiciled (Reside) in the territories to which these Acts extend who is not
a. a muslim by religion, or
b. a Christian by religion, or
c. a parsi by religion, or
d. a jew by religion
except when it is proved that any such person would not have been governed by the Hindu
Law or by any custom or usage as part of that law in respect of any of the matters which are
delt in these Acts.
The following persons are Hindus, Buddhist, Jains or Sikhs by religion
a) Any child legitimate or illegitimate, both of whose parents are Hindus, Buddhist, Jains or
Sikhs by religion
b) Any child, legitimate or illegitimate, one of whose parents either (father or mother) is a
Hindu, Buddhist, Jains or Sikhs by religion and who is brought up as a member of the
tribe,community,group or family t which such parent belongs or belonged.
c) Any person who is a convert to the Hindu, Buddhist, Jains or Sikhs by religion
Persons, who have been declared to be members of the Scheduled Tribe within the meaning
of clause (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution are not to be treated as Hindus unless the
Central Government, by a notification in the Official Gazette, declares them so.
People who have changed religion
It is a general principle of law that a person who has accepted a religion cannot rely on a
custom opposed to that religion.
Several classes of mohammedeans who were formerly Hindu like Khojas, cutchimemons of
Bombay had by custom, retained the Hindu Law of succession and inheritance

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 People to whom Hindu Law does not apply
The Uncodified Hindu Law does not apply
i) To the legitimate children of a Hindu Father by a Christian/Muslim mother and who are
brought up as Christians/Muslims.
ii) To the Hindu converts to Christianity
iii) To a convert from Hindu to the Mohammedan faith. But the conversion must be bonafide.
Extent of application of Hindu Law
As a general rule Hindu law as administered by the Courts of India is applicable to Hindus in
the following matters
1. Inheritance
2. Religious Usages and institutions

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 CHAPTER 6:

CONCLUSION

Hindu law is not a law as understood in modern times. A law in the present sense would
mean an act framed by the legislature of a State. Hindu law has not been made by legislature
but it is the law made by the Divine Being and which has been re-built in the Vedas.It is the
Dharma i.e. the duties, rules of conduct, moral, religious and the political, enjoined by the
Almighty on the Hindu community. Thus it covers all the laws which are kept separate under
the modern system of law.Thus, Hindu law as understood in the ancient times was not the
command of the political sovereign of community. Rather it was the command of the
Supreme Being applicable to both- the King and his subjects, the ruler and the ruled. The
king and his subjects were equally subjected to the law. In order to bring certainty to them,
the laws were codified by the Dharmashastra writer.
The concept of hindu law is deeply rooted in hindu philosophy and hindu religion. The
ancient hindu social structure and its continuance in modern times is, to a great extent,
outcome of the hindu philosophy and religion.The ultimate aim of life, according to Hindu
law is to achieve salvation or Moksha from this physical world. Human being is mortal but
the soul is immortal. When a person dies, the soul is in a free state and it acquires a new form
of re-birth. Thus the change of birth and death continues till the soul attains moksha from this
world.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

WEBSITES:
 https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Culture/Indian-Culture/Who-is-a-Hindu-1.aspx
 https://www.thoughtco.com/theories-about-the-origin-of-hinduism-1770375
 http://prashantghai.com/hindu-marriage-act-india/

BOOKS:
 Agarwala R.K. - “Hindu Law”, 21st edn. 2003, Central Law Agency, Allahabad.
 Aqil Ahmad- “Mohammedan Law”, 21st edn. 2004, Central Law Agency, Allahabad.
 Dr. Mohammad Nazmi- “Mohammadan Law”, 2nd edn. 2008, Central Law
Publications, Allahabad.

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