The Derivations of Several "Plate-Efficiency Factors"

Useful in the Design of Flat-Plate Solar

Heat Collectors*
By Raymond W. Bliss, Jr.
Solar E n e r g y L a b o r a t o r y , I n s t i t u t e of A t m o s p h e r i c Physics, U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona, Tucson

All variables i n f l u e n c i n g t h e efficiency o f a q . . . . . useful h e a t collection rate at e n t e r i n g section of

fiat-plate solar h e a t collector as a h e a t exchanger collector
q . . . . . useful h e a t collection rate a t p o i n t x
can be c o m b i n e d i n t o a single "efficiency fac-
R ...... N e t r a d i a t i o n from a surface to the sky, t h e surface
tor." These efficiency factors are more or less being an exposed t h e r m a l l y black h o r i z o n t a l plane at
design c o n s t a n t s o f t h e particular collector de- air t e m p e r a t u r e , B t u / s q f t - h r
sign, and are o n l y slightly i n f l u e n c e d by operating t(T) .... T e m p e r a t u r e , °F (Rankine)
c o n d i t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y are extremely ta T~.. air t e m p e r a t u r e
t . . . . . . plate t e m p e r a t u r e below bond between plate
c o n v e n i e n t for use in accurate design and per- a n d tube
f o r m a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e full m a t h e m a t i c a l tp Tp..plate t e m p e r a t u r e
derivations are presented for several of t h e s e tt . . . . . . t u b e t e m p e r a t u r e
efficiency factors for various types o f collectors, t . . . . . . fluid t e m p e r a t u r e a t a given p o i n t
t o g e t h e r w i t h graphical data and examples of t . . . . . . . t e m p e r a t u r e of fluid e n t e r i n g collector
Ub ..... Over-all h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficient for loss t h r o u g h bot-
their use. tom of collector, B t u / s q f t - h r - ° F
U. . . . . . Over-all heat t r a n s f e r coefficient for h e a t t r a n s f e r
t h r o u g h bond between plate and tube, B t u / h r - s q ft
PRINCIPAL SYMBOLS USED of bond-°F
A . . . . . . I n t e n s i t y of a t m o s p h e r i c r a d i a t i o n u p o n a horizontal UL . . . . . Over-all loss rate coefficient for collector, B t u / s q
surface, B t u / s q f t - h r ft-hr-°F
A~ . . . . . F i n cross-section, sq ft w ....... T u b e spacing, ft
C . . . . . . . Specific h e a t of circulating fluid, B t u / p o u n d - ° F a ....... Average a b s o r p t i v i t y of surface for t o t a l solar radia-
d ( d o ) . . E x t e r n a l (internal) t u b e diameter, ft tion i n c i d e n t upon a surface, dimensionless
F . . . . . . . F i n efficiency factor, dimensionless ....... Average emissivity or a b s o r p t i v i t y of surface for long-
F'. . . . . . Collector p l a t e efficiency factor, dimensionless wave radiation, dimensionless
F~ . . . . . Collector plate efficiency factor, dimesionless 0 .... A l t i t u d e of sun relative to collector plane, degrees
G . . . . . . . Flow rate of circulating fluid, p o u n d s / h r - s q ft of ....... Stefan-Boltzmann constant, Btu/sq ft-hr-R 4
collector
INTRODUCTION
h ....... C o n v e c t i o n coefficient, collector plate-to-air, B t u / s q
ft-hr-°F I n p r o b l e m s i n v o l v i n g t h e d e s i g n o r t e s t i n g of f i a t -
h . . . . . . . . Convection coefficient, t u b e - t o - c i r c u l a t i n g fluid. p l a t e s o l a r h e a t c o l l e c t o r s i t is v e r y w o r t h w h i l e t o
B t u / s q ft-hr-°F
calculate the ratio between the actual useful heat
h . . . . . . . Simplified r a d i a t i o n coefficient, B t u / s q - f t - h r - ° F
I . . . . . . . I n t e n s i t y of direct b e a m s u n s h i n e upon a surface nor- c o l l e c t i o n r a t e of a g i v e n d e s i g n a n d t h e u s e f u l heat.
mal to the rays, B t u / s q f t - h r collection rate which would have been attained had
k . . . . . . . T h e r m a l conductivity, B t u / f t - h r - F ° t h e e n t i r e c o l l e c t o r s u r f a c e b e e n a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of
L . . . . . . . F i n length, ft t h e c i r c u l a t i n g fluid. T h e r e a r e t w o u s e f u l f o r m s of
M . . . . . . F i n thickness, ft
this "plate-efficiency factor":
Q . . . . . . H e a t t r a n s f e r rate, B t u / h r
q . . . . . . . H e a t t r a n s f e r rate per sq ft of collector surface, B t u / s q F1 actual useful heat collection rate
ft-hr
useful heat collection rate attainable with
q A • • • total s u n s h i n e a b s o r p t i o n rate

qd .... i n c i d e n t diffuse s u n s h i n e upon collector entire collector surface at average fluid tempera-
q~ .... i n c i d e n t t o t a l s u n s h i n e upon collector ture
qL .... t o t a l loss r a t e of collector actual useful heat collection rate
q . . . . . average useful h e a t collection rate FR =
useful heat collection rate attainable with
* This p a p e r was s u p p o r t e d in p a r t b y a g r a n t from the e n t i r e c o l l e c t o r s u r f a c e a t t e m p e r a t u r e of f l u i d
N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n (NSF-G6293). entering collector

55
 These factors F' and F~ are particularly useful as that of setting up the performance equations for a
because, for many types of solar heat collectors, they hypothetical collector having the following charac-
are essentially design constants determined by the teristics:
construction details of the collector, and do n o t de- (a) The collector plate is horizontal, exposed, and
pend greatly upon such operating conditions as tem- at constant temperature over its entire surface.
perature, sunshine intensity, or wind velocity. Effi- (b) There are no thermal gradients between collec-
ciency factors of this sort were first used in problems tor plate and circulating fluid.
of solar heat collector design by Hottel and Woertz, 1 (c) The bottom of the collector is perfectly insu-
later by Whillier,: and by Hottel and Whillier. a The lated.
use of such factors tremendously reduces the empiri- We then set up the performance equations for this
cism associated with the design of solar heat collectors. idealized collector, assuming various hypothetical
For many types of flat-plate collectors, and in par- cases of increasing complexity.
ticular for water-heating collectors formed of tubes
bonded to a metal sheet, the efficiency factors for a Case I: Plate Surface Thermally Black, Plate
given design can be quickly calculated to a high degree Temperature Equal to Air Temperature
of accuracy. Nevertheless, and despite their obvious (a) Operating at night:
advantages in collector design, these factors are not
qu = - q L [21
utilized as much as they should be.
These notes present a full derivation of several of qL = zTa 4 - A = R [3]
these "plate-efficiency factors," with the thought Note:
that such a full presentation will be helpful in furthering R -- zTa 4 - A [4]
the understanding and use of these basic concepts and (b) Operating during the day:
heat-transfer equations. Our end results will be found q~ -- qA - R [5]
to be in agreement with those which have been stated
by Hottel and Whillier. a In general we should note qa = qi [6]
that the calculation methods used by the Solar Energy q~ = qd + Is sin 0 [7]
Laboratory in attacking problems of collector design
are closely similar and strongly indebted to those of Case II: Real Plate Surface, Plate Temperature
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology group. Equal to Air Temperature
The chief difference between our "collector equations" A real plate surface will have average solar absorp-
and theirs is that we make a small but (we think) tivity coefficients and average emissivity and ab-
worthwhile improvement in allowing for the effects of sorptivity coefficients in the long-wave region (2 to
atmospheric radiation. 50 m~), all of which must be reckoned with. We assume
These notes are divided into four main sections: that long-wave emissivity and absorptivity can be
(1) Basic concepts in equation form. considered equal. The resulting equations:
(2) The temperature distribution and over-all (a) Operating at night:
heat transfer efficiency of a uniform rectangular fin. q~ = - ~R [8]
(3) Collection efficiency factors for collectors having
uniform flow beneath a flat plate. (b) Operating during the day:
(4) Collection efficiency factors for collectors having q~ = a q ~ - ~R [9]
uniform flow in tubes bonded to a flat plate.
Case IIL Real Plate Surface, Plate Temperature
BASIC CONCEPTS IN EQUATION FORM Differs from Air Temperature

The fundamental steady-state equation of any solar Here we must reckon both with absorptivity-
heat collector amounts to the simple statement that emissivity effects and with convective heat transfer
the rate of useful heat collection is equal to the rate to the surrounding air.
at which sunshine is being absorbed less the total loss (a) Operating at night:
rate: q~ = -eR - (eh, + ha)(tp - - to) [10]
q . = qA - - qL [1] (b) Operating during the day:
A good place to start in analyzi~g the performance q~ = , ~ q , - ~R - (~h, + ho)(t~, - to) [111
of a solar heat collector is to consider the heat trans-
fer from the upper surface of an exposed horizontal In Equations [10] and [11] above, the long-wave
plate which is imagined to be held at constant tem- radiation loss rate from the plate is seen to be split
perature. We can, if we like, look upon this problem into two components, a procedure which is convenient

56
 / / The heat gain, in Btu per hr, to the fin through the
area Ay dx on top of the fin is:
Surrounding dQ dx d2tp
Air Temp.,t o dx = -kMay ~ dx [16]
~m-~x
[
But this same heat gain in Btu per hr is:
Heat FI~
~ldxl* d Q dx = q~_xAy.dx [17]
dx
At X=O At X=L Substituting between [14], [16], and [17] and letting
Qx=o =0 tPx=Ltt b2 = UL/kM:
FIG. 1 - - H e a t flow in a u n i f o r m r e c t a n g u l a r fin.
d2tv_b2(tv_t, q a -- ~R.)
[18]
in later calculations. The equations do yield the correct
long-wave radiation loss, which is: This has the general solution:
qL-radiation ---- e(~T:D 4 - - A)
tp = Cle b~ + C2e-b~ + to + qa - ~R [19]
= e(aTp 4 - aT~4 + R) [12a] UL
= eh~(tp - to) + eR [12b] To determine the value of the constants C1 and C2
We find that the "simplified radiation coefficient" in the preceding equation, we apply the boundary
h~ is very convenient for use in calculations. A plot conditions:
of this coefficient is given in Fig. 4.
dtp - 0 and t,, L ---- It [20]
dx~=o =
THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AND
OVER-ALL HEAT TRANSFER EFFICIENCY Application of these boundary conditions will be
OF A U N I F O R M R E C T A N G U L A R F I N found to yield

This problem occurs repeatedly in the design of ( tt - - la) qa - - eR

solar heat collectors, as well as in the design of many C1 =- C2 = UL [21]
e bL ~ e-bL
other types of heat exchangers. The properties of fins
are discussed in most of the standard heat transfer We note that:
1 bx
texts, but, for reasons of brevity, the pertinent equa- cosh bx = ~(e + G--bx)
:
[22]
tions are seldom derived in full. Herewith, in "collector
Substituting from Equations [21] and [22] into [19]
nomenclature," a full derivation of the case of a rec-
and rearranging, we obtain the solution for the tem-
tangular fin of constant cross-section, with end effects
perature distribution along the fin:
ignored.
Consider a fin of length L as shown in Fig. 1. Sun- (eosh bx~
t, = t, \ ~ ]
shine is being absorbed along the entire fin at rate
[23]
qA Btu per sq ft-hr. Heat is flowing through the fin
as shown, and at the base of the fin the temperature is
held constant at t~. Surrounding temperature is t~,
)
The average useful heat collection rate of the entire
and the over-all loss rate coefficient is U L . Assume
fin can be determined conveniently by noting that
that the width of the fin (i.e., in the direction per-
this average useful collection rate is equal to the total
pendicular to the figure) is hy. Assume also that all
heat flow (Btu per hr) at the base of the fin, divided
heat flow within the fin is essentially parallel to the
by the surface area of the fin:
x-axis.
The cross-section of the fin through which heat is Q~L
flowing is: qu - L A y [24]
Af = MAy [13] From Equation [15]:
At a point x, the rate of useful heat collection in Q~=L_ k M dtp
Btu per sq ft-hr is: LAy L dxx=L [25]

q.-x = qa -- eR -- UL(tp -- ta) [14] Performing the indicated differentiation, (using

the value of t~ found in Equation [23] rearranging,
The heat flow through the fin in Btu per hr is: and remembering that b2 = U L / k M :
, , dtp dtv [15] tanh bL
Q = - tea/-~x = - k M A y ~x qu - bL [qa - ~R -- UL(t~ -- ta)] [26]

57
 Now we note that the bracketed expression at the /~. X .~*dx/~- L
right hand side of the above equation gives the useful
heat collection rate which would be attainable with
the entire fin at the temperature of the base of the
fin. Hence the fin efficiency factor of the actual fin
is the factor by which the bracketed expression is mul-
tiplied:
tanh bL
F-
bL ~,.f~\"~f ~ f \ f \ f~
[27]
~//U~ - ~ - Fluid Temp.,t w
b= kM Fluid Ternp.,t=_o ~ Insulation
FIG. 2 - - C i r c u l a t i o n of fluid in a f i a t - p l a t e collector.
It is important to note that the fin efficiency factor
is not a function of the intensity of absorbed solar expressed, quite closely:
radiation or of the temperature level of operation,
qu-x = qA -- ~R -- UL(tp -- re) [31]
except insofar as these variables influence UL.
Two other quantities which are of interest in prob- in which
lems involving fins are the maximum fin temperature UL = ~h~ + h~ + Ub [32]
and the average fin temperature.
This useful heat collection rate is transferred from
The maximum fin temperature is readily obtained
the plate to the circulating fluid underneath. Hence:
from Equation [23]:
q~_~ = h~(t, - - tw) [33]
1
tPmax : tp~=0 -- tt cosh b~ Eliminating tp between Equations [32] and [33] yields:
[28]
qA -- ~R hc [qA - ¢R - UL(t~ -- ta)] [34]
-t-(t,-~-U ~L )(1 cosh1 bI:) q~-~-ho+ UL

The average fin temperature is also obtained from The average rate of useful heat collection for the
Equation [23]: entire collector (q~ in our nomenclature) is then:

q,, = ~ %_~dx
t, ...... ~ = T,ifoL t, dx [29]
[35]
Performing the indicated integration yields:

tp . . . . . . --~ tt tanh bL
- h~-t- UL
E qa -- ~ R - - UL ~ t~dx-- t.

ge
But:
bL
[30]
( [,
l f 0 L tw dx = t. . . . . . . ~o [361
+ \t~ + ~L I bL ]
So:
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY FACTORS FOR
COLLECTORS HAVING UNIFORM FLOW hc
q~ - hc + UL[qA -- ~R -- UL(t ....... ~e-- t,)] [37]
BENEATH A FLAT PLATE
Consider the situation illustrated in Fig. 2. The The expression in brackets at the right-hand side of
temperature of the circulating fluid, as it enters the the above equation is the useful heat collection rate
collector, is t. . . . The fluid flows uniformly under the attainable with the entire plate at average water
collector plate and in thermal contact with it. The temperature. Hence, for this type of collector:
fluid picks up heat and rises in temperature as it flows
F' - hc [38]
along under the plate. At a distance x from the enter- h e w UL
ing edge of the plate, the plate temperature is tp, and
the temperature of the fluid underneath is t~. We proceed to the determination of F R . Rewriting
To avoid complications due to tilt, glass covers, etc., Equation [34] as:
all of which are extraneous to the present discussion, q~_~ = F'[q~ -- ~R - UL(tw -- t~)] [39]
we assume the collector plate to be exposed and hori- The differential of the above is
zontal.
Then, at the distance x from the entering end of the dqu_~ = -- F ' U L dtw [40]
collector, the local useful heat collection rate may be Now the rate, in pounds per hour, at which fluid flows

58
under the area A y d x is G L A y . (Note definition of G in calculations the bond width is assumed to be d, the
the list of symbols). Hence the useful heat gain (Btu same as the tube diameter, and the over-all thermal
per hr) associated with the area A y d x may be equated conductivity of this bond between plate and tube is
to the gain to the fluid as it flows under that area: taken as U~ Btu per sq ft-hr-°F. The fluid flow in each
q~_~Ay d x = G ( L A y dt~) [41] tube is assumed uniform and in the same direction.
Hence, at any given cross-section along the collector,
Eliminating dtw between Equations [40] and [41], and
rearranging:
dq~_~ F UL
- dx [42]
q,_~ GCL
Integrating Equation [42] and applying boundary
condition at x = 0 yields:
q~_~ = q~_oe -(F'UL~/~cL) [43]
The average useful heat collection rate is:
jc,-tp ~ Bond
q~ = ~ q,_~ d x = q~-o L e -(~'vL~/acL) d x [44] t i ~ t
Performing the indicated integration yields:
GC (1 - e-(~'UL/ac)) FIG. 3--General arrangement of collector with tubes bonded to
qu -- q,-o F ' ~ [45] a flat plate.

From Equation [39]: 2.4

23
q~,_o = F'[qA - - eR - - UL(tw-o - - t~] [46] 22
ZI
Substituting this value into Equation [45]: 2.0
1.9
q~ = F ' GC (1 - e-(~'~L/~c)) 1.8
~. [47]

!
1.7

• [qA - eR - UL(t~--o - - t,)] ~,s

~,~ ,.~
In the above equation the expression in brackets is
seen to be the useful heat collection rate attainable " 1.3

with the entire plate at entering water temperature.

Hence, the multiplying factor preceding it is, by 1.0
0.9
definition, the over-all efficiency factor FR. 0.8

FR = F ' GC (1 - e_(p,uL/~c)) [4s]

0 20 40 60 80 1(30 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
tt - ° F
"flow rate factor" FIG. 4 - - T h e "simplified radiation coefficient" h,. This coeffi-
cient is convenient for use in radiative heat transfer
The above expression is generally applicable to any equations of the form q -- Cz h r (t ~ - tl), where C1 is some
type of collector for which Equations [39] and [41] are constant involving surface emissivities and shape
factors.
valid. It may be noted that the expression can be con-
sidered as being made up of two factors: F ' and a
"flow rate factor" (the latter factor being also a func-
tion of F').
A plot of Equation [48] is presented in Fig. 5. ~
o
10

0.8 - ~
FR"F'G'~'~L(I- e- ~'P)

, I
F', ioo

o8o

COLLECTION EFFICIENCY FACTORS FOR I °7

"'°6 :=
COLLECTORS HAVING UNIFORM FLOW
IN TUBES BONDED TO A FLAT PLATE !
~0.5
o,
I
:7o
This case, in one variation or another, occurs fre- m 0 . 3 ~
quently in liquid-heating solar heat collectors. The
general arrangement is shown in Fig. 3. A series of
parallel tubes, of outside diameter d and inside diam- 00.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 5 I0 20 50 I00
x
eter d o , are spaced w ft on centers along the collector
plate by a continuous bond. For the purpose of these FzG. 5--The over-all efficiency factor FR.

59
(such as Fig. 3) the temperatures tw, tt, and tc will be form given by Equation [55], and that the value for
the same at every tube. F' is:
We make the following simplifying assumptions:
F' = C~(Uc Ai- UL) -q- C1 Uc [571
(1) The thermal resistance around the circum-
U__5 u
ference of a tube is negligible in comparison with s ll C3 [C2(Uc--{- UL) -If"CI Uc] + Uc 3i- C2cIUL
other thermal resistances involved.
(2) The division of incident sunshine between in which
tubes and plate is such that the fraction d / w is ab-
Cl-dw ' C2 = (1 - d ) F' C3-Trd°hcw [58]
sorbed on the tubes and the remaining fraction i - d / w
is absorbed by the plate. Furthermore, it will be found that Equation [57]
(3) The loss rate factors of the tubes and plate are can be manipulated into the following continuing
also proportional to the ratios of their projected fraction:
areas d / w and 1 - d/w.
The following five independent equations can then F! __ [59]
be written, in each case expressing a heat transfer rate UL 1
on a "per square foot of collector" basis: c-:+ C1 + 1
(1) The useful heat gain from sunshine strikinK the UL 1
tubes: c, u--Z+
d or substituting values of C1, C~, and C3 :
q~-tube. = --[qa -- eR -- UL(lt -- la)] [491
W
1
(2) The useful heat gain from the plate: F' = [601
-WUL
- + 1
q~.p,at~ = ( 1 - d ) F[qA - ~R - UL(tc -- t~)] [50] lr dohc d 1
-+
w WUL 1
A consideration of the above equation, and of
Fig. 3, will show that the above F is the fin efficiency 1-- F
factor of a fin of length (w - d ) / 2 .
(general case)
(3) The heat transfer through the bond:
The above equation is the general solution for this
d
q~_,,at~ = -

?/)
U~(tc - t,) [51] type of collector. Several particular cases are of in-
terest.
(4) The heat transfer from tube to fluid:
Case I. d / w = 1.00
7rdo hc
q, - (t,- tw) [52] In this case Equation [60] will be found to reduce to:
w
(5) The total useful heat gain: 1
F' - [61]
q~ = q~-t,be~ + qu-vlate [53] WUL
dolrh,c + 1
The preceding set of five equations contains five ( d / w = 1.00)
"unknowns":
Note that the above case amounts to assuming
qu , qu-tub~s , qu-plate , tc , tt [54]
that the tubes are side by side, with no space between
We should like to eliminate all but the first of these them. This is essentially the case of the collector with
and, furthermore, to determine if the solution for q, is uniform flow under a plate (see Fig. 2) except that
of the form: the tube area in contact with the fluid is ~r do/w sq ft per
q, = F'[qa - eR - UL(tw - t~)] [55] sq ft of collector. If 7r do/w = 1.00, Equation [61] re-
in which F' is a function of the following variables duces to Equation [38], as it should.
only:
Case II. F = 1.00
d Irdoh~
--, F, UL, and U, [56] For this case Equation [60] reduces to:
w' w
1
The simultaneous solution of Equations [49] through F' = [62]
[53] involves fifth-order determinants. The solution is w 1- A---
straightforward, but the necessary calculations ap- wU___._5_L + d UL
peared too voluminous even for inclusion in these 7rdohc 1 -- + UL
notes. However, if the solution is carried through, it
will be found that the equation for q~ is indeed of the (F = 1.00)

60
 The above equation may be used to estimate the
efficiency factor of collectors having a relatively low
thermal conductivity of the "bond" between plate and
tubes. An example of such a collector is one formed of
a grid of parallel pipes set inside a glass-covered box,
with no continuous physical connection between the
tubes and the inside of the bottom of the box. In
such a case a reasonable estimate of the over-all con-
vective plus radiative coefficient of heat transfer be-
tween box bottom and tubes can usually be made, and
appropriately substituted for U¢ in the equation. In
making such a substitution, it should be noted that
U~ as used in these equations is the over-all heat trans-
fer coefficient between plate and tubes on a "per
square foot of projected area of tube" basis.
Case III. Thermal Resistance of Bond Negligible
In this case 1/U~ = 0, and Equation [60] becomes:
1 It will be remembered that the various expressions
F' = [63]
wUL 1
7rd°h~"kd-b( - d) F
(Uo -1 = o)
As has been mentioned previously, the factor F in
the above equation is the fin-efficiency factor of a fin
of length (w - d)/2. Hence, from Equation [27]:
tanh bL
F -
bL
in which
b= A / . U ~L_ L - w - d
"V kM 2 Turning to a consideration of the factor FR for col-
Equation [63] represents a case of considerable
practical importance, as it is applicable both to col-
lector plates made of tubes soldered to a metal sheet
and to plates made of "tube-in-strip" or similar integral-
tube type materials. Most water-heating collector
plates use one or the other of these constructions.
We have found that one convenient method of using
Equation [63] in design calculations is to plot F'
against tube spacing for a variety of pertinent condi-
tions. Examples of such graphs are given in Fig. 6
through 11.
Figs. 6, 7, and 8 are plotted for a constant UL value
of 1.2 Btu per sq ft-hr-°F. This value is typical of col-
lector plates insulated on the sunny side with one air-
spaced layer of glass or transparent plastic, and well
insulated on the back. Such construction is often used
in domestic water-heating collectors. The three graphs
present F' for copper, aluminum, and steel sheets
respectively, and in each case for several sheet thick-
nesses and for two values of the tube-to-liquid film
coefficient he. The lower value of hc (60 Btu/sq ft-
hr-°F) is more or less typical of laminar water flow in
thermosyphon-type collectors. The higher value of
hc (300 Btu per sq ft-hr) is in the range of turbulent
water flow, and may be obtained with pump circula-
tion.
Figs. 9, 10, and 11 present the same data for a
UL value of 2.5 Btu per sq ft-hr-°F which is a value
typical of a collector with no cover on the sunny side,
moderately insulated on the back, and operating under
low wind velocity conditions (3 to 5 mph). This type
of construction may be used for solar heat collection at
a temperature level not too much above that of the
outdoor air, for example in swimming pool heating
and in some space-heating applications.
Figs. 6 through 11 are all calculated for ½-in. diameter
tubes, and it is assumed that the tube walls are fairly
thin, i.e., do ,-~ d. Under most conditions no large error
will result from using the graphs for any tube diameter
between ~ in. and ~ in.
for F p derived in this section are all based on the as-
sumptions that the flow in the parallel tubes is uniform
from tube to tube and in the same direction. These
assumptions are not realized in collectors in which
the flow is unevenly distributed between tubes, nor
are they realized when a return bend circuit arrange-
ment gives flow in opposite directions in adjacent
tubes. Analytical solutions for these cases are de-
sirable but do not seem to be available. In general,
[64]
qualitative consideration will show that the F' ratios
for collectors with either uneven or opposed direction
flow will be somewhat less than the F' ratios covered
[65] in this section.
lectors of the general type discussed in this section, we
note that Equations [39] and [41] of the preceding
section are applicable. Hence the expression for FR
(Equation [48]) developed in the preceding section is
also applicable. The equation is plotted in Fig. 5.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
A few numerical "problems" and their solutions
may be helpful in illustrating the practical utility of
the efficiency-factor equations.
Example 1
A water-heating collector designed for swimming
pool heating uses an integral-tube type of collector
plate having ½-in. tubes spaced 4 in. on a 0.025-in.
copper plate. The collector plate is uncovered, wind
velocity at the level of the collector is in the range of
3 to 5 mph, and the loss rate factor UL is estimated as
2.5 Btu per sq ft-hr-°F.
(a) If the flow rate through the collector is 3 lb
per sq ft-hr, and the flow in the tubes is laminar, what
is the efficiency factor FR ?
61
 I.OC 1.00

0.9C 0.9C

o o3o'~ ,,/'\ "~. --

_ 0.80 0.80
\3 :,\.
o
i ~,o! \\

w 0.70 .~ 0.7(:1 / \
w
COPRER FINS
v v
-!--o
COPPER RNS
t
060 UL= 1.2 Btu/~ I f t - h r - "F 06C 1 uL" 2.5 e,./,q ft-hr-'F
Tube dlome/er - 1/2" : Tube diameter • I / 2 "
- - T u r b u l e n t flow (he. 300) -- --Turbutent f~w ( h c , ~ O G
----laminar flow (he=60) ----Lamimlr flow { h ¢ . 6 0 )

O.S I I I I . . . .
050 I I I I
I 2 3 4 5 6 : I 2 3 4 6 7
TUBE SPACING- CENTER TO C E N T E R - I N C H E S TUBE SPACING- CENTER TO C E N T E R - INCHES

1.00
I.(X) I I

0.90
0,90 _ _ oo . e = ~ % + o ~
0.030" ,~ ~; O*

r [ [ "x. i
*

0.80
I ! ,

0
. 0.8(;
, I \'N~'"t

zm i I , 070
0.70 /
Ld

ALUMINUM FINS 0.60 UL" 2.5 S f u / I q f t - hr - "F

0.60 U L= t.2 BPa/1¢1 f t - hr - "F Tube diameter - I/2"
T u b l diamlter • I / 2 " - - T u r b u l e n t flow (h¢-300)
- - T w b u l e n t flaw (hc,30~J ---- Laminar flaw (ha- 60)
- - - - L o m l M r flow (be•60)
0.50 [ I I I
02 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 TUBE SPACING- CENTER TO C E N T E R - INCHES
TUBE SPACING - CENTER TO CENTER - INCHES
I .OC

0.90

,~ 1~

-=.

-- O.TO
u
E
ul
o.o ---O----O----O--
STEEL FINS
I-o o--o-I
I I STEEL FINS 1 I
0"60I
UL, 2~, Bfu/lq f t - h r . °F
Tube diameter • I / 2 "
- - Turbulent ftow (h©- 300)
° 6 ° 1 - I ~ " ,2 . ~ , . f . . . . . . ~ I-t- --~ - ----Laminar flow (ha= 60)

050 I l I I
| l--~m fl.. ~,°.,o, I i 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
TUBE SPACING - CENTER TO C E N T E R - INCHES
oso/ I I I I / i
0 I 2 3 4 5 G 7
FIG. 6-11--Efficiency factor F ' vs. t u b e spacing for various
TUBE SPACING- CENTER TO CENTER - INCHES conditions.

62
 Solution: From Fig. 9, we find F' = 0.88. Enter- plate. There are four available sheets: copper sheet in
ing Fig. 5 with this value of F' and with three thicknesses, 0.010-in., 0.020-in., and 0.030-in.
and costing $0.40, $0.80, and $1.20 per sq ft respec-
C G / U L = (3 X 1.0)/2.5 = 1.2,
tively. Steel sheets are available in 0.040-in. thickness
we find F~ -- 0.62. costing $0.25 per sq ft.
(b) Assume that the absorptivity of the painted (c) The total cost of tubes, soldering, and asso-
collector plate for solar radiation is 0.95, and that its ciated headers. This has been found to be proportional
emissivity and absorptivity in the long-wavelength to the length of tube used, and amounts to $0.35 per
region is 0.90. Assume further that the collector is lineal ft of tube.
operating under the following conditions: The flow in the tubes is laminar. The flow rate, for
the purpose of simplifying this example, is assumed to
Entering water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82°F
be the same regardless of tube spacing.
Outdoor air temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65°F
Solution: The cost of the energy furnished by the
Intensity of sunshine incident upon collector
collector will be directly proportional to the total
275 Btu/sq ft-hr
cost per square foot of collector, and inversely
Net outgoing radiation R' from a black surface
proportional to the collector efficiency. Hence, if
at air temperature and at collector tilt
we let the collector cost be S dollars per sq ft,
20 Btu/sq ft-hr
the problem amounts to determining the lowest
What will be the useful heat collection rate of the possible value of the ratio S / F ' for the various
collector in Btu per sq ft-hr? choices of sheet material and tube spacing.
Solution : From the data given, it is readily seen that the total
cost S can be expressed:
qu = F R [ a q ~ - ~R' -- UL(tw--o -- ta)]
= 0.62[0.95 X 275 -- 0.90 X 20 - 2.5(82 - 65)] S = 3.00 + B + 4.20/w' dollars/sq ft
= 125
in which B is the cost of the sheet metal used, and w'
(c) If the flow velocity in this collector is such is the tube spacing in inches.
that increasing the flow rate to 7 lb per sq ft-hr would The elegant method for determining the minimum
result in turbulent flow, how much will the useful heat value of the ratio S / F ' is to find the point at which
collection be increased if the flow rate is increased to the partial derivatives of S / F ' with respect to sheet
this value? metal cost and with respect to tube-spacing cost are
Solution: From Fig. 9 we find F' = 0.95 for turbu- simultaneously equal to zero. However, this problem,
lent flow. Entering Fig. 5 with this new value of and many similar problems of this type, can be solved
F', and with the new value of G C / U L = 2.8, we
find the new value of FR to be 0.80. Under the TABLE I - - T r i a l a n d E r r o r Solution of E x a m )le 2
previous laminar flow conditions we found FR was
Type of sheet 'Tube spacing Collector cost Efficiency S/F"
0.62. Hence the change to increased flow rate and w' in. S ($/sq ft) factor F' $/sq ft--F'
turbulent flow will increase useful heat collection
by the ratio 0.80/0.62, or about 29 per cent. 0.010" Copper 7.0 4.00 •802 4.98
0.010" Copper 6.0 4.10 • 851 4.82
0.010" Copper 5.75 4.13 .862 4.79
Example 2 0.010" Copper 5.50 4.16 • 871 (4.77)
0.010" Copper 5.25 4.20 .880 (4.77)
A manufacturer of glass-covered domestic water- 0.010" Copper 5.0 4.24 .888 4.78
heating collectors produces collector plates by solder- 0.010 p' Copper 4.0 4.45 .919 4.84
0.010" Copper 3.0 4.80 .947 5.07
ing parallel ½-in. diameter tubes to a metal sheet.
Several types of sheet metal are available at varying 0.020" Copper 7.0 4.40 .860 5.12
0.020" Copper 6.0 4.50 .887 (5.07)
costs, and the tubes can be spaced as desired. The 0.020" Copper 5.0 4.64 .910 5.10
problem is to determine the particular choice of sheet 0.020" Copper 4.0 4.85 .933 5.20
0.020" Copper 3.0 5.20 .954 5.46
material and tube spacing which will yield the maxi-
mum ratio of heat collection per unit of initial cost. 0.030" Copper 7.0 4.80 •878 5.47
0.030" Copper 6.0 4.90 .901 (5.44)
The manufacturer has found that the cost of a com- 0.030" Copper 5.0 5.04 •920 5.47
plete collector can be broken into three components, as 0.030" Copper 4.0 5.25 .938 5.60
follows:
(a) A fixed cost of $3.00 per sq ft of collector, which 0.040" Steel 7.0 3.85 .725 5.31
0.040'/ Steel 6.0 3.95 .780 5.07
covers framing, insulation, glass, supports, painting, 0.040" Steel 5.0 4.09 •835 4.90
etc. 0.040" Steel 4.0 4.30 .885 (4.87)
0.040" Steel 3.0 4.65 .930 5.00
(b) The cost of the sheet metal for the collector

63
equally quickly by a trial-and-error tabulation. For
this problem we use the values of S given by the above
equation together with corresponding values of F' de-
termined from Figs. 6 and 8. The resulting tabulation
is shown in Table I. The minimum values of the ratio
S / F ' for the various sheets are those enclosed in
parentheses. For the particular set of cost and other
conditions specified in this example, the collector
plate which "delivers the most Btus for the least
money" is seen to be that using 0.010-in. copper sheet
with the tubes spaced approximately 5½ in.
CONCLUSION
The efficiency factors derived in these notes are
applicable to a wide variety of solar heat collectors.
They are also directly applicable to other types of
panel heat-exchangers, for example to floor or ceiling
panels used for interior temperature control.
The intelligent use of the efficiency factor concept
64
can easily eliminate a large area of guesswork in the
design of a solar heat collector. Although, as has been
previously mentioned, these efficiency factors are not a
new concept in solar heat collector design, they do not
seem to have been used as much as they should be. It
is hoped that these notes may be helpful in furthering
the use of these basic heat-transfer concepts and in
reducing unnecessary empiricism in the design of heat
exchangers used for collecting solar energy.
REFERENCES
1. H. C. Hottel; B. B. Woertz. "The performance of fiat-plate
solar-heat collectors". Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 64:
91-104, Feb. 1942.
2. A. Whillier. "Solar energy collection and its utilization
for house heating". Sc.D. Thesis, Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
May 1953.
3. H. C. Hottel; A. Whillier. "Evaluation of fiat-plate solar-
collector performance". Trans. of Conference on the Use of
Solar Energy, University of Arizona, 1958. Vol. II, pp. 74-
104.