Chapter 7: Electrodynamics Resistivities (ohm-meters)

7.1 Electromotive Force 7.1.1 Ohm’s Law

Pushing on the charges make a current flow. How fast the
charges move depends on the nature of the materials and
the forces.
current density J = ρ v velocity of the charge
volume charge density
J
Ohm’s law (an empirical equation): J = σ E or E = = ρJ
σ
conductivity resistivity
ρ: volume charge density or resistivity? Confusion 1: E=0 inside a conductor Î J=0 ?
2: For a perfect conductor σ=∞ Î E=0 ?
The Lorentz force drives the charges to produce current:
≈0 Question: Can we treat the connecting wires in electric
J ∝ F ⇒ J = σ (E + v × B ) circuits as equal potentials?
1 2

Example 7.1 Example 7.3

A cylindrical resistor of cross-sectional area A and length L is Prove that the electric field within the wire is uniform.
made from material with conductivity σ. If the potential is
constant over each end, and the potential difference between V=0 V=V0
the ends is V, what current flows?

Sol:
The potential V with the cylinder obeys Laplace’s equation.
On the cylinder surface J ⋅ n = 0 ∴ E ⋅ n = 0, and hence ∂V/∂n = 0
Sol: With V or its normal derivate specified on all the surfaces, the
σA
I = J ⋅ A = σ EA = V potential is uniquely determine (Prob. 3.4).
L Guess: A potential obeys Laplace’s equation and fits the
boundary conditions.
Question: Is the electric field uniform within the wire?
Vz V
To be proved in a moment, see Ex. 7.3. V ( z ) = 0 and E = −∇V = − 0 zˆ the unique solution.
3 L L 4
 Example 7.2 Ohm’s Law
Two long cylinders (radii a and b) are separated by material of L
Ex. 7.1 V= I
conductivity σ. If they are maintained at a potential different V, σA V = IR
(A more familiar
what current flows from one to the other, in a length L? ln(b / a ) version of Ohm’s law.)
Ex. 7.2 V= I
2πσ L resistance

The total current flowing from one electrode to the other is

proportional to the potential difference between them.
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω): an ohm is a volt per
I I 1
Sol: J = =σE E= rˆ ampere.
A 2πσ L s
b b I 1 I
V = ∫ E ⋅ ds = ∫ ds = ln(b / a ) For a steady current and uniform conductivity,
a 2πσ L s 2πσ L ε
a
J
ρ = ε 0∇ ⋅ E = ε 0∇ ⋅ ( ) = 0 ∇ ⋅ J = 0
2πσ L σ σ
I= V Any unbalanced charge resides on the surface.
ln(b / a) 5 6

Ohm’s Law (rule of thumb) Ohm’s Law (a naive picture)

Gauss’s law or Ampere’s law is really a true law, but Ohm’s A naive picture: Electrons are frequently collided with ions
law is an empirical equation. which slow down the acceleration.
* Finding an exception won’t win a Nobel prize.
1 2λ qE
negative resistance λ = at 2 ⇒ t = , where a =
2 a m
1 λ qE
average velocity: vave = at = ∝ E
2 2m
The velocity is proportional to the square root of the field.
Q1: Why the electric field does not accelerate the charge That is no good!
particle to a very high speed? Q1: How to explain it correctly?
Q2: Ohm’s law implies that a constant field produces a The charges in practice are already moving quite fast
constant current, which suggests a constant velocity. Isn’t because of their thermal energy.
that a contradiction of Newton’s law. 7 8
 Ohm’s Law (Drude model) The Joule Heating Law
The net drift velocity is a tiny extra bit. The time between nf λ q 2 nf λ q 2
collisions is actually much shorter than we supposed. J=( )E = σ E, where σ =
2mvthermal 2mvthermal
λ
collision frequency: t = This equation correctly predicts that conductivity is
vthermal proportional to the density of the moving charges and
1 aλ ordinarily decreases with increasing temperature.
average velocity: v ave = at =
2 2vthermal
F q
acceleration: a = = E The Joule heating law:
m m
 I : amperes
(f: free electrons per molecule)  R : ohms
2
V 
λ q nf λ q 2 P = IV = I 2 R = where 
J = n( fq ) v ave = nfq E=( )E R  V : volts
2vthermal m 2mvthermal
 P : watts
(n: molecules per unit volume)
9 10

7.1.2 Electromotive Force (emf) Electromotive Force: Production of a Current

An emf is the work per unit charge done by the source of emf
in moving the charge around a closed loop. What is the function of the acid solution in the voltaic pile?
W
E = ne
q
The subscript ”ne” emphasizes that the work is done by some
nonelectrostatic agent, such as a battery or an electrical
generator.

Pb + SO 4− → PbSO 4 + 2e −
PbO 2 + 4H + + SO 4− + 2e − → PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O

Note that for every electron that leaves the Pb plate, another
What is the difference between emf and potential difference? enters the PbO2 plate.
11 12
 Electromotive Force: Terminal Potential Difference Electromotive Force Drives the Electrons
Example: A battery is hooked
A real source of emf, such as a up to a light bulb.
battery, has internal resistance r.
The battery generates the
Vba = Vb − Va = E − Ir force which drives the
electrons move along the loop.
The change in potential is called the terminal potential
Snail’s pace: the charges in a wire move slowly
difference.
(~0.1 mm/s @φ=1mm, 1A, see Prob. 5.19(b)).
Unlike the emf, which is a fixed property of the source, the
terminal potential difference depends on the current flowing Q1: Why does the bulb response so fast when turning it on
through it. or off?
As a battery ages its internal resistance increases, and so, Q2: How do all the charges know to start moving at the
for a given output current, the terminal potential difference same instant?
falls. 13 14

Example 5.19: The Snail’s Pace Will the Charge Piling Up Somewhere?
Calculate the average electron drift velocity in a copper wire If a current is not the same all the way around, then the
1mm in diameter, carrying a current of 1 A. charge is piling up somewhere, and the electric field of this
Sol: I I accumulating charge is in such a direction as to even out the
J= = ρ vd ⇒ vd = 2 (ρ : volume charge density) flow.
πs 2
πs ρ
mobile charges charge atom mole gram
ρ= =
volume atom mole gram volume Charge piling up at the “knee” produces
−19
= (1.6 × 10 )(6 × 10 )(1 64)(9) = 1.4 × 104 C / cm3
23
a field aiming away from the kink.

I 1
vd = = =9.1× 10-3 (cm/s)
π s ρ π × 0.05 ×1.4 ×104
2 2

@ 1A, φ =1 mm ⇒ vd = 0.091 (mm/s) It self-corrects the current flow, and it does it all so quickly.
(Why? Thermal electrons)
@10A, φ =1 mm ⇒ vd = 0.91 (mm/s) Snail's pace 15 16
 Forces Involved in Driving Currents
Around a Circuit
The Electromotive Force
Two forces involved in driving currents around a circuit. The net effect of the electromotive force is determined by the
fs: ordinarily confined to one portion of the loop (a battery, say). line integral of f around the circuit:
E: the electrostatic force: smooth out the flow and communicate
=0
the influence of the source to distant parts of the circuit. E ≡ v∫ f ⋅ dl = v∫ fs ⋅ dl + v∫ E ⋅ dl = v∫ fs ⋅ dl
f = fs + E (the electromotive force, or emf)
What is the physical agency responsible for fs?
Emf is a lousy term, since it is not a force at all --- it is the
Battery Æ a chemical force integral of a force per unit charge.
Piezoelectric crystal Æ mechanical pressure Wne
Thermal couple Æ temperature gradient E=
q
Photoelectric cell Æ light
An emf is the work per unit charge done by the source of emf
in moving the charge around a closed loop.
17 18

7.1.3 Motional emf Motional emf (another example)

The most common source of the emfs: the generator
Generators exploit motional emf’s, which arise when you move
a wire through a magnetic field.
A primitive model for a generator
Shaded region: uniform B-field
pointing into the page.
R: whatever it is, we are trying
to drive current through.
E = v∫ f mag ⋅ dl = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ dl = vBh
19
When the magnetic field is constant in time, there is no
induced electric field.
When a mental rod moving perpendicular to
magnetic field lines. There is a separation of
charge and an associated electrostatic
potential difference set up.
The potential difference associated with this
electrostatic field is given by Vb-Va=E0L=BLv.
E = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d A
Since there is no current flowing, the “terminal potential
difference” is equal to the motional emf.
20
 Magnetic Force Does No Work
A person exerts a force per unit charge
on the wire by pulling it. The force
counteracts the force generated by the
magnetic force quB.
f pull = uB
This force is transmitted to the charge by the structure of the
wire.
The work done per unit charge is:
h
∫ fpull ⋅ dl = (uB)( cos θ ) cos(90° − θ ) = vBh = E
Instantaneous emf
E =vBh = Bhv(t ) = E (t )
E: carried out at one instant of time – take a “snapshot” of
the loop, if you like, and work from that.
The magnetic force is responsible for establishing the emf
and the emf seems to heat the resistor (i.e. do work), but
magnetic fields never do work.
Who is supplying the energy that heats the resistor.

The work done per unit charge is exactly equal to the emf. The person who’s pulling on the loop!
21 22

Magnetic Force Does No Work (II) The Flux Rule

In the previous viewgraph, we find a source of emf converts There is a particular nice way of expressing the emf
some form of energy into electrostatic energy and does work generated in a moving loop Î the flux rule.
on charges. Can magnetic forces do work? No.
Let Φ ≡ ∫ B ⋅ da the flux of B through the loop

The flux of a rectangular loop Φ = Bhx

dΦ dx
The flux change rate = Bh = − Bhv
dt dt
The minus sign accounts for the fact that dx/dt is negative.
dΦ
The flux rule for the motional emf: − = Bhv = E
dt
The magnetic field acts, in a sense, as an intermediary in the dΦ
transfer of the energy from the external agent to the rod. Next step proves: E =−
dt
23 24
 The Flux Rule (Generalized) The Flux Rule (Generalized II)
The flux rule can be applied to non-rectangular loop The change in flux is
through non-uniform magnetic field. d Φ = Φ (t + dt ) − Φ (t ) = Φ ribbon = ∫
ribbon
B ⋅ da

Proof: The infinitesimal element of area on the ribbon

da = vdt × dl = ( v × dl )dt
A ⋅ (B × C) = C ⋅ ( A × B)
dΦ = ∫
ribbon
B ⋅ da = ∫
ribbon
B ⋅ ( v × dl )dt
= − (B × A ) ⋅ C
dΦ
= ∫ B ⋅ ( v × dl ) = − ∫ ( v × B) ⋅ dl magnetic force
dt ribbon ribbon
per unit charge
Compute the flux at time t using surface S, and the flux at
=− ∫
ribbon
[( v + u) × B] ⋅ dl = − v∫
ribbon
( W × B ) ⋅ dl
time t+dt, using the surface consisting of S plus the “ribbon” dΦ
that connects the new position of the loop to the old. = − v∫ f mag ⋅ dl = −E qed
25 dt ribbon
26

Example 7.4 Eddy Currents (I)

In a homopolar generator a conducting disk of radius R
What happens when a bar magnet approaches or moves
rotates at angular velocity ω rad/s. Its plane is perpendicular
parallel to a conducting plate? It induces eddy current.
to a uniform and constant magnetic field B. What is the emf
generated between the center and the rim?
Solution:

E = v∫ ( v × B ) ⋅ d A = ∫ vBdr
R

0
R 1
=∫ ω rBdr = ω BR 2
0 2

Hint1: How to choose a proper closed loop?

The eddy current is distributed throughout the plate.
Hint2: The total magnetic flux passing through the disk is
constant in time. Where is the induced emf coming from?
(Ref. Benson & Feyman) 27 28
 Eddy Currents (II) Example
A metal rod of length L sides at constant velocity v on
Applications of the eddy current: conducting rails that terminate in a resistor R. There is a
1. The braking system of a train. uniform and constant magnetic field perpendicular to the plane
of the rails. Find: (a) the current in the resistor; (b) the power
2. Eddy current generated in copper dissipated in the resistor; (c) the mechanical power needed to
pots can also be used for “inductive pull the rod.
cooking”. Solution: dΦ dA
(a) Vemf = =B = Blv
3. Project a metal ring. The ring gets dt dt
very hot when projected. V Blv
I = emf =
R R
( Blv) 2
(b) Pelec = I 2 R =
R
( Blv) 2
(c) Pmech = Fext ⋅ v =
29
R 30

More Examples
Homework of Chap.7 (part I)

Prob. 2, 6, 8

31 32