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APPROACH - ANSWER: GENERAL STUDIES MAINS MOCK TEST - 1246 (2019)

1. Rock-cut structures were closely associated with various religions and religious activities.
Discuss the statement giving relevant examples. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Give brief introduction regarding rock cut architecture in India.
• Discuss in brief how rock-cut structures were closely associated with various religions and
religious activities with examples.
• Conclude on the basis of above points.
Answer:
Rock-cut architecture is the exercise of creating a structure by carving it out of the natural rock. It
occupies a very important place in the history of Indian Architecture. Most of the rock-cut
structures over different periods were closely associated with various religions such as Buddhism,
Jainism and Hinduism.
One of the prominent features found in Indian rock-cut architecture is that it is closely associated
with various religious activities. Both Buddhist and Jain rock cut architecture mainly consisted of
"Chaitya caves", where stupas were enshrined for worship and "Vihara caves", which were
residence of monks.
The association of rock-cut architecture with religion and religious activities can be understood
from the following examples:
1. As a center of religion: Monks of various religions used these rock cut structures as a place of
worship. For example:
a) Barabar Caves in Bihar were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect founded by Makkhali
Gosala,
b) Karle Chaitya in Maharashtra was used as a place of worship by Buddhist monks.
c) Kailasha temple by Rashtrakutas dedicated to lord Shiva in Ellora caves.
2. As a place of residence for monks: Monks also used these caves as abodes. For example:
a) Kanheri caves and Ajanta caves were used by Buddhist monks as Viharas.
b) Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves are believed to be carved out as residential blocks for
Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela.
3. For religious activities like propagating religion and its teachings: For example:
a) The Mauryan emperor Ashoka used stone as a medium of proclamation for the message of
law and tolerance known as “Dhamma” through the rock edicts and pillar edicts.
b) Ajanta caves house paintings illustrating the Jatakas, major events of Buddha’s life, etc.
c) Cave temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses like Badami Cave temples by
Chalukyas depicted themes associated with Dasavatara, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
4. Other activities: The association of Buddhist caves along with the trade routes shows that these
rock-cut caves were not only the place for meditation but were also used as trade centres by the
traders.
Rock cut architectures have been the centers of religion and religious activities for various religions
in India and they remain a rich part of our cultural heritage even today.

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2. The legislative and administrative record of the Congress Ministries during their twenty-eight
months rule under the Act of 1935 was positive, but the period also witnessed the emergence of
serious weaknesses in the Congress. Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Give a brief background of the twenty-eight months rule of Congress Ministries under the Act of
1935.
• Discuss the positive legislative and administrative outcomes of these twenty-eight months rule.
• Then discuss the problems faced by the Congress as an organization during this period.
• Briefly conclude with the overall impact of the twenty-eight months rule of the Congress
Ministries.
Answer:
Congress in July 1937 formed ministries in six provinces i.e. Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces,
Orissa, Bihar, and U.P. under the Government of India Act, 1935 and later in the North West Frontier
Province and Assam.
Various legislative and administrative steps were taken by the Congress ministries during these 28
months rule in provinces which changed the psychological atmosphere of the country and gave the
taste of self rule to the masses. These legislative and administrative steps were:
• All emergency powers acquired by the provincial governments through Public Safety Acts and
the likes were repealed, bans on illegal political organizations, on political books and journals
were lifted. All restrictions of press were removed.
• In Bombay, the government took steps to restore land to their owners, which had been
confiscated by the government as a result of no tax campaign during the Civil Disobedience
Movement in 1930.
• The pensions of officials dismissed during 1930 and 1932 for sympathizing with the movement
were also restored.
• The Congress Ministries tried to give economic relief to the peasants and the workers by
bringing various reforms in the system of land tenures and the reduction of rent, land revenue
and the burden of debt.
• In U.P. a tenancy Act was passed in October 1939, which gave all statutory tenants both in Agra
and Oudh full hereditary rights in their holdings.
• All illegal exactions such as nazrana (forced gifts) and begar (forced unpaid labour) were
abolished in Bihar.
• In Orissa, a tenancy bill was passed granting the right of free transfer of occupancy holding,
reducing interests on arrears of rents.
• Police power was curbed in many provinces.
However, this era also shows the emergence of serious weakness in the Congress as explained
below:
• There was factional strife both on ideological and personal grounds. For example, factional
squabbles within the Congress Ministry and the Assembly party in the Central provinces and
ideological division between left and right wing.
• There was growing misuse of office and creeping corruption in Congress ranks as highlighted
by Gandhiji in the journal Harijan.
• There was a scramble for jobs and positions of personal advantage.
• Many congressmen began to give way to casteism in their search for power.
• The practice of bogus membership made its appearance and began to grow.
Despite these limitations, Congress Ministries continued with their good works for twenty-eight
months and resigned in October 1939 because of the political crisis brought about by the World
War 2. This period influenced and motivated all classes for freedom struggle in coming years as they
knew the value of self-rule. It further shattered the myth, by which the British had held Indians in
subjection - that Indians were not fit to govern themselves.

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3. Kamladevi Chattopadhyay was a multifaceted personality with significant contributions both
to pre and post independence India. Elucidate. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Discuss the role of Kamladevi Chattopadhyay as a freedom fighter, social reformer and advocate
of women’s rights before and after independence.
• State her contributions to art and culture.
• Mention the awards she received for her contributions.
Answer:
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (1903-1988) was a remarkable woman of many passions and gifts. She
played an important role in the struggle for Indian independence and was similarly a key figure in
the international socialist feminist movement. She was an exponent of the idea of decolonization,
and one of the earliest advocates of the idea of the global South.
Her contributions in diverse areas both pre and post independence include:
Freedom Movement:
• She was the first Indian woman to run for political office in the Madras Legislative Assembly in
1926. However, she lost by a small margin.
• She joined the Seva Dal in 1923 and immersed herself in the freedom struggle.
• During the Salt Satyagraha, she was charged with violation of salt laws and sentenced to prison.
She captured the nation’s attention when, in a scuffle with authorities, she clung to the tri-colour
flag.
• During World War II, she went to various countries to gather support for Indian independence.
• She was among the signatories of the new Constitution of independent India.
Women’s rights:
• Despite being widow at a young age, she remarried and faced the opposition of the orthodox
society. She later broke tradition by filing for divorce.
• She was the first Organising Secretary of the All India Women’s Conference and became its
president in 1936
• A key figure in the international feminist movement and attended the International Alliance of
Women in Berlin in 1929.
• Involved herself in the establishment of Lady Irwin College for women.
• Even though she was a strong advocate of Salt Satyagraha, she differed with Gandhiji’s decision
to exclude women in the march.
• She pioneered the cooperative movement, which helped raise the socio-economic status of
women.
Social work:
• In 1923, she joined the Seva Dal, a Gandhian organisation that promoted social upliftment.
Thereafter, she was in charge of the women's section, where she recruited and trained young
girls and women to become voluntary workers, 'sevikas'.
Post independence and rehabilitation:
• After partition, she worked tirelessly to set up the city of Faridabad where refugees from the
North West Frontier Province could be resettled. She also helped set up health facilities there.
Art and culture:
• Contributed to the revival of handicrafts, textiles, drama, art, puppetry etc.
• Set up a series of crafts museums to archive India's indigenous arts and crafts including the
Theater Crafts Museum in Delhi.
• Started the Natya Institute of Kathak and Choreography and the Indian National Theatre in
1944.
• She was instrumental in setting up the All India Handicrafts Board, and was its first chairperson.

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 • Founded the Worlds Crafts Council in 1964 to foster economic development through income-
generating craft related workshops, exhibitions etc.
• Acted in movies such as ‘Tansen’ and ‘Shankar Parvati’.
Literary expertise:
• She wrote about 20 books, including ‘Japan-its weakness and strengths’, ‘Indian Handicrafts’,
‘Indian Women’s Battle for Freedom’ etc.
Awards:
• She was honoured for her work with the ‘Padma Bhushan’, ‘Padma Vibhushan’, ‘Ramon
Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership’ and titles of ‘Ratna Sadsya’ by the Sangeet Natak
Akademi and ‘Desikottama’ by Shantiniketan, the highest awards of both the organizations.
• UNESCO honoured her with an award for her contribution towards the promotion of
handicrafts.
Due to her unparalleled contributions in multiple avenues, she has left an indelible mark in India.

4. The inherent limitations of Napoleon's policy of Continental Blockade ultimately resulted in its
failure. Analyze. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Introduce by giving a brief account of the Continental System of Napoleon Bonaparte.
• Discuss in brief the limitations of this system, which ultimately caused its failure.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.
Answer:
Continental System or Continental blockade was adopted by Napoleon to paralyze Great Britain
through the destruction of British commerce. The decrees of Berlin, 1806 and Milan, 1807
proclaimed a blockade that neutrals and French allies were not to trade with the British. Also,
restrictions were placed on the movements of British ships. They were debarred from using ports in
Europe.
As per Napoleon’s plan, a blockade would not only destroy British trade and economy, but also its
democracy thus, paving way for French exports and increased political influence, establishing
France as the leading power in Europe.
Though British economy suffered initially, the outcome was more disastrous for Napoleon because
of the inherent limitations of the continental blockade policy:
• It was impossible for France to control the vast sea without a powerful navy fleet. England
responded to the continental system with a counterblockade and its powerful navy was more
effective in blockading France.
• Entire Europe was disturbed by this policy and various countries began to conspire against
France. Russia and Sweden jointly started to oppose the continental system. Portugal and Spain
also declared war against Napoleon.
• Napoleon had to wage wars against many countries to enforce this policy. E.g. Russia, Spain and
Holland. His invasion of Russia in 1812 to enforce blockade turned out be disastrous for France.
• The Continental System needed to be applied for a long time over the continent to make it work.
However, after the supply of necessary goods and articles was stopped, people in Europe had to
face great difficulties and they began to oppose the continental system vehemently.
The Continental System represents one of Napoleon’s great miscalculations and a great blunder on
his part. Successive wars drained French resources and ultimately led to his downfall in Battle of
Leipzig (1813) and Battle of Waterloo (1815).

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5. Despite changes in the institution of marriage in recent times, there have been elements of
continuity as well. Discuss in the context of India. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Give a brief introduction about the institution of marriage in Indian context.
• Discuss the changes in institution of marriage in contemporary India.
• Discuss the continuing features in the institution as compared to the past.
• Give a brief conclusion.
Answer:
Marriage is a socially approved union involving two or more individuals in a stable, enduring
arrangement based at least in part on a sexual bond of some kind.
The institution of marriage has been facing winds of change in contemporary India due to
urbanization, modernization, spread of modern education especially among women, opening of
modern occupational roles for women etc.
Changes in institution of marriage in independent India
• Pure personal affair: Traditionally, the primary purpose of the marriage was fulfilment of
religious duty. However, now marriage is becoming a personal affair where the main motivation
is to seek social, psychological and economic happiness by pursuing one’s own free will.
• Goals of marriage: These are changing in general and for the 'urban and educated sections of
the population in particular. A clear preference for small size family has replaced the older
notions of family with a large number of children especially sons being the source of status for
parents. On the individual level, younger couples view marriage as a 'relationship for self-
fulfilment’ rather than primarily for procreation.
• Dissolution of marriage: Separation has become easier and common, with laws allowing quick
dissolution of marriage. Further, there is also increasing acceptability of singlehood.
• Age of marriage: Median age at marriage in India remains 'low" though it has been rising
consistently since 1930 onwards. A tendency towards post-puberty marriages both in rural and
urban areas has developed.
Continuity in institution of marriage in the modern India
• Endogamous marriage: Although the rate of inter-caste and inter-faith marriage has increased,
most marriages take place within caste and religious boundaries. According to Census 2011,
only 5.8% marriages are inter-caste.
• Patrilocal: With regards to rule of residence and family customs in marriage, the society still
remains patrilocal where the couple after marriage settles in the household of the husband.
• Household responsibilities: While women are coming out of home in large numbers to work,
they also have to look after the traditional household work. The share of household burden is
seldom shared by their male counterparts.
• Practice of Dowry: Despite being legally prohibited, dowry prevails in the society under the
guise of different names.
• Social stigma: Issues such as divorce and widow remarriage is still considered a social taboo. In
various communities’ child marriage is still prevalent in India.
Further, SC ruling on LGBT communities (and further prospect of same-sex marriages) and live-in
relationships (in favor of right to maintenance to women in live-in relationships) might also affect
the traditional practices of marriages going forward. Therefore, deep changes in the institution of
marriage have occurred and will continue to occur. At the same time, elements of continuity have
ensured that marriage still remains a dominant aspect of Indian social life.

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6. There are multiple disabilities that a person experiences in the course of ageing. Elaborate.
Also identify key government initiatives taken for addressing them. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the issue of rising elderly population in India.
• State the disabilities experienced by the elderly population during the course of ageing.
• Mention the key government initiatives taken for the welfare of the elderly section of the
population to address the disabilities.
Answer:
India has a rising elderly population (above 60 years) comprising of approximately 8.6% of the total
population as per the 2011 census. A UN report predicts it to be around 19% by 2050. Ageing is a
complex process that inflicts multiple problems on the elderly.
Disabilities that elderly people experience during the course of ageing include:
• Health issues: Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, arthritis, loss of hearing etc. can adversely
influence the quality of life of elderly people. Further, there are numerous gaps in the geriatric
medical ecosystem in India, which hinder their treatment.
• Infrastructural constraints: The existing infrastructure and transportation facilities are not
conducive for the elderly population due to which they face numerous difficulties.
• Financial strain: As per the 53rd round of the NSSO, nearly half of elderly population is
completely dependent on others for their economic needs, while 20% is partially dependent on
others for similar needs.
• Lack of social security facilities: Lack of geriatric care facilities such as old age homes, day
care centres, counselling centres etc. places burden on the elderly as well as their caretakers.
• Increased social and psychological problems: With nuclearisation of families and migration
of family members, the elderly are getting exposed to emotional and physical stress. They also
face psychological issues like depression, uselessness, stigmatisation etc.
Key government initiatives taken to address issues faced by the elderly population include:
• Integrated Programme for Older Persons: It aims at improving the quality of life of older
persons by providing basic amenities like shelter, food, medical care etc.
• Rashtriya Vayoshri Programme: The scheme provides physical aids and assisted-living
devices for senior citizens belonging to BPL category and is fully funded by the central
government.
• National Council for Older Persons: It advises the central and state governments on the entire
gamut of issues related to the welfare of senior citizens and enhancement of their quality of life.
• Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana: It is a pension scheme for the elderly to protect them
against future fall in their interest income due to uncertain market conditions.
• The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act: It makes maintenance
and welfare of parents and senior citizens by children/relatives obligatory and justiciable
through tribunals.
Elderly care in India is fast emerging as a critical element of both private and public concern due to
multiple disabilities faced by the elderly population. Further, it is the duty of the state to make
effective provisions for public assistance in case of old age under Article 41 of the Constitution.
Thus, adequate measures should be taken to address their concerns.

7. Highlight the reasons behind prevalence of low literacy rate among tribals. Also, mention some
initiatives taken by the government in this regard. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the education status of tribals.
• Highlight the reasons behind low literacy rate among tribals.
• Enumerate the initiatives taken by government towards tribal education.

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Answer:
As per Census 2011, the literacy rate of tribals (59%) remains far below the national literacy rate
(74%). The high incidence of illiteracy and low level of education among the tribal people can be
attributed to the following factors:
• Poor economic conditions of Scheduled Tribes: Most of the tribal communities lack financial
resources for accessing quality education and related academic resources.
• Attitude of the parents: There is lack of awareness about the long-term value of formal
education. As education does not yield any immediate economic return, tribal parents prefer to
engage their children in remunerative employment which supplements the family income on
regular basis.
• Location of schools: Considerable distance between home and school and related cost
especially for secondary education disincentivize parents to send their children to school, thus
resulting in higher dropout rates.
• Medium of language: Slow development of bilingual primers containing text in regional and
tribal languages hampers learning (reading and writing) outcomes in schools located in tribal
areas.
• Lack of understanding of tribal culture among teachers: Local teachers lack comprehensive
understanding of ecological, cultural, psychological characteristics of tribal culture. This makes
the education out of tune of the tribal needs. Also, teacher absenteeism compounds the problem
even further.
• Lack of adequate monitoring: Proper monitoring is hindered by poor coordination between
various departments and remote geographical conditions of tribal areas.
The Government has taken many initiatives to uplift the educational status of tribals, thus ensuring
compliance with Articles 14, 15(4), 16 and 21 of the Constitution:
• Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): They are set up in States/UTs to provide quality
middle and high-level education to ST students. Provisions are made for school building
including hostels and staff quarters, playground, students' computer lab, teacher resource room
etc.
• Scheme for the establishment of Ashram schools: The scheme aims for construction of all
girls' Ashram Schools and boys' Ashram Schools in certain extremism affected areas.
• Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme meant for tribal students studying in classes 9 and 10) and
Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme provides financial assistance to ST students pursuing post-
matric courses in recognised institutions. Further, the National Overseas Scholarship
Scheme provides financial assistance to students selected for pursuing higher studies abroad
for Ph.D. and post-doctoral studies.
• Scheme of Strengthening Education among Scheduled Tribe (ST) Girls in Low Literacy
Districts: It aims to bridge the gap in literacy levels between the general female population and
tribal women, through facilitating 100% enrolment of tribal girls in the identified Districts or
Blocks, and reducing drop-outs at the elementary level by creating the required ambience for
education.
• JanshalaProgramme: It is a collaborative effort of the Government of India (GoI) and five UN
Agencies, which aims to make primary education more accessible and effective through a
community based primary education programme.
Though all India ST literacy rate has increased from 47.1% in 2001 to 59.0% in 2011, more needs to
be done to increase education level of tribals especially PVTGs. Special awareness campaigns are
required in remote and extremism affected areas. Further, it is important that local tribals are
accorded priority in teaching jobs and local custom and culture are accorded due importance while
framing educational programmes in tribal areas.

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8. Explain how Continental Drift Theory describes the changing configuration of the continents.
Discuss the prominent evidences given by Alfred Wegener to support his theory. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Explain in brief the continental drift theory.
• Discuss the evidences in support of the continental drift theory, with relevant diagrams.
• Conclude by briefly mentioning the theories post the drift theory.
Answer:
Continental Drift Theory was developed by Alfred Wegener in 1920s. According to the theory, all
the continents formed a single continental mass named Pangaea, which was surrounded by a
mega-ocean Panthalassa. Wegener argued that, around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era), the
super continent, Pangaea, began to split and the drift started. A sea called Tethys divided the
Pangaea into two huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north and Gondwanaland to the
south. Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into various smaller
continents that exist today.
According to Wegener, the continents started drifting primarily in two directions i.e. equator wards
and westwards. The equator ward movement was due to the interaction of forces of gravity, pole-
fleeing and buoyancy while the westward movement was mainly due to tidal forces.

Following are the prominent evidences given by Alfred Wegener to support the Continental Drift
Theory:
• Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): Shorelines of South America and Africa seem to fit in
with each other, especially, the bulge of Brazil fits into the Gulf of Guinea. The west coast of
India, Madagascar and the east coast of Africa seem to have been joined. North and South
America on one side and Africa and Europe on the other fit along the mid-Atlantic ridge.
• Similarity in rocks: The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches
with those from the western Africa. The earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South
America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. This suggests that the ocean didn’t exist prior to that
time.
• Tillite Deposits: Tillite is a sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The
Gondawana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in different
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere – Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia. At the base the system has thick tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation.
Overall resemblance of the Gondawana type sediments demonstrates that these landmasses had
remarkably similar histories. The glacial tillite provides evidence of paleoclimates and drifting
of continents.
• Placer Deposits: Rich placer deposits of gold are found in Ghana coast despite the absolute
absence of source rock in the region. The gold deposits of the Ghana seem to have been derived
from the Brazil plateau when the two continents were once joined.

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 • Distribution of Fossils: Identical species
of plants and animals adapted to living on
land or in fresh water have been found
on either side of the marine barriers.
Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted
to shallow brackish water. The skeletons
of these have been found only in two
areas: Southern Cape Province of South
Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil.
The two localities presently are 4,800 km
apart with an ocean in between them.
Similarly, presence of glossopteris
vegetation in carboniferous rocks of
India, Australia, South Africa, Falkland
Islands, Antarctica, etc. can be explained
on the basis of the fact that these parts were once linked in the past.
Wegener’s theory was criticised on the grounds of the forces such as pole-fleeing force and tidal
force, which are considered to be too weak to be able to move continents. Presently, the theory of
continental drift has been overshadowed by theories like ‘Sea Floor Spreading theory’ and ‘Plate
Tectonics theory’, which provide a different explanation for the drift of continents.

9. The variety of landforms on the earth’s surface is the result of internal and external forces.
Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Introduce by mentioning the source of energy for both processes.
• Explain the internal forces and associated landforms.
• Explain the external forces and associated landforms.
Answer:
Landforms on the surface of the earth are constantly being created, modified and destroyed by a
variety of forces. These are broadly categorised into internal (those which originate from inside of
the earth) and external (those which originate on/outside the surface). The internal (endogenic)
forces are mainly land building in nature, whereas the external (exogenic) forces are mainly land
wearing.
Endogenic Processes
The endogenic forces are mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
primordial heat from the origin of the earth. The internal movements in the earth are manifested in
some form or the other on the surface, which creates new landforms. Diastrophism and volcanism
are endogenic geomorphic processes.
Diastrophism includes all those processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s
crust. Such as:
• Orogenic movements which are horizontal movements lead to mountain building through
severe folding of earth’s crust, for example, fold mountains like the Himalayas and Andes.
• Epeirogenic processes are vertical movements involving uplift or warping (twisting/
bending) of large parts of the earth’s crust. It is a continent building process. Raised beaches,
elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidence of
uplift and submerged forests and valleys are evidence of subsidence.
• It also includes earthquakes involving local (relatively) minor movements and plate tectonics
involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface and
also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.

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 • Extrusive landforms include mid-oceanic ridges, shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes, caldera
lake, cinder cone etc.
• Intrusive landforms include batholiths, laccoliths, phacoliths, , lopoliths ,dykes and sills.
Exogenic Processes
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic processes. These
processes are a direct result of stress induced in earth materials due to various forces that come
into existence due to sun’s heat.
• Weathering: It is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks
through the actions of various elements of weather and climate
• Mass movement: These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the
direct influence of gravity.
• Erosion: It is a process in which the weathered rock material is transported by the water, wind
and other agents.
• Deposition: It is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents lose their velocity and energy
on gentle slopes and materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
The variety of landforms is caused by these different processes via action of different agents, such
as:
• Running water: V-shaped valleys, incised or entrenched meanders, flood plains, deltas, ox-bow
Lake, meanders.
• Glaciers: U-shaped valleys, circuqe, hanging valleys, morains, eskers, outwash plains and
drumlins.
• Wind: pediplains, deflation hollows, mushroom tables, sand dunes, loess.
• Wave Action: emergent and submergent coasts, cliffs, terraces, stumps, caves and stacks; bars
spits and lagoons.
Both exogenic and endogenic forces act simultaneously. Primary landforms come into existence
because of endogenic processes. They get modified and destroyed, creating secondary landforms,
which are a result of both endogenic and exogenic forces.

10. Explaining the concept of Lapse Rate, examine its relationship with atmospheric stability.
(150 words) 10
Approach:
• Explain what is Lapse Rate and highlight its types.
• Elaborate its relationship with atmospheric stability/instability using graphs, equations.
Answer:
Lapse rate is rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the Earth’s
atmosphere. It is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero when
the temperature is constant and negative when the temperature increases with
elevation (temperature inversion).
Types of lapse rates:
• Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR): This is the actual measured decrease in temperature with
height above the ground (the rate which is actually occurring, not a theoretical rate). Generally,
this is about 6.5 C per 1000 m. This rate does vary and depends on local air conditions.
• Adiabatic lapse Rate (ALR): When a parcel of air mass rises adiabatically, it cools at an
Adiabatic lapse rate. Adiabatic processes are those where no exchange of heat takes place
between the system and the environment. The parcel of air can be assumed to be relatively
isolated from the surrounding environment because of the distinct physical properties
(temperature & humidity) As such, when it rises, the air expands and the energy to expand
comes from the molecules of air within that parcel. These molecules lose their energy and hence
the air mass becomes cold on rising and expanding. Depending on the saturation of the air mass,
there are two types of ALR:

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 o Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): It is the rate of fall in temperature with height for a
parcel of dry air rising adiabatically. As the rising air parcel has less moisture, condensation
during upliftment is low and so there is less release of latent heat of condensation (less
additional heat from inside). As a result, the fall in temperature with height is greater
compared to ELR (normal parcel of air). The rate, at which the parcel cools, stays constant at
9.8 C per 1000m..
o Wet/Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR): The wet lapse rate has to take into account the
fact that energy is released when water condenses, called the latent heat. This means that
once the air has cooled to the dew point and condensation has started, the air parcel cools
more slowly. The average saturated adiabatic lapse rate is about 4.5 C per 1000m. As the air
parcel loses moisture, it gets drier and then cools at faster DALR.
Atmospheric stability/instability is directly linked to the relationship between rise of an air parcel
and its surrounding environment in the atmosphere. Broadly, if on rising, the air parcel becomes
warmer than its surroundings, which cool at ELR, then it will become lighter and hence, rise rise
automatically. If it becomes colder than its surrounding by cooling at a faster pace, then it will
become heavier, and hence, fall back on the ground.
The relationship between lapse rates and atmospheric stability/instability is as follows:
Absolute stability: ELR < WALR < DALR
• Air is stable if the ELR less than the ALR. If, for any reason, a parcel of air is uplifted, it will cool
to lower temperatures than its new surroundings along the ALR. Hence the air parcel will be
denser than its surroundings and will tend to fall back to its original level. In other words,
though a parcel is being forced up, it has negative buoyancy meaning it wants to sink to its
original position where it was in equilibrium with the environment.

Conditional stability: WALR < ELR < DALR

• In this case, the ELR is less than the DALR but greater than the WALR. Air will be stable unless
forced to rise to altitude where condensation occurs, whereupon spontaneous uplift will occur.
Absolute instability: ELR> DALR > WALR
• If a parcel of air is lifted and continues to rise after the lifting force disappears, the atmosphere
is unstable. In an unstable layer, the lapse rate of a rising parcel is less than the lapse rate of the
environment. Though the parcel cools as it rises, its temperature remains warmer than the
surrounding air during its ascent through an unstable layer. Because the parcel is warmer than
the environment, the parcel has positive buoyancy and continues to rise on its own. This
condition leads to extreme weather conditions such as violent thunderstorms.

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11. The colonial period brought the influence of Western architectural forms to India. In this
context, giving examples, highlight the contribution of Europeans to Indian architecture.
(250 words) 15
Approach:
• Discuss the contribution of European powers to Indian architecture.
• Substantiate with examples.
• Conclude on the basis of aforementioned points.
Answer:
As architecture became an emblem of power, colonisation of India by the Europeans had a great
impact on architecture as well. They introduced Western architectural forms to India and enriched
Indian architecture. The Portuguese and French mostly constructed buildings and places of worship
in colonial architectural styles. The British followed this when they initially ruled India, however,
they eventually synthesized colonial style with indigenous styles.
The contributions of European powers to Indian architecture include:
• Portuguese: Their architectural influences can be seen in Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli etc.
o Portuguese colonisers constructed several churches, cathedrals and basilicas, inspired by
the Renaissance, Baroque and Rococo architectural styles. Examples include ‘Churches and
Convents of Old Goa’, ‘Basilica of Bom Jesus’ in Goa, ‘St.Paul’s Cathedral’ in Diu etc.
o The features of Portuguese-style houses found in areas colonised by them include distinctly
large and decorated windows, covered verandas and porches, false wooden interior ceilings,
vividly coloured interior walls etc.
• French: French architecture is discernable even today in former French colonies, especially in
Puducherry.
o French grid patterns, clear sectors, perpendicular streets, large compounds are the distinct
features of the ‘Ville Blanche’ or ‘White Town’ in Puducherry.
o French style of architecture can be distinguished in various places including ‘Statue of Joan
of Arc at Dumas street in Pondicherry’, ‘Our Lady of Angels Church, built in Neo-Gothic style
in Karaikal’, ‘Sacred Heart Church of Chandannagar’ etc.
o Most French-style homes showcase an elevation of carved archways and colonnades
adorned with French shutter windows. They have high walls and multiple courtyards.
• British: The British had the most lasting impact on Indian architecture. Their legacy remains
through buildings and infrastructure in cities such as Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi etc. Various
architectural styles witnessed under their rule are:
o Neo-Classical architecture: Initially, the British attempted at creating authority through
Classical and Neo-Classical prototypes regardless of local climate and traditions. Eg. Raj
Bhawan in Kolkata, Bangalore Town Hall etc.
o Palladian Style architecture: British officers introduced the style in the 18th century,
which featured a great central tower rising from a succession of terraced roofs. Eg. La
Martiniere in Lucknow.
o Victorian Gothic and Art Deco: It includes 19th century Victorian Neo-Gothic buildings and
20th century Art Deco buildings. Eg. Chhatrapaji Shivaji Termius of Mumbai that represents
Victorian Gothic revival style, Mumbai’s Victoria and Art Deco ensemble including Oval
Maidan, the New India Assurance Building etc.
o Indo-Saracenic architecture: In the 19th century during the later part of the British rule,
colonial architecture culminated into the Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was a revival style,
which combined Indo-Islamic architecture especially Mughal architecture with European
styles and Hindu elements. It is reflected in public and government buildings, palaces of
princely state rulers etc. Some of its characteristics are bulbous domes, pointed arches,
vaulted roofs, towers, minarets etc. Examples include the Rashtrapati Bhawan in Delhi,
Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, Gateway of India in Mumbai etc.
People like Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker played a prominent role in the construction of New
Delhi and monuments around, such as the India Gate and the Parliament building, thus leaving a
lasting reminder of the contribution of the Europeans to Indian Architecture.

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12. The nineteenth century witnessed a struggle against the backward elements of traditional
culture. Discuss in the context of socio-religious reform movements. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Start by writing about the new awakening among some enlightened section of Indian society.
• Mention some of the examples of socio-religious reform movements.
• Conclude appropriately - one can also highlight the difference in methods adopted in such
movements in brief.
Answer:
The 19th century Indian society was trapped in religious superstitions and social evils. Females were
the main victim of derogatory practices. They faced inhumane treatment in all aspects of life.
Another equally inhumane factor was caste. It helped upper caste to maintain their supremacy on
the basis of ritual status and the people at lower rung suffered from several disabilities. There was
an awareness that a vast country like India had been colonized by a handful of foreigners because of
internal weaknesses of Indian social structure and culture.
At the same time, the impact of modern western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign
power gave birth to a new awakening. Thoughtful Indians began to look for the ways and means of
removing the weaknesses.
In the religious sphere they sought to remove idolatry, polytheism and priestly monopoly of
religious knowledge and to simplify religious rituals. They were important not for purely religious
reasons but equally for their social implications. Certain examples of such movements include:
• Brahmo Samaj (1829, Bengal): Started by Raja Rammohun Roy with the objective to eradicate
evil practices and purify Hinduism. The movement was based on logic and reasons and fought
against idolatry, child marriage, sati, widow remarriage. Also, they supported the upliftment of
the women and lower caste people.
• Prarthna Samaj (1863, Bombay): They emphasized on reformation of Hindu religious thought
and practices in the light of modern knowledge and tried to free religion of caste orthodoxy and
priestly domination.
• Satyashodhak Samaj (1873, Pune): Jyotiba Phule and others started it in order to liberate the
Shudra, untouchable castes and women from exploitation and oppression of upper caste
domination and Brahmanical supremacy.
• Ramakrishna Mission (1896, Calcutta): Founded by Swami Vivekananda, it carried out
humanitarian relief and social work to uplift the masses and promoted inter-religious harmony.
• Arya Samaj (1875, Bombay): Dayanand Saraswati’s efforts were directed towards the creation
of a classless and casteless society. Therefore, he launched attack on orthodoxy, caste rigidities,
untouchability, idolatry, etc.
While a large number of Indians refused to come to terms with the West and still put their faith in
traditional Indian ideas and institutions, others believed that elements of modern Western thought
had to be imbibed for the regeneration of their society. While differing on the nature and extent of
reforms, nearly all 19th century intellectuals shared the conviction that social and religious reforms
were urgently needed.

13. Explaining the reasons behind partition of Bengal, discuss the successes and limitations of the
Swadeshi movement launched in its wake. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly mention how and when the Bengal partition was carried out.
• Give reasons, official and real, for the partition of Bengal.
• Explain the successes and limitations of the Swadeshi movement launched after the Bengal
partition.
• Conclude by highlighting the importance of Swadeshi movement in terms of lessons learnt.

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Answer:
The partition of Bengal was carried out by dividing it into two provinces by merging West Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa with capital at Calcutta and East Bengal and Assam with capital at Dhaka. The
official reason given by the British government was that the Bengal province was too large to be
administered by a single governor, however, partition happened because of ulterior motives of
British government such as:
• Lord Curzon wanted to weaken the spirit of nationalism, which was strongest in Bengal.
• It was a part of Curzon’s ‘Divide and Rule’ policy between Hindus and Muslims of Bengal.
• The European tea planters of Assam wanted to develop Chittagong as a port to reduce the
transportation cost of tea. A separate state would further mean that they could influence the
governor for a favourable taxation system for economic benefits.
The response to the Bengal partition included launching of Swadeshi movement at Banaras session
of Congress in 1905.
The success of Swadeshi movement can be illustrated by the following points:
• It gave new methods of struggle against the British rule as against the earlier methods of prayer
and petitions. For example, boycott of foreign goods, reliance on Indian made articles, crops of
volunteer and use of popular festivals for mass mobilization etc.
• It was the first pan India freedom movement as it moved beyond Bengal. For example, it was led
by Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab, H.S. Rao in Madras, and Tilak in Maharashtra.
• The social base of anti-British struggle widened significantly with participation of women and
students.
• It led to passing of a resolution on Swaraj or self-rule in 1906 by the Congress.
• Also, economic foundation was strengthened as factories like TISCO were established.
• National Council of Education to align education system on nationalist line was established
during this time.
However, the movement had the following limitations as well:
• It led to a divide within the Congress between the Moderates and Extremists, which eventually
led to the Surat split in 1907.
• The movement was rendered leaderless with most of the important leaders either arrested or
deported such as Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh among others.
• The movement was largely confined to upper and middle classes and failed to reach the masses.
• The movement aroused the people but couldn’t tap the aspirations of people and was unable to
give expression to popular resentment.
• Evoking Hindu festivals and mythology for inspiration tended to exclude Muslims. The
movement was not able to garner support of the Muslims.
Despite these limitations, the Swadeshi movement was a leap forward in Indian freedom struggle
because of its methods, participation of hitherto untouched section and presenting a united front
against British rule in initial years of the movement. The Swadeshi movement also inspired future
movements led by Gandhiji with focus on non-cooperation and passive resistance.

14. The reorganisation of states in India post-independence has been an ongoing process with
distinct contributing factors. Analyse. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Give a brief status of states just after independence and an account of initiation of
reorganization of states.
• Then giving a course of states reorganizations after independence, bring out various
contributing factors.
• Finally explain why reorganization of states is an ongoing process in India.

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Answer:
After independence, India needed to consolidate and integrate around 565 princely states as well as
reorganize the states boundaries as they were drawn in haphazard manner in British provinces.
There were demands by different regions to reorganize states on linguistic basis. The Dhar
Commission and JVP Committee (J.L.Nehru, V.Patel, P.Sitaramyya) favoured administrative over
linguistic grounds as the basis for states’ reorganization.
After this, the demand for redrawing of boundaries on linguistic basis grew further which led to
many agitations and violence. The first linguistic state, after the death of Potti Sriramulu, was
formed by carving out Telugu speaking Andhra Pradesh from Madras in 1953. Further, a
commission was set up and based on it, the States Reorganization Act was passed in 1956 under
which 14 states and 6 Union Territories were created.
Course of States reorganization and various contributing factors till date:
• After creation of Andhra Pradesh, in 1960, State of Bombay was bifurcated into two states that
are Maharashtra and Gujarat. This was done on linguistic basis.
• In 1963, State of Nagaland was created comprising tribal areas from the State of Assam. It was
created based on cultural differences and to preserve the unique culture of tribals.
• In 1966, State of Punjab was reorganized on a linguistic basis. Punjabi speaking areas were
constituted into the State of Punjab while Hindi speaking areas were constituted as the new
State of Haryana and the hill areas were merged with the contiguous Union Territories of
Himachal Pradesh.
• Meghalaya was created in 1969. In 1972, Manipur and Tripura were elevated to the statehood
in 1972. In 1975 Sikkim was admitted as 22nd state of India. Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and
Goa became states in 1987. Preservation of cultures and differences in ethnicity become
major factors in this reorganization of North Eastern states. The demand for autonomy in
administration was another major factor.
• In 2000, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created. 2014 saw creation of
Telangana. Administrative ease along with regional disparities emerged as strong factors in
reorganization of states in modern time.
However, states reorganization task is not yet complete in India and is an ongoing process.
Currently, many demands and long struggles for autonomy and statehood are going on in India. The
demand for Gorkhaland state by people of hill regions of Darjeeling; Bodoland state by Bodo
Student Union, Garoland state from Meghalaya and the demand for dividing Uttar Pradesh into
four states viz. Bundelkhand, Poorvanchal, Paschimanchal, and Avadh Pradesh are gaining
momentum.

15. The Treaty of Versailles was not a peace agreement based on reconciliation but was ‘dictated
peace’ forced on Germany, which eventually triggered the Second World War. Examine.
(250 words) 15
Approach:
• Give a brief introduction about the Treaty of Versailles.
• Discuss how this treaty was not a peace agreement and was a dictated peace on Germany.
• Discuss how the treaty prepared the ground for the Second World War.
• Also, discuss other factors, which led to the outbreak of the Second World War.
Answer:
The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 was one of the most controversial peace treaties signed between
the victorious Allied powers and Germany. The Allied powers had differences among themselves
on issues regarding the treatment of the defeated powers after World War One.
This Treaty is considered as a dictated peace on Germany, as the Germans were not allowed in the
discussions at Versailles and were simply presented with the terms of the Treaty and asked to sign it.
Although they were allowed to criticize the treaty in writing, most of their criticisms were ignored.

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 Apart from this, the provisions of the Treaty were extremely harsh on Germany and were near to
impossible for it to follow:
• War indemnity: Germany was held guilty of aggression and was asked to pay a huge amount of
money as war indemnity. This was to ensure that Germany would grapple with a crippled
economy and not threaten Britain and France.
• Loss of territory: Germany had to give Alsace-Lorraine to France. Parts of its territories were
given to Belgium, Denmark, Poland and Lithuania. It also had to cede its overseas colonies in
China, Pacific and Africa to the Allied nations. Further, many of its African colonies were
converted into ‘mandates’ under the League of Nations.
• Demilitarisation of Rhineland: Rhineland, the land between France and Germany, was
demilitarised and brought under the control of the Allied powers.
• Loss of control of Saar Valley: The coal rich Saar Valley of Germany was to be governed by
France and Britain under the League of Nations’ mandate for 15 years.
• Disarmament: The German army was disbanded and restricted to 100,000 soldiers, its navy to
six cruisers and a few smaller vessels. It also could not have planes, tanks and submarines.
Conscription was also not allowed.
• War guilt: The Treaty placed all blame for inciting the war squarely on Germany and its allies.
• Union with Austria was forbidden to ensure that Germany doesn’t become a powerful state
again.
The Treaty shattered Germany politically, economically and militarily. The German populace and
the leaders blamed reparations for their economic ills, which was exacerbated by the Great
Depression of 1929. Ultimately, it destabilised the Weimar Republic, which was the government
established at the end of the war.
Further, due to lasting resentment of the Versailles Treaty, the Nazi Party and other radical right-
wing parties were able to gain support in the 1920s and early 30s by promising to overturn its
harsh provisions and make Germany a major European power. Eventually, Adolf Hitler came to
power and denounced the Treaty of Versailles. Germany stopped paying war reparations, armed
itself at a rapid pace, drifted towards extreme nationalism and began an expansionist foreign policy.
Thus, peace and order established by the Treaty of Versailles was unstable and short-lived and
prepared a strong ground for the Second World War
However, apart from the Treaty of Versailles, various other major factors played a significant role in
triggering the Second World War. Failure of the League of Nations, appeasement policy of Britain
and France towards Germany despite its aggressive foreign policy, non-aggression pact between
USSR and Germany, rise of fascism in Italy and Japan, etc. cumulatively led to the outbreak of the
Second World War.

16. Legal measures alone are not sufficient for addressing the issue of domestic violence against
women, rather it requires intervention at societal level. Discuss. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Discuss the issue of domestic violence against women in India.
• Mention the legal measures in this context.
• Comment on the need for intervention at the societal level.
Answer:
Domestic violence against women in India is a social reality and a serious violation of their human
rights. It includes physical, sexual or emotional abuse of women by their husbands & other family
members. In order to address the issue, several legal measures have been adopted in India. The
main legal provisions include:
• The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: It includes a comprehensive
definition of abuse, including physical, sexual, verbal, emotional and economic abuse. It also
includes unlawful dowry demands, enlarging the sphere of protection.
• Other legal provisions include Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 and related provisions in the Indian
Penal Code (IPC).
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 Despite legal provisions, domestic violence as a practice continues both covertly and overtly.
National Family Health Survey-4 data states that every third woman in India, since the age of 15,
has faced domestic violence in various forms. The cases related to domestic violence persist not just
due to poor enforcement of laws but because the roots of the problem are firmly entrenched in our
social structures & familial practices:
• There is a clear relationship between strong patriarchal familial structures and limited
capabilities and agency for women, which are strongly correlated with domestic violence
against women.
• Most women do not seek help when they are abused. Only one in four abused women seek
help to try to end the violence they have experienced. This is often because of the taboo
associated with familial discord. In case of married women, it often stems from the desire to
preserve marriage as divorce is stigmatised.
o Further, only a few abused women seek help from any institutional source such as
police, medical institutions, or social service organizations. It may be because domestic
violence is often not handled as a legitimate crime or complaint, but more of a private or
family matter.
• Socio-economic class, educational level, and family structure are other reasons why
domestic violence still persists in India.
• Another issue is marital rape, which is not considered a crime in India, as marriage is deemed
sacred.
This suggests shortcomings in the enforcement of the legal provisions as well as a need for societal
intervention beyond legal remedies. To address the aforementioned factors, the victims need the
support of their family and friends to report instances of domestic violence. Further, the issue needs
deliberation at social settings so that it gets de-stigmatized and those who face violence are able to
discuss their concerns and seek remedies.

17. India is undergoing a demographic transition the implications of which are multipronged.
Analyze. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly define different stages of demographic transition.
• Enlist the factors that depict India’s transition to third stage
• Discuss its implications for India.
Answer:
Demographic transition describes population change over a period of time. The phenomenon can be
broadly explained in four stages:
• Stage I: Period of high fertility and high mortality due to low life expectancy, low technology
levels and high illiteracy leading to no or very low population growth.
• Stage II: Population growth rate increases due to high fertility and reduced mortality rate on
account of improvements in sanitation and health facilities.
• Stage III: Population growth rate slows down as fertility rate declines and mortality rate
continues to be low. The economy witness structural changes along with rapid urbanization.
• Stage IV: Rising urbanization, literacy levels and reproductive knowhow leads to shrinking
family size. Fertility and the mortality rates decline considerably; resultantly, the population is
either stable or grows slowly.

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 India is shifting towards third stage of demographic transition which gets reflected in:
• Sharp slowdown in population growth: Demographic projections show that India’s
population growth will continue to slow rapidly over the next two decades, growing less than
1% during 2021-31 and under 0.5% during 2031-41.
• Declining Total Fertility Rate: As per 4th National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) 2015-16,
India has reached a TFR (Total Fertility Rate) of 2.18 for the first time. This is below the average
world replacement rate of 2.3.
As Economic Survey 2018-19 points out, this demographic transition is not uniform across the
states. While all major States have witnessed a marked deceleration in population growth, the
slowdown in States with historically high population growth such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Haryana is particularly noteworthy. States ahead in the demographic transition will
witness a continued deceleration in population growth and reach near-zero growth rate by 2031-
41. States lagging behind in the demographic transition will also witness a marked slowdown in
population growth during 2021-41.
Implications:
The demographic transition has several implications for policy making in the field of health care, old
age care, school facility, retirement related financial services, public pension funding, income tax
revenue, labour force and labour participation rate and retirement age. Thus,
• In order to reap the benefits of demographic dividend where currently 60% of the population
lie, it is essential that youth is healthy, educated and adequately skilled. This calls for
investments in social sector with special attention to improve employability through initiatives
like Skill India and creation of jobs through Make in India.
• Population in the 5-14 age-group, which roughly corresponds to the number of elementary
school-going children, has already begun declining in India. This may require consolidation of
schools without affecting their accessibility.
• Improved longevity and closure of demographic dividend window in few decades will result in
growing dependent population. This will need investments in senile health care and
infrastructure as well as a plan for increasing the retirement age in a phased manner. It would
also disincentivize large consumer goods makers, which have been looking to leverage India’s
young demographic as the key to consumption.
• The migration patterns across states will undergo a change. The States with rising working age
population will have to meet the labour deficit in many ageing States.
India will need to move beyond policies for population control in the direction of universal social
security, reimagining education based on changing job structures, all inclusive and sustainable
policies and implementing tech-enabled healthcare to fully utilize its demographic potential.

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18. Highlight the significance of watershed development in India. Give reasons for the limited
success of initiatives directed towards watershed management in India. Also, suggest some
measures to improve the design of watershed programs. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly explain the concept of watershed and meaning of watershed development.
• Then highlight the significance of watershed development in India.
• Bring out very briefly some initiatives taken in this regards.
• Give reasons for their limited success.
• Finally suggest some measures to improve aforementioned limitations.
Answer:
Watershed is defined as any surface area from which runoff resulting from rainfall is collected and
drained through a common point. Watershed development refers to the conservation, regeneration
and the judicious use of all the resources within the watershed area.
Significance of watershed development in India:
• According to World Bank’s recent estimates, the rising demand for water along with further
increase in population and economic growth can result in about half the demand for water in
country being unmet by 2030. Implementing good watershed management practices can help
India better manage and augment its water resources.
• Watershed development and effective management will help in sustainable agriculture
growth as well as mitigate the effects of droughts and other challenges related to climate
change.
• In view of the ever shrinking arable land resources, watershed development and management
will help in implementing strategies for restoration of degraded soils and intensification of
existing prime agriculture land.
• It will also help in various other aspects like preventing erosion, controlling flood,
groundwater recharging and stopping distressed migration.
• By promoting rational utilization of land and water resources, watershed management
ultimately improves the standards of living of local population and acts as a key tool for poverty
reduction in rural areas.
Initiatives in this regard:
• Government had set up the National Wastelands Development Board in 1985 under the
MoEFCC and adopted programs based on traditional water management approaches, which
focus on micro-watersheds as the basis for planning and intervention since the late 1980s.
• Drought Prone Areas Program, Desert Development Program and Integrated Wastelands
Development Program were the other programs implemented by the government.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojna (PMKSY) is aimed at restoring the ecological balance
by harnessing, conserving and degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and
water.
• Neeranchal, a World Bank assisted National Watershed Management Project, which is designed
to strengthen and provide technical assistance to the Watershed Component of PMKSY.
However, these initiatives were met with limited success as:
• These programs put more focus on rural development than specifically on watersheds and
water resources management.
• Such projects show visible impact in long term and states are reluctant to allocate resources.
Also from 2016 change in funding patterns in PMKSY from a 90:10 Centre-state ratio to 60:40
has also contributed to slowdown.
• Lag in implementation and delay in coordination among different ministries is another
major reason.
• Lack of enthusiasm and empowerment among local communities and watershed users also
making the success a short term story as the local stakeholders are not considered in selection
of watershed.

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 Measures required in this regards:
• A robust decentralized and participatory ecosystem needs to be developed ensuring
inclusion of all stakeholders at all stages of the project.
• Evidence based micro watershed plans need to be developed and implemented.
• Link conservation efforts to livelihoods for sustainable growth of the region and invest in
capacity building and information sharing.
• Better coordination among different implementing agency by bringing them under single
umbrella.
• Promoting private participation and investment through various routes like CSR.
Since, about 60 per cent of total arable land (142 million ha) in India is rain-fed, watershed
management can play a crucial role in determining food, social, and economical security and
providing life support services to rural people in the long term.

19. Explain the relationship between raw materials and location of industries. How are
globalisation and technological advancements changing this relationship? (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Introduce by giving a brief account of relationship between raw materials and the location of
industries.
• Discuss in brief the effect of globalization and the technological advancements on this
relationship.
• Give appropriate examples wherever necessary.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.
Answer:
Industrial locations are primarily driven by costs. Merely high endowment of resources does not
cause industry to be attracted to an area. It is the comparative advantages that a place enjoys that
actually attracts industries. These are influenced by several factors like access to raw materials,
power, market, capital, transport and labour, etc. It is economical to locate the manufacturing
industries at a place where cost of production and delivery cost of manufactured goods to
consumers are the least.
There is a strong relationship between availability of raw material and location of the industry as
seen below:
• Industries which use heavy and bulky raw materials in their primary stage in large quantities
are usually located near the supply of the raw materials. For example, Iron and steel industries,
coal industry, etc.
• Industries based on raw materials which loses weight in the process of manufacturing are
located near source of raw material. For example, Sugar mills, etc.
• Industries based on raw materials which cannot be transported over long distances because of
their perishable nature are located near source of raw material. For example, Agro-processing
and dairy products.
• Finished product of one industry may well be the raw material of another. For example,
pig iron, produced by smelting industry, serves as the raw material for steel making industry. So
these industries are located closer to each other.
• Industries based on raw materials which cannot bear high transport cost are located near
source of raw material. For example: Cotton textile industry, etc.
However, at present, this trend seems to be changing due to the effects of globalization and the
technological advancements in the following manner:
• Decreased transportation cost due to technological advances: This has changed the above
relationship and now a days industries may establish themselves away from the source of raw
material.

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 • Market and profit orientation: Industries are being set up near the market places due to
increasing demand for products and also increasing trend of demand for customization of
products. For example: Mobile making industry, etc.
• Improved backward linkages and cold chain storage: Technological advancement has made
it possible to transport raw materials having lesser shelf-life to long distances without getting
perished.
• State policies and incentives: In era of globalization, states try to incentivize industries and
attract investment which has influenced the location of industries irrespective of availability of
raw material. For example: Free trade agreements, tax exemptions, customs duty, etc.
• Creation of artificial environment: Technological advancement has enabled creation of
artificial environment and facilities required for production of desired product as done in
natural environment. For example: Humid condition required for cotton textile industry is being
artificially created by using technology.
• Expansion of industries: Due to globalization, a single industry is setting up its branches at
different places without having need to set up an industry at the place of raw material always.
Globalization is dismantling the trade barriers between nations. Also, Industries are becoming
footloose i.e losing their locational dependence on raw material and with the leveraging of
technology, they are less and less dependent on raw materials only.

20. Explain how natural greenhouse effect helps in maintaining Earth's heat budget. What are the
possible implications of rising concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in atmosphere on
Earth's heat budget? (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Define Earth’s Heat Budget.
• Explain how Greenhouse effect helps maintain Earth’s energy budget by making use of diagrams
/flow charts.
• Discuss the potential consequences of increasing concentration of GHG’s in the atmosphere.
Answer:
Heat budget or heat balance of the earth means that the earth as a whole does not accumulate or
lose heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the
form of insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
GHG Effect & its role in maintaining Earth’s Heat Budget:
About 29 percent of incoming sunlight is reflected back to space by bright particles in the
atmosphere or bright ground surfaces, which leaves about 71 percent to be absorbed by the Earth’s
surface.
Since the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth together absorb 71 % of incoming solar radiation,
so they must radiate an equal amount of energy back to space for the average temperature to
remain stable.
The atmosphere absorbs 23% of incoming sunlight, while the surface absorbs 48%. For the energy
budget at earth’s surface to balance, processes on the ground must get rid of the 48% of incoming
solar energy that the ocean and land surfaces absorb. Energy leaves the surface through three
processes: 25% through evaporation, 5% through convection, and 17% through emission of
thermal infrared energy.
It is in the emission of thermal infrared energy by the surface, where Greenhouse effect plays the
main role.

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 The earth’s surface radiates a net equivalent of 17% of incoming solar energy as thermal infrared.
However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12% of incoming solar energy. The
remaining 5-6 % of incoming solar energy is transferred to the atmosphere when greenhouse
gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy radiated by the surface.
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, and other trace gases absorb
thermal infrared energy radiated by the earth’s surface. When greenhouse gas molecules absorb
thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises and they then radiate an increased amount of
thermal infrared energy in all directions. Some of it spreads downward and ultimately comes back
into contact with the Earth’s surface, where it is re-absorbed thus raising the temperature of the
earth. This supplemental heating of the Earth’s surface by the atmosphere is the natural greenhouse
effect.
Implications of rising concentration of GHGs in atmosphere on Earth's Heat Budget:
Increasing concentration of GHG’s has forced changes in the manner in which earth radiates heat.
The heat budget as such remains the same, as in amount of heat entering and leaving will still have
to be the same. However, the time which the outgoing IR radiation spends in the atmosphere
increases, leading to increased absorption of heat. Hence, the energy that reaches the outer
atmosphere of earth will still remain the same, however, the time it spends in the earth’s
atmosphere will increase, leading to increased temperatures at the surface. As the temperatures
increase, the amount of heat radiated by the earth would increase. However, it would not go back to
space before remaining trapped in the greenhouse gas infested atmosphere for a longer duration,
causing higher temperatures. As long as greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise, the energy
imbalance will continue to grow, and surface temperatures will continue to rise. In the past
century, global average surface temperature has risen between 0.6 and 0.9 degrees Celsius, and it
will further increase at least 0.6 degrees in response to the existing energy imbalance.

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