Microwave transmission

Microwave transmission is the transmission of information by

microwave radio waves. Although an experimental 40-mile
(64 km) microwave telecommunication link across the English
Channel was demonstrated in 1931, the development of radar in
World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation
of microwave communication. In the 1950s, large
transcontinental microwave relay networks, consisting of chains
of repeater stations linked by line-of-sight beams of microwaves
were built in Europe and America to relay long distance
telephone traffic and television programs between cities. The atmospheric attenuation of
Communication satellites which transferred data between ground microwaves in dry air with a
stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in precipitable water vapor level of
0.001 mm. The downward spikes in
the 1960s. In recent years, there has been an explosive increase in
the graph corresponds to frequencies
use of the microwave spectrum by new telecommunication at which microwaves are absorbed
technologies such as wireless networks, and direct-broadcast more strongly, such as by oxygen
satellites which broadcast television and radio directly into molecules.
consumers' homes.

Contents
Uses
Microwave radio relay
Planning
History
Microwave link
Properties of microwave links
Uses of microwave links
Troposcatter
See also
References
External links

Uses
Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows
conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the
receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without
interfering with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is that the high
frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying capacity; the
microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum below it. A
disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation; they cannot pass around hills or
mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.

Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-

point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in
satellite communications, and in deep space radio
communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are
used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and
radio astronomy.

The next higher part of the radio electromagnetic spectrum,

where the frequencies are above 30 GHz and below 100 GHz, are
called "millimeter waves" because their wavelengths are
conveniently measured in millimeters, and their wavelengths A parabolic satellite antenna for
range from 10 mm down to 3.0 mm (Higher frequency waves are Erdfunkstelle Raisting, based in
smaller in wavelength). Radio waves in this band are usually Raisting, Bavaria, Germany
strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles
contained in it, especially during wet weather. Also, in a wide
band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the
atmosphere. The electronic technologies needed in the millimeter wave band are also much more difficult
to utilize than those of the microwave band.

Wireless transmission of information

One-way (e.g. television broadcasting) and two-way telecommunication using

communications satellite
Terrestrial microwave relay links in telecommunications networks including backbone or
backhaul carriers in cellular networks

Wireless transmission of power

Proposed systems e.g. for connecting solar power collecting satellites to terrestrial power
grids

Microwave radio relay

Microwave radio relay is a technology widely used in the 1950s and 1960s for transmitting signals,
such as long-distance telephone calls and television programs between two terrestrial points on a narrow
beam of microwaves. In microwave radio relay, microwaves are transmitted on a line of sight path
between relay stations using directional antennas, forming a fixed radio connection between the two
points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the separation between stations to the visual horizon,
about 30 to 50 miles (48 to 80 km). Before the widespread use of communications satellites, chains of
microwave relay stations were used to transmit telecommunication signals over transcontinental
distances.

Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave relay links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the
U.S., carried long distance telephone calls and television programs between cities.[1] The first system,
dubbed TD-2 and built by AT&T, connected New York and Boston in 1947 with a series of eight radio
relay stations.[1] These included long daisy-chained series of such links that traversed mountain ranges
and spanned continents. Much of the transcontinental traffic is
now carried by cheaper optical fibers and communication
satellites, but microwave relay remains important for shorter
distances.

Planning
Because the radio waves travel in narrow beams confined to a
line-of-sight path from one antenna to the other, they do not
interfere with other microwave equipment, so nearby microwave
links can use the same frequencies (see Frequency reuse).
Antennas must be highly directional (high gain); these antennas
are installed in elevated locations such as large radio towers in
order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types
of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic
antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, which have C-band horn-reflector antennas on
a diameter of up to 4 meters. Highly directive antennas permit an the roof of a telephone switching
center in Seattle, Washington, part of
economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long
the U.S. AT&T Long Lines microwave
transmission distances. relay network

Because of the high

frequencies used, a line-of-sight
path between the stations is
required. Additionally, in order to
avoid attenuation of the beam, an
area around the beam called the
first Fresnel zone must be free
from obstacles. Obstacles in the
signal field cause unwanted
attenuation. High mountain peak
or ridge positions are often ideal.

Obstacles, the curvature of the

Earth, the geography of the area
and reception issues arising from
the use of nearby land (such as in
Communications tower on Frazier manufacturing and forestry) are
Mountain, Southern California with
important issues to consider when
microwave relay dishes
planning radio links. In the
planning process, it is essential
that "path profiles" are produced, which provide information about the Dozens of microwave dishes
terrain and Fresnel zones affecting the transmission path. The presence of on the Heinrich-Hertz-Turm
a water surface, such as a lake or river, along the path also must be taken in Hamburg, Germany
into consideration since it can reflect the beam, and the direct and
reflected beam can interfere at the receiving antenna, causing multipath
fading. Multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency band, so space
and/or frequency diversity schemes can be applied to mitigate these effects.
 The effects of atmospheric stratification cause the radio path to
bend downward in a typical situation so a major distance is
possible as the earth equivalent curvature increases from 6370 km
to about 8500 km (a 4/3 equivalent radius effect). Rare events of
temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may
produce large deviations and distortion of the propagation and
affect transmission quality. High-intensity rain and snow making
rain fade must also be considered as an impairment factor,
especially at frequencies above 10 GHz. All previous factors,
Danish military radio relay node
collectively known as path loss, make it necessary to compute
suitable power margins, in order to maintain the link operative for
a high percentage of time, like the standard 99.99% or 99.999%
used in 'carrier class' services of most telecommunication
operators.

The longest microwave radio relay known up to date crosses the

Red Sea with a 360 km (200 mi) hop between Jebel Erba (2170m
a.s.l., 20°44′46.17″N 36°50′24.65″E, Sudan) and Jebel Dakka
(2572m a.s.l., 21°5′36.89″N 40°17′29.80″E, Saudi Arabia). The
link was built in 1979 by Telettra to transmit 300 telephone
channels and one TV signal, in the 2 GHz frequency band. (Hop
distance is the distance between two microwave stations)[2]

Previous considerations represent typical problems characterizing

terrestrial radio links using microwaves for the so-called
backbone networks: hop lengths of a few tens of kilometers
(typically 10 to 60 km) were largely used until the 1990s.
Frequency bands below 10 GHz, and above all, the information
Production truck used for remote to be transmitted, were a stream containing a fixed capacity
broadcasts by television news has a block. The target was to supply the requested availability for the
microwave dish on a retractible whole block (Plesiochronous digital hierarchy, PDH, or
telescoping mast to transmit live Synchronous Digital Hierarchy, SDH). Fading and/or multipath
video back to the studio.
affecting the link for short time period during the day had to be
counteracted by the diversity architecture. During 1990s
microwave radio links begun widely to be used for urban links in
cellular network. Requirements regarding link distance changed to shorter hops (less than 10 km,
typically 3 to 5 km), and frequency increased to bands between 11 and 43 GHz and more recently, up to
86 GHz (E-band). Furthermore, link planning deals more with intense rainfall and less with multipath, so
diversity schemes became less used. Another big change that occurred during the last decade was an
evolution toward packet radio transmission. Therefore, new countermeasures, such as adaptive
modulation, have been adopted.

The emitted power is regulated for cellular and microwave systems. These microwave transmissions use
emitted power typically from 0.03 to 0.30 W, radiated by a parabolic antenna on a narrow beam
diverging by a few degrees (1 to 3-4). The microwave channel arrangement is regulated by International
Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) and local regulations (ETSI, FCC). In the last decade the dedicated
spectrum for each microwave band has become extremely crowded, motivating the use of techniques to
increase transmission capacity such as frequency reuse, Polarization-division multiplexing, XPIC,
MIMO.

History
The history of radio relay communication began in 1898 from the
publication by Johann Mattausch in Austrian journal, Zeitschrift
für Electrotechnik.[3][4] But his proposal was primitive and not
suitable for practical use. The first experiments with radio
repeater stations to relay radio signals were done in 1899 by
Emile Guarini-Foresio.[3] However the low frequency and
medium frequency radio waves used during the first 40 years of
radio proved to be able to travel long distances by ground wave Antennas of 1931 experimental 1.7
and skywave propagation. The need for radio relay did not really GHz microwave relay link across the
begin until the 1940s exploitation of microwaves, which traveled English Channel. The receiving
by line of sight and so were limited to a propagation distance of antenna (background, right) was
about 40 miles (64 km) by the visual horizon. located behind the transmitting
antenna to avoid interference.
In 1931 an Anglo-French consortium headed by Andre C. Clavier
demonstrated an experimental microwave relay link across the
English Channel using 10-foot (3 m) dishes.[5] Telephony,
telegraph, and facsimile data was transmitted over the
bidirectional 1.7 GHz beams 40 miles (64 km) between Dover,
UK, and Calais, France. The radiated power, produced by a
miniature Barkhausen-Kurz tube located at the dish's focus, was
one-half watt. A 1933 military microwave link between airports
at St. Inglevert, France, and Lympne, UK, a distance of 56 km US Army Signal Corps portable
(35 miles), was followed in 1935 by a 300 MHz microwave relay station, 1945.
telecommunication link, the first commercial microwave relay Microwave relay systems were first
system.[6] developed in World War II for secure
military communication.
The development of radar during World War II provided much of
the microwave technology which made practical microwave
communication links possible, particularly the klystron oscillator and techniques of designing parabolic
antennas. Though not commonly known, the US military used both portable and fixed-station microwave
communications in the European Theater during World War II.

After the war, telephone companies used this technology to build large microwave radio relay networks
to carry long distance telephone calls. During the 1950s a unit of the US telephone carrier, AT&T Long
Lines, built a transcontinental system of microwave relay links across the US that grew to carry the
majority of US long distance telephone traffic, as well as television network signals.[7] The main
motivation in 1946 to use microwave radio instead of cable was that a large capacity could be installed
quickly and at less cost. It was expected at that time that the annual operating costs for microwave radio
would be greater than for cable. There were two main reasons that a large capacity had to be introduced
suddenly: Pent up demand for long distance telephone service, because of the hiatus during the war
years, and the new medium of television, which needed more bandwidth than radio. The prototype was
called TDX and was tested with a connection between New York City and Murray Hill, the location of
Bell Laboratories in 1946. The TDX system was set up between New York and Boston in 1947. The
TDX was upgraded to the TD2 system, which used [the Morton tube, 416B and later 416C, manufactured
by Western Electric] in the transmitters, and then later to TD3 that used solid state electronics.

Military microwave relay systems continued to be used into the 1960s, when many of these systems were
supplanted with tropospheric scatter or communication satellite systems. When the NATO military arm
was formed, much of this existing equipment was transferred to communications groups. The typical
communications systems used by NATO during that time period consisted of the technologies which had
been developed for use by the telephone carrier entities in host countries. One example from the USA is
the RCA CW-20A 1–2 GHz microwave relay system which utilized flexible UHF cable rather than the
rigid waveguide required by higher frequency systems, making it ideal for tactical applications. The
typical microwave relay installation or portable van had two radio systems (plus backup) connecting two
line of sight sites. These radios would often carry 24 telephone channels frequency division multiplexed
on the microwave carrier (i.e. Lenkurt 33C FDM). Any channel could be designated to carry up to 18
teletype communications instead. Similar systems from Germany and other member nations were also in
use.

Long-distance microwave relay networks were built in many countries until the 1980s, when the
technology lost its share of fixed operation to newer technologies such as fiber-optic cable and
communication satellites, which offer a lower cost per bit.

During the Cold War, the US intelligence agencies, such as the

National Security Agency (NSA), were reportedly able to
intercept Soviet microwave traffic using satellites such as
Rhyolite.[8] Much of the beam of a microwave link passes the
receiving antenna and radiates toward the horizon, into space. By
positioning a geosynchronous satellite in the path of the beam,
the microwave beam can be received.

At the turn of the century, microwave radio relay systems are

Microwave spying
being used increasingly in portable radio applications. The
technology is particularly suited to this application because of
lower operating costs, a more efficient infrastructure, and
provision of direct hardware access to the portable radio operator.

Microwave link
A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the microwave
frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations, which can be from just a few
feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart. Microwave links are commonly used by television
broadcasters to transmit programmes across a country, for instance, or from an outside broadcast back to
a studio.

Mobile units can be camera mounted, allowing cameras the freedom to move around without trailing
cables. These are often seen on the touchlines of sports fields on Steadicam systems.

Properties of microwave links

Involve line of sight (LOS) communication technology
 Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade
Have very limited penetration capabilities through obstacles such as hills, buildings and
trees
Sensitive to high pollen count
Signals can be degraded during Solar proton events[9]

Uses of microwave links

In communications between satellites and base stations
As backbone carriers for cellular systems
In short-range indoor communications
Linking remote and regional telephone exchanges to larger (main) exchanges without the
need for copper/optical fibre lines
Measuring the intensity of rain between two locations

Troposcatter
Terrestrial microwave relay links are limited in distance to the visual horizon, a few tens of miles or
kilometers depending on tower height. Tropospheric scatter ("troposcatter" or "scatter") was a technology
developed in the 1950s to allow microwave communication links beyond the horizon, to a range of
several hundred kilometers. The transmitter radiates a beam of microwaves into the sky, at a shallow
angle above the horizon toward the receiver. As the beam passes through the troposphere a small fraction
of the microwave energy is scattered back toward the ground by water vapor and dust in the air. A
sensitive receiver beyond the horizon picks up this reflected signal. Signal clarity obtained by this
method depends on the weather and other factors, and as a result a high level of technical difficulty is
involved in the creation of a reliable over horizon radio relay link. Troposcatter links are therefore only
used in special circumstances where satellites and other long distance communication channels cannot be
relied on, such as in military communications.

See also
Wireless energy transfer
Fresnel zone
Passive repeater
Radio repeater
Transmitter station
Path loss
British Telecom microwave network
Trans-Canada Microwave
Antenna array (electromagnetic)

References
1. Pond, Norman H (2008). The Tube Guys. Russ Cochran. p. 170. ISBN 9-780-9816-9230-2.
2. Umberto Casiraghi (May 21, 2010). "A vintage document: Reference Radio Link Telettra on
the Red Sea, 360km and world record" (https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=138857
 2806437&set=o.90736850463&type=1&theater). Telettra. Retrieved 2012-10-02 – via
Facebook.
3. Slyusar, Vadym. (2015). First Antennas for Relay Stations (http://www.slyusar.kiev.ua/U_080
_Slyusar_ICATT_2015.pdf) (PDF). International Conference on Antenna Theory and
Techniques, 21–24 April 2015, Kharkiv, Ukraine. pp. 254–255.
4. Mattausch, J. (16 January 1898). "Telegraphie ohne Draht. Eine Studie" (http://www.slyusar.
kiev.ua/all/zeitschriftfrele16.pdf) [Telegraph without wire. A study] (PDF). Zeitschrift für
Elektrotechnik (in German). Elektrotechnischen Vereines in Wien. XVI (3): 35–36 – via
www.slyusar.kiev.ua.
5. Free, E.E. (August 1931). "Searchlight radio with the new 7 inch waves" (http://www.americ
anradiohistory.com/Archive-Radio-News/30s/Radio-News-1931-08-R.pdf) (PDF). Radio
News. Vol. 8 no. 2. New York: Radio Science Publications. pp. 107–109. Retrieved
March 24, 2015.
6. "Microwaves span the English Channel" (http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Shor
t-Wave-Television/30s/SW-TV-1935-09.pdf) (PDF). Short Wave Craft. Vol. 6 no. 5. New
York: Popular Book Co. September 1935. pp. 262, 310. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
7. "Sugar Scoop Antennas Capture Microwaves" (https://books.google.com/books?id=390DAA
AAMBAJ&pg=PA87&dq=true#v=onepage&q=true&f=true). Popular Mechanics. February
1985. p. 87.
8. James Bamford (2008). The Shadow Factory. Doubleday. p. 176 (https://archive.org/details/
shadowfactory00bamf/page/176). ISBN 978-0-385-52132-1.
9. Kincaid, Cheryl-Annette (May 2007). Analyzing Microwave Spectra Collected by the Solar
Radio Burst Locator (https://digital.library.unt.edu/data/etd/2007_1/open/meta-dc-3655.tkl)
(MSc). Denton, Texas: University of North Texas. Retrieved 2012-10-02 – via UNT Digital
Library.
Microwave Radio Transmission Design Guide, Trevor Manning, Artech House, 1999

External links
RF / Microwave Design at Oxford University (http://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/courses/details.ph
p?id=H600-26&course=professional&course_area=Electronics&course_area_id=226)
AT&T's Microwave Radio-Relay Skyway introduced in 1951 (http://www.att.com/attlabs/repu
tation/timeline/51microwave.html)
Bell System 1951 magazine ad for Microwave Radio-Relay systems. (http://www.long-lines.
net/documents/radio_relay_ad_51.jpg)
RCA vintage magazine ad for Microwave-Radio Relay equipment used for Western Union
Telegraph Co. (http://coldwar-c4i.net/WU/WU-RCA-ad.html)
AT&T Long Lines Microwave Towers Remembered (http://www.drgibson.com/towers/)
AT&T Long Lines (https://web.archive.org/web/20100125152731/http://www.porticus.org/bel
l/longlines.html)
IEEE Global History Network (http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Microwave_Link_Netw
orks) Microwave Link Networks

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