Martin N 2009

Development of the control
system for a small-scale

torrefaction pilot plant
Martin Nordwaeger
Master of Science Thesis in

Energy Engineering.
Umeå Institute of Technology
(löpnummer som tilldelas)
i
ABSTRACT
Torrefaction implies heating of for example biomass up to 250-300°C during 10-360 minutes in an
inert atmosphere. Almost all water releases during torrefaction of biomass, so moisture content
reduces to about 1-3%. Energy containing gases forms, but the mass loss is greater than the energy
loss, so the materials energy density increases during torrefaction. Fibers in the biomass break during
torrefaction and OH-groups are destroyed, resulting in a friable material with hydrophobic properties,
which also reduces the biological degradation effect. Torrefaction is therefore attractive in many
ways; storage and handling is easier, transportation is more economically and grinding is easier.
Since earth is suffering of global warming caused by the humanity’s green house gas emissions, it is
desirable to reduce the fossil fuels and thereby the green house emissions. No single technology or
source can reduce the emissions sufficiently, but biomass can replace a substantial part of the fossil
fuels. A challenge is that none of today´s technologies, except gasification, can convert the biomass
energy to electricity and petroleum substitutes in an efficient way. However, biomass gasification has
not yet reached commercialization in large scale, as coal gasification has, because of some challenges
as formation of tars. High temperature in the gasifier cracks the tars, but only entrained flow gasifiers
permits these temperatures. A challenge with biomass entrained flow gasifiers is the need for
dispersed fuel (solid fuel typically <100 μm). Unprocessed biomass is costly to grind to this size but if
the biomass is torrefied, it is becoming brittle, thus easier and less costly to grind.
The pre-treatment method torrefaction probably makes it possible to produce energy rich and tar
free synthetic gas trough biomass gasification. This gas can be converted to for example hydrogen
(H2), methanol, DME or FT-diesel. Torrefaction and subsequent pelletization also facilitates biomass
logistics in general and may significantly enhance conversion from fossil fuels to biomass in several
sectors. It is therefore a promising step towards a less fossil fuel dependent society.
No small-scale torrefaction pilot plant is available anywhere in the world but there is a need for one.
Therefore is a torrefaction pilot plant under construction at BTC/SLU. This report aims to develop the
process control and data acquisition system needed for the plant to function correctly.
The torrefaction pilot plant consists mainly of the reactor, transportation system for the material
before and after the reactor, gas pipes for the formed gases and a VOC-burner for these gases. The
reactor is a 2 m long, 0.35 m diameter, rotating drum with electric heaters on the outside. The
temperature is measured at 24 places in the plant, of which five is measuring the temperature inside
the torrefaction drum. Oxygen level is measured at four places of which one is measuring inside the
reactor, to ensure an inert atmosphere. Nitrogen inserts before and after the drum, also to ensure
inert atmosphere, and these flow rates are measured. Two pressure sensors measure the pressure
inside the reactor.
The process control system consists of a control program made in LabVIEW, and compact FieldPoint
as a data acquisition system. The seven electric heaters and the eight motors are controlled by this
system. In addition, the nitrogen flows are controlled in this way. Residence time of the biomass, i.e.
time inside the reactor, is determined by the drum rotation speed and inclination speed of the drum.
By the end of this thesis, the process control system and data acquisition system worked properly. An
initial test with biomass was performed which proved that the pilot plant is functioning.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Table of content ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................... v
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 A Severe Challenge – The Climate change .......................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Is there a solution? ............................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Objective ................................................................................................................................. 4
2 Theory ............................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Torrefaction ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.1.1 Application area for torrefied biomass ............................................................................... 7
2.2 Combustion And Gasification .................................................................................................. 8
2.2.1 Entrained-flow Gasification ................................................................................................ 9
3 The torrefaction pilot plant ............................................................................................................ 11
3.1 Design of the torrefaction pilot plant ................................................................................... 11
3.1.1 Screw feeder and rotary vane feeder ............................................................................... 11
3.1.2 VOC-burner ....................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.3 Steam super heater .......................................................................................................... 12
3.1.4 Torrefaction drum ............................................................................................................ 12
3.1.5 Electric heaters ................................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Data acquisition system ........................................................................................................ 13
3.2.1 Labview ............................................................................................................................. 13
3.2.2 Compact FieldPoint for data acquisition .......................................................................... 14
3.2.3 Thermocouples ................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.4 Lambda probes ................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.5 Mass flow meter and controller ....................................................................................... 15
3.2.6 Differential pressure transmitter ...................................................................................... 15
3.2.7 Static frequency changer and Solid state relay ................................................................ 16
3.2.8 Noise reduction ................................................................................................................ 16
3.2.9 Sampling rate .................................................................................................................... 17
4 Process control system ................................................................................................................... 18
4.1 PID controller ........................................................................................................................ 18
4.1.1 Tuning ............................................................................................................................... 19
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4.2 Programming design ............................................................................................................. 19

4.2.1 Log data to file .................................................................................................................. 19
4.2.2 Temperature control ........................................................................................................ 20
4.2.3 Profile or single SP ............................................................................................................ 20
4.2.4 Normal PID or auto tuning ................................................................................................ 21
4.2.5 Read and write to cFP ....................................................................................................... 21
4.2.6 Controller implementation ............................................................................................... 21
5 Evaluation and future work ............................................................................................................ 23
5.1 Evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 23
5.2 Future work ........................................................................................................................... 23
6 Discussion & Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 24
7 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 25
Appendix A - design of the torrefaction pilot plant .................................................................................. I
Appendix B – list of installed equipment ................................................................................................... I
iv
ABBREVIATIONS
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
DME Dimethyl Ether
FT Fischer-Tropsch
GHG Green House Gases
ETPC Energy Technology and Thermal Process Chemistry (Umeå University)
SLU Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
BTC Bioenergy Technology Centre (SLU in Umeå)
FBC Fluidized Bed Combustion
FBG Fluidized Bed Gasification
PIG Products of Incomplete Gasification
VOC Volatile organic compound

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the following people who have helped me during this thesis:
Gunnar Kalén and Mikael Thyrel at BTC who have built many of the mechanical parts of the
torrefaction pilot plant and helped me with the physical installation of many of the equipments.
Anders Nordin, my supervisor at ETPC, and Ingemar Olofsson, ETPC, who gave me the opportunity to
do this thesis and have helped me during this time.
Ulf Nordström, ETPC, who built the VOC-burner and answered my technical questions.
BioEndev, Övik Energi, Umeå Energi, Umeå University and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
who have supported this pilot plant financially.
ETPC 1 Umeå University
2008-11-07
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.1.1 A SEVERE CHALLENGE – THE CLIMATE CHANGE
Global temperature is slowly rising. In the past 100 years, from 1906 to 2005, the global surface
temperature has increased by 0.74°C [0.56°C - 0.92°C] [1]. Global average sea level is rising and
mountain glaciers and snow cover have declined on average in both hemispheres.
Long-lived green house gases (GHGs) are present in higher concentrations in the atmosphere than in
the last 10,000 years. The most important GHG originating from human activity is CO2 followed by CH4
and N2O. The cause of the temperature increase is the gases absorption of IR radiation and that there
are more GHGs in the atmosphere than the earth naturally can handle. Another source for the climate
change is aerosols in the atmosphere, i.e. particles that affect the radiation balance. Different sectors
are responsible in different proportion for the climate change (Figure 1).
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% [1] Energy supply
[1] 26% [2] Industry
[2] 19% [3] Forestry
[3] 17%
[4] Agriculture
[4] 14%
[5] Transport
[5] 13%
[6] Residential and
[6] 8% commercial buildings
[7] 3% [7] Waste and wastewater
FIGURE 1. DIFFERENT SECTORS SHARE IN TOTAL ANTHROPOGENIC GHG EMISSIONS IN 2004 IN TERMS OF CO2-EQUIVALENT.
ORIGINAL DATA FROM [1].
1
About 60% of the total GHGs, calculated in CO2-eq /yr, originated from fossil fuels in 2004 [2]. The
rest of the GHGs are mainly CO2 from deforestation, decay of biomass leftovers and drained peat
soils, CH4 from energy, agriculture and waste and N2O from agriculture.
Fossil fuels as coal and oil are dominating the energy supply in the world and this is problematic
because they are the major cause for the climate change. According to the Swedish Energy Agency [3]
there will be no lack of oil the nearest 25 to 30 years and theoretically the oil extraction can continue
so that oil will be the dominating type of energy by the end of this century. Other sources are more
pessimistic; estimating that oil supply will very soon decline, thus peaking the oil production within a
few years time [4]. The oil price is according to the Swedish Energy Agency [3] not going to increase to
such level that oil will no longer be used and give forced transition to alternative energy sources. The
transition must instead come from the ongoing climate debate.
1
The amount of CO2 emissions that would cause the same radiative forcing as the emitted amount of
GHGs is called CO2eq (carbon dioxide equivalent).
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Many different scenarios are possible in the future depending on the level of GHGs emissions in the
following decades. According to IPCC, global temperature will very likely continue to rise by at least
0.1°C per decade and more probably 0.2°C per decade [1]. This small temperature change can cause
big changes in the climate. Changes can be extremely high temperatures, heat waves, heavy rainfalls,
higher intensity for tropical cyclones and rising of global sea level. This climate change will affect
people in many ways; they will suffer from hunger, water shortage and coastal flooding. Up until now
it´s most the industrial countries that are responsible for the anthropogenic GHG emissions. However,
those that will suffer earliest and most are the poorest countries and people.
The climate change can also cause problem in the global economy. If nothing is done to stop the
climate change, the overall costs and risks will be equivalent to losing at least 5% of the global GDP
each year. The costs to reduce GHGs emissions so the worst impacts of climate change are reduced
are around 1% of global GDP each year [5]. This means that it´s far more economical to reduce the
emissions instead of dealing with the consequences and above all it´s better for people all around the
globe to do so.
1.1.2 IS THERE A SOLUTION ?

Sadly, no single silver-bullet can solve this problem and it is generally extremely extensive measures
required. For both production and use of energy, there is a need for many different techniques and
solutions, for reducing the GHG emissions. Unfortunately, the present situation lacks good cost- and
environmental efficient successors to fossil fuels.
The global and local environment needs a replacement for petroleum, and biofuels have the potential
to replace a substantial part of it, about 10% by 2030. For the future, the conversion of ligno-cellulosic
sources into biofuels is the most attractive biomass option [2]. The future success of new
technologies to utilize cellulose biomass is important for the global potential for biofuels.
Ethanol from sugar cane is the best successor to petroleum for transport of the commercially
produced biofuels today, comparing well to wheels looking at CO2eq GHG emissions [6]. Other types
of liquid biofuels present today are ethanol from grain or sugar beet and biodiesel from rapeseed, but
they are not as good as ethanol from sugar cane.
It is uncertain which propellant and production routes for transport that will be mostly used in the
future. Possibly, it will be changing over time or it will be several different propellants in parallel.
Either way it is unwise to lock all production of biofuels to one or a few types of routes and
propellants, for example bioethanol. Gasification of biomass or coal produces a synthesis gas that can
be further processed to a wide variety of propellants. Some of them are hydrogen (H2), methanol,
DME and FT-diesel. Since the gasification step is in principle the same for the different propellants, it
is flexible and economic to switch from for example FT-diesel to DME or hydrogen if the market or
politics demands it. The various conversion routes from biomass to biofuels are different in their well-
to-wheel efficiency and land use area efficiency (Figure 2). DME and methanol has top efficiency of
these alternatives.
Coal gasification has been in commercialization since 1812 but the technology has been developed
extensively since then [7]. Several companies have their own gasification technology and 2005 there
were nine different suppliers of large gasification plants [8]. Many commercial coal gasification
projects are in progress all over the world, which implies that the technology is proven and
developed. The opposite is valid for biomass gasification. Very few commercial plants exist and
research has not reached any consensus in what type of technology that should be used. This is due
to that gasification of biomass is somewhat different from gasification of coal, so new challenges arise
and needs to be solved. These challenges can be ash related like bed agglomeration (in fluidized beds)
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or slagging, and low quality on the syngas because of tars and other products of incomplete
gasification (PIG). Tars and PIG content reduces when gasification temperature increases. Peat as fuel
additive allows a higher combustion temperature in FBC since peat prevents agglomeration. Olofsson
[9] showed that peat as fuel additive in a FBG makes it possible to gasify at a higher temperature
without agglomeration (up to 86°C higher than without peat) and thereby decreases the amount of
tar produced.
Efficiency well-to-wheel (%) Land use efficiency (km/hectare/year)

12000
Land use efficiency (km/hectare/year)

25% 23% 23%
Efficiency well-to-wheel (%)
21% 10000
20%
19% 19%
20% 18%
16% 8000
15%
6000
10%
4000
5% 2000
0% 0
FIGURE 2. EFFICIENCY WELL-TO-WHEEL AND LAND USE EFFICIENCY FOR SOME BIOFUELS2. ORIGINAL DATA FROM [10].
An entrained flow gasifier generates less tar in the synthesis gas, partly because of the high
temperature. Entrained flow gasifiers have not been used extensively for biomass in general, but it
could be more feasible to use torrefied biomass grinded to powder. By using torrefied biomass, it is
becoming possible to produce a relative clean synthesis gas. Torrefaction implies heating to about
250-300°C in an inert atmosphere. The torrefied material is then relatively easy to grind to a fine
powder. The powder has very low moisture content, has hydrophobic properties and has high heating
value. The most important property is however the resulting increased feadability for entrained flow
gasifiers.
Petroleum for transport is however not the only cause to global warming. Combustion of coal for
electricity production and heat is another major cause. Co-combustion of biomass with coal often
needs the biomass to be a fine powder, and non-pre-processed biomass is difficult to grind to such a
fine powder. As already mentioned, torrefied biomass can be grinded to powder and then be used as
co-combustion fuel. Torrefied biomass can therefore replace both petroleum and coal, as long as
there are sufficient amounts of biomass.
2
Synthetic diesel, DME, methanol and hydrogen are produced from gasification. Biodiesel is produced
from esterification and ethanol is produced from fermentation. Biogas is extracted from biologically
degradable material.
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1.2 OBJECTIVE
A new concept for more cost efficiently producing synthesis gas from biomass has been developed by
ECN in Holland and evaluated at ETPC. Torrefaction of biomass, which seems like a promising step to
produce biofuels and coal-replacements, is one part in the process. The torrefaction technique is not
fully developed and more R&D work is required.
Only a few torrefaction reactors are constructed in the world. There are maximum five batch lab scale
reactors. At ECN two bench scale pilot reactors have been in operation. Commercial plants will be
built, but it is a rather big step to go from bench scale to fully commercial and many problems can
arise that cannot be foreseen in a bench scale device. Research on a reactor made for commercial
production can be difficult and expensive, but not all research in this area can be done in a bench
scale unit.
Due to this, a small-scale pilot plant is under construction at BTC in collaboration between Umeå
University (ETPC), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Umeå Energi, Övik Energi and
BioEndev. A process control and data acquisition equipment has to be installed for the plant to work
and later for optimization of the process. The objective of the work performed during this thesis
period was to develop this process control and data acquisition system.
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2 THEORY
2.1 TORREFACTION
Torrefaction is an interesting and promising pre-treatment technology for biomass materials. The
biomass is heated and the result is a fuel with many desired properties, and some of the properties
are quite like coal. When biomass is torrefied it is becoming hydrophobic [11], i.e. water is excluded
from the material. The moisture content of the biomass is reduced significantly after torrefaction; to
about 1-3%, compared to untreated biomass that has a moisture content of 10% to 60%. Biological
degradation because of microbes, which is a severe problem for untreated biomass, does not occur
thanks to the dry and hydrophobic nature. Long-time storage is possible without the risk for self-
ignition or material wetting. Another property of torrefied biomass is higher energy density compared
to untreated biomass. Transporting torrefied biomass is therefore more economic efficient. Grinding
torrefied biomass to powder is also easier and less expensive than for untreated biomass as well as
transport and feeding in general.
During torrefaction, biomass heats to between 200°C and 300°C during 10-360 minutes depending on
temperature, type of biomass and desired product. The biomass goes through five steps during this
time according to Bergman [12]:
i. Initial heating. Temperature rises until moisture starts to evaporate at 100°C (when not
pressurized).
ii. Pre-drying. Temperature is about 100°C during the evaporating of free water in constant
rate. When evaporation rate starts to decrease, the next stage is starting.
iii. Post-drying and intermediate heating. Increasing of temperature to about 200°C releases the
physically bound water from the biomass. Moisture content is very low after this stage.
Volatiles forms and accordingly loss of mass initiates.
iv. Torrefaction. From the previous step the temperature rises to about 250-300°C and is
constant for some minutes and then the temperature is reduced to 200°C. When the
biomass temperature raises more volatiles forms, so mass loss continues until or after the
temperature falls.
v. Solids cooling. The remaining solid cools from 200°C to final temperature depending on
further application.
Note that the temperatures above are the mean of the biomass material temperatures, not the
surrounding temperature. Figure 3 shows a visualization of these five stages. The largest heat demand
is during the two drying stages because the evaporating of the water in the biomass in those stages.
During the initial heating and torrefaction step relatively little heat is needed and during the cooling
step heat is released from the solids. The torrefaction reaction time is defined as the time from the
torrefaction stage starts to when the temperature is falling in the same stage [12]. Torrefaction
residence time is the total time the biomass is in the reactor. Reaction time can vary depending on
the temperature in the torrefaction stage. A higher temperature combined with a low reaction time
can give the same result (of the torrefied biomass) as a low temperature combined with a high
reaction time. The highest temperature should not proceed over 300-320°C because at that
temperatures tar formation can occur.
When the torrefaction temperature increases and/or the residence time is increased, the H/C and
O/C atomic ratios decrease in the torrefied biomass. In other words, it is relatively more carbon left in
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3
the biomass compared to hydrogen and oxygen. The effect of this is that the calorific value (CV [13])
increases from typically 17 -19 MJ/kg for untreated wood to 18-23 MJ/kg for torrefied wood.
FIGURE 3.THE FIVE STAGES DURING THE TORREFACTION PROCESS. ORIGINAL IMAGE FROM [12].
According to Zanzi et al. [14] is the volatiles that forms mainly CH4, H2, CxHy, CO and CO2 and the
content of CH4, H2, CxHy and CO increases with temperature while the CO2 content decreases.
According to Prins [15] is the volatiles mainly acetic acid and water, and smaller amounts of
methanol, formic acid, lactic acid, furfural, hydroxyl acetone and phenol. The components of the
volatiles are energy carriers, except CO2 and water, which means that the volatiles contain energy
originating from the torrefied biomass. This in turn means that there is an energy loss in the biomass.
But loss of energy is smaller than loss of mass (Figure 4), resulting in higher energy density of the
torrefied biomass [16].
3
CV is calculated as CV=0.34%C+1.4%H-0.16%O
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0.3M | 0.1E Torrefaction gases
Biomass Torrefied biomass

Torrefaction
1M | 1E 250-300°C 0.7M | 0.9E
FIGURE 4. MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE OF A TYPICAL TORREFACTION PROCESS. M=MASS, E=ENERGY.
In the torrefaction stage, some different reactions occur. According to Prins [15] is the most
important reactions described by a two-step mechanism. The decomposition of hemicelluloses is the
first step and it is much faster than the second step, which is the decomposition of cellulose. The first
step has higher solid yield (70-88%) than the second step (41%), but this can differ depending on what
type of biomass that is torrefied. The reactions results in various positive effects. The decomposition
of hemicelluloses and cellulose breaks down the bonds of the cellulose fibers and decreases the
length of the fibers [11]. This also makes the torrefied biomass brittle, and thus easy to grind to a fine
powder, which is one of the main goals of torrefaction. Figure 5 compares power consumption of
wood and torrefied wood when pulverized; the conclusion from this is that less energy is required to
get smaller particles. The reactions during torrefaction also destruct OH-groups in the biomass
resulting in another positive effect; it becomes hydrophobic.
FIGURE 5.MEASURED POWER CONSUMPTION UPON SIZE REDUCTION. ORIGINAL IMAGE FROM [17].
According to Felfli [18] is also wood briquettes possible to use for torrefaction. Depending on the
operating parameters, the weight yield lies between 43 and 94 %, and energy yields ranged from 50
to 97 %. This study also concludes that higher temperature and longer residence time gives lower
weight and energy yields. The briquettes became hydrophobic at temperatures between 250-270°C.
2.1.1 APPLICATION AREA FOR TORREFIED BIOMASS

Torrefied biomass has a large range of uses, making it attractive for producers that want to be flexible
for the future.
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One application is as powder in combustion facilities instead of for example oil and coal-powder.
Since torrefied biomass can replace fossil fuels, it is sometimes called biocoal. One drawback is that
more or less rebuilding of the combustion facility is necessary in order to use torrefaction-powder.
Co-firing with coal is probably going to be the way to use biocoal instead of pure biocoal combustion
plants. Torrefied biomass fuels are also attractive in the market for small-scale heat and power
production.
Making pellets from the torrefied material is another option, which is reducing the volume of biomass
and therefore higher energy per volume. Traditional pellets from sawdust have an energy density of
3 3
8-10.5 GJ/m . Torrefied pellets have an energy density of 14-18 GJ/m [19]. Torrefaction combined
with pelletization also produces pellets less costly than traditionally, 2.5 €/GJ compared to 3.4 €/GJ
[20]. The densification is positive in many ways; the biomass is easier to transport, store and use.
Torrefied pellets have the positive effects from torrefaction that are very good for long-term storage:
the hydrophobic properties and the ability to withstand biological degradation. The strength of the
pellets is also higher when using torrefaction process instead of traditional process, making it more
durable for example transportation. Pellets from torrefied material can of course be grinded into
powder again, for using it for combustion or gasification. According to Zwart et al. is torrefaction also
the most economic feasible and attractive option before shipping overseas to a gasification plant [21].
By using torrefaction-powder in a gasification facility, as an entrained-flow gasifier (see chapter 2.2.1),

syngas is produced. From the syngas a wide arrange of additional products is possible to produce.
Next chapter (2.2) explains this in more detail. A schematic overview of how the production could
look like is seen in Figure 6.
FIGURE 6. OVERVIEW OF THE PRODUCTION CHAIN FROM FOREST TO SYNTHETIC FUEL.
2.2 COMBUSTION AND GASIFICATION

Combustion is thermal conversion of fuels for producing heat. Common fuels are coal, oil and
biomass, all of them in many different types and sometimes combinations. They mainly consist of
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carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In biomass, water is another important component. The fuel
components react with oxygen if temperature is high enough and then the reactions release the
stored energy as heat. The oxygen in the fuel is not enough so combustion starts when oxygen and (in
the beginning) heat is added. Complete combustion occurs when the oxygen content is enough for
converting all carbon to CO2 and all hydrogen to H2O (𝐶 + 2𝐻2 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡). The
amount of O2 to the left in this chemical reaction is the stoichiometric amount of oxygen. In complete
combustion, the stoichiometric amount and the actual oxygen amount (oxygen in the fuel plus added
oxygen) is the same, so the ratio (lambda, λ) becomes 1.0. Combustion demands lambda-values over
1.0 and common values are 1-1.5. In reality, fuels (especially biomass fuels) contain much more
components and the combustion actual reactions are far more complex.
Gasification, or partial oxidation, is basically combustion with too little oxygen. Lambda-values for
gasification are by definition 0.2-1.0 but preferred values are 0.3-0.4 depending on application,
gasification facility and type of fuel. The desired components of the gas produced often are CO and H2
(2𝐶 + 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 ) and that is achieved if lambda-value is 0.3-0.4. Higher lambda gives
more CO2 and H2O as it is getting closer to combustion. The gas produced by gasification is called
product or producer gas and contains CO, H2, H2O, CO2, CH4, N2, tar, soot and other types of
impurities. H2O, CO2, N2 are often less desired products because they are not energy carrier as CO and
H2. The application of the gas decides if CH4 is desired or not as well as the desired ratio between the
formed products. After the gasification, a cleaning stage can remove the impurities, tars and soot.
Synthesis gas or syngas is the term for the cleaned gas.
The gasifying medium adds the oxygen needed for gasification. Air is a very cheap medium but the
product gas then will contain lot of N2, which is one of the undesired components because it is
diluting the gas. Using oxygen as medium introduces less N2, but instead it is more expensive due to
the need of an air-separating unit. Some types of gasifiers can however only operate with oxygen as a
gasifying medium. Superheated steam and carbon dioxide can also be used and gives a different gas
composition compared to gasification with air and oxygen. In some applications, the altered gas
composition can be of essential value. The drawbacks with steam is the expensiveness if surplus
steam is not easy accessible and gasification with steam is an endothermic process which need
external heat resource.
The syngas can be used in many different ways:
 Direct combustion which gives purer exhaust gases than conventional combustion
 Combustion in a Combined Cycle for electricity production
 Synthesized to
o Hydrogen
o Methanol
o DME
o FT-diesel
o Synthetic natural gas (CH4)
o Green chemicals and lots of other products
2.2.1 ENTRAINED-FLOW GASIFICATION

Entrained-flow gasifiers are available in many forms, but there are two main types: down flow and up
flow. In the most commonly used entrained down flow gasifiers’ truly dispersed fuel particles mixes
with steam and oxygen in the top of the reactor (Figure 7). The injection creates a turbulent flow,
giving good gasification of the particles. Temperature is high, between 1200-1500°C, which result in
small amounts of methane and tars. Residence time is rather low, only about a few seconds. Most
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other types of gasifiers’ need longer residence time for complete gasification, but the high
temperature and the turbulent flow allows shorter time for complete gasification. Often the gasifiers´
are pressurized (about 20 to 80 bars). The product gas sometimes cools inside the reactor or after the
reactor and produces steam that can be used in other processes. The ash fusion temperature for the
fuel ash is for most fuels lower than the typical process temperature in the reactor so most of the ash
is in the form of slag. A pool of water in the bottom of the reactor catches the slag.
The concept of entrained up flow gasifiers is the same, with a few changes in the design: fuel/oxygen
mix inserts in one or two stages from the side at the bottom of the reactor and the product gas is
removed at the top. Molten slag is removed at the bottom as in the down flow type.
Entrained-flow gasifiers´ divides into two additional types, slagging entrained-flow gasifier and non-
slagging entrained-flow gasifier. In the slagging type, the ash melts inside the gasifier and flows down
along the wall. If the fuel has low amount of ash forming elements, so very little slag is produced, the
non-slagging type is suitable. Van der Drift et al. [17] suggests that biomass based fuels needs the
slagging entrained-flow gasifier.
One of the big advantages of the entrained-flow gasifier is that the produced syngas is almost tar free,
which is simplifying the cleaning of the gas. The production of leach-resistant molten slag is another
advantage [22]. The fuel that is used is generally powder, gas or slurry, because the fuel needs to be
dispersed (solid fuel typically <100 μm) for complete gasification.
Some of the energy of the fuel added is converted to sensible heat instead of to chemical energy as
syngas. The heat is usually not wanted and is required to be used in some way in order to get high
economic and energy efficiency.
Fuel Oxygen
Feed water
Steam
Product gas
Slag
FIGURE 7. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF A ENTRAINED DOWN FLOW GASIFIER.
Biomass has some challenges if used in entrained flow gasifier. The biggest challenge is the feeding of
biomass. Some sort of pre-treatment is required both for facilitating the physical feeding process and
in order to get good conversion to syngas [7]. Because biomass torrefaction and milling cost
efficiently result in a fine powder similar to coal powder, this could be a feasible system for biomass
syngas production. Instead of torrefaction and milling, the biomass could be direct pulverized in a
grinding mill. The latter way has higher electricity consumption as seen in Figure 5. To get the same
particle size regular wood demands about five time higher energy than torrefied wood.
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3 THE TORREFACTION PILOT PLANT
3.1 DESIGN OF THE TORREFACTION PILOT PLANT

The explanatory sketch below (Figure 8) shows the design of the torrefaction pilot plant. A maximum
of 150kg pre dried biomass is fed into the top silo, equipped with an airtight lid. Nitrogen is pumped
in the silo and a valve allows the air to ventilate out, the result being an inert atmosphere. Without an
inert atmosphere, the biomass will be pyrolized or even gasified instead of torrefied. The biomass is
then transported through two screw feeders and a rotary vane feeder to get to the torrefaction drum.
Slow rotation of the drum combined with a small angle of inclination of the drum makes the biomass
to pass in a controlled feeding rate. Electric heaters outside of the drum give the required heat for
torrefaction. The last screw feeder is water cooled, for subsequent cooling of the torrefied material.
Nitrogen flows in at the last rotary vane feeder to ensure that air do not slip in to the torrefaction
drum this way. Torrefied biomass will also form a plug in the last screw feeder that also helps to
minimize the air leakage. Formed volatiles from the process flow either concurrent or counter-current
in the drum and then goes up in the flue gas tube and combusts in the VOC-burner. The capacity is up
to 30 kg dry biomass per hour. Part of future research is aiming at pelletizing torrefied material.
Because of this, the capacity of the plant is designed so enough material is torrefied in one day for
one batch the in-house pellets research station.
FIGURE 8.OWERVIEW OF THE TORREFACTION PLANT.
3.1.1 SCREW FEEDER AND ROTARY VANE FEEDER

A total of three screw feeders transport the biomass. The feed rate of screw feeders is easy to change
and this is necessary to get the torrefaction plant flexible. The screw can also be made well resistant
against for example high temperature, suitable for the screw after the torrefaction tube, where the
torrefied biomass will be around 300°C. Two rotary vane feeders is installed, the first between the
two first screw feeders and the second after the cooled screw feeder. Rotary vane feeders where
chosen mainly because the capability to be airtight. Rotary vane feeders ensure that air don´t leak
into the system destroying the inert atmosphere. They also ensure that the formed volatiles, which
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are dangerous for humans, doesn´t leak out of the system to the building. With a rotary vane feeder,
it is easy to maintain an even flow of material, an important ability for the torrefaction plant.
3.1.2 VOC-BURNER
The volatile gases that is formed during the torrefaction step has to be combusted, both for
environment reasons and for reasons of health, and this is done in the VOC-burner. One electric
heater keeps the temperature inside the burner at around 1000°C so that the gas self-ignites when it
enters. Air is introduced by an air pump and mixed in the gas-stream before the electric heater. The
gas needs to be cooled after combustion and a water-cooled jacket immediate after the burner is
installed for this purpose.
3.1.3 STEAM SUPER HEATER

A steam super heater will be built later on in the development of this pilot plant. Three electric
heaters will heat water to superheated steam (up to 450°C) in atmospheric pressure. The steam is
inserted in the torrefaction drum, transmits some of the heat to the biomass and then leaves the
drum through the flue gas pipe.
3.1.4 TORREFACTION DRUM

The torrefaction drum is about 2 m long and with a 0.27 m inner radius. Inside it there are four steel
rails which is welded normal to the inner surface and along the drum. These plates bring some of the
biomass along the direction of rotation until the biomass falls down, facilitating sufficient heat
transfer and mixing. This is very important for the torrefaction process; otherwise, it will lie on the
bottom and the heat exchange to the biomass is heavily reduced, especially for the biomass that is
not in contact with the drum. Three electric heaters enclose the drum and heat it to the desired
temperature. The heaters are equally long and are located in series along the drum, making it
possible to accomplish different temperature in three different zones. An electric engine rotates the
drum at a variable speed between around 5 to 50 rpm. The height of the beginning of the drum is
adjustable so the drum can have an inclination angle, from 0 to 8°. These two properties, rotation
speed and inclination angle, determines the residence time of the biomass.
Five thermocouples (TC) are installed inside and along the drum at even interval. A temperature
profile is obtained from these. Additionally three TCs measure the temperature on the surface of the
drum, at the middle of each heater.
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3.1.5 ELECTRIC HEATERS

Electric heaters are easy to use and control, making them ideal for this pilot plant. Because the ease
of control it is becoming a flexible plant, i.e. it is easy to change the temperature for finding the
optimal torrefied biomass. However, heating with electricity is very expensive and cannot be used in a
commercial plant, but in this plant, flexibility is a top priority so heating in this way is acceptable. In
plants with economical intentions the heating can be achieved in many different direct and indirect
ways, steam is one way and flue gases another. How the steam or heat in other form is produced is a
matter of system integration for each particular plant.
A total of nine different heaters are installed in this plant. Three heaters around the torrefaction
drum can deliver 10 kW each. The VOC-burner heater can deliver 3.8 kW. Two heaters on the flue gas
pipe (from the torrefaction drum to the VOC-burner) are able to deliver around 1 kW each. The
purpose of these two heaters is to ensure that the gas temperature doesn´t fall below the tars
condensation point (maybe about 270-300°C). The three last heaters are for the steam super heater
and each heater has a capacity of 7.8 kW.
3.2 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

3.2.1 LABVIEW
LabVIEW by National Instruments is a software for programming a graphical language called G. All
programming for process control, data acquisition and analysis for this plant is performed in LabVIEW.
It´s easy to use and learn and has many pre-programmed functions for easier and powerful control
programs. LabVIEW and Compact FieldPoint (described below) are working seamless together for
even easier programming.
Programming of code is done in a Block Diagram (see for example Figure 9). The outer and inner gray
borders are while loops. Buttons, controls and indicators is placed on a Front Panel, see example in
Figure 10. The normal user only sees the front panel. A front panel is always connected with a block
diagram and vice versa and they are stored in a file with the extension “.vi” (abbreviation for Virtual
Instrument) and are called VI´s. A VI can be used inside another VI and is then called sub-VI, example
of this is the box in Figure 9 with the text “Write to file” inside. Wires with different colors contain
different kinds of data.
FIGURE 9. EXAMPLE OF A BLOCK DIAGRAM.
Sub-VI´s are useful in many different ways. The first and most important reason is that it makes it´s
easy to reuse code, as many times as wanted. There is no need to copy any code, just insert the sub-
VI in the block diagram. With sub-VI´s, it is easier to get a clean and nice looking code, as it is possible
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to put parts of code in another VI. Each VI then contains less code, which of course is easier to clean
up. A nice and clean code is important in the future when the program needs to be altered or
updated.
FIGURE 10. EXAMPLE OF A FRONT PANEL.
LabVIEW can also handle object-oriented programming (OOP) which is a very powerful programming
technique. In this project, it was not considered necessary to use OOP.
3.2.2 COMPACT FIELDPOINT FOR DATA ACQUISITION

National Instruments (NI) Compact FieldPoint (cFP) is a hardware data acquisition system that
acquires signals, both analog and digital, pre-treats the signals and sends them to a computer for
further processing. With Compact FieldPoint, it is also possible to output analog or digital signals for
controlling equipments like heaters or mass flow controllers. The hardware consists of different
modules and a backplane (comparable with a motherboard) which are communicating with a PC over
an Ethernet network. The modules have different properties for acquiring different signals, like
analog current or voltage signals and digital signals. NI offers special modules for using with
thermocouples, which linearize, calibrate and scale the signal and it also has an embedded thermistor
as cold-junction compensator, for easier temperature measure.
All components described below are connected to a Compact FieldPoint system. Where the
components are located on the plant can be seen in Appendix A - design of the torrefaction pilot
plant. In Appendix B – list of installed equipment is all equipment listed.
3.2.3 THERMOCOUPLES
Twenty-four thermocouples (TC) measure the temperatures in the plant. TCs are type of temperature
sensors that are cheap and with sufficient accuracy for this application. There are many different
types of thermocouples, for different applications and temperature ranges. All thermocouples used in
the torrefaction plant is type N-sensors, which means that can operate between 0-1100°C with a
accuracy of 0.75% at temperatures over 300°C (for example 6.8°C at 900°C) and ±2.5°C for lower
temperatures.
Thermocouples consist of two wires, each of them of different metals. The actual measuring is the
temperature difference between two junctions in the closed thermoelectric circuit [Figure 11]. One
junction is placed where temperature is to be measured, and the other, the cold-junction, is placed at
a constant reference temperature. Reference temperature can be ice-water slurry that holds a
constant temperature of 0°C. As said, the Compact FieldPoint TC module offers a cold-junction
compensator, which in Figure 11 is the thermistor, so no external constant reference temperature is
needed.
3.2.4 LAMBDA PROBES

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Because oxygen is not wanted in the torrefaction process three lambda probes are measuring the
oxygen content at three different places, in the top silo, at the end of the torrefaction drum and at
the last rotary vane feeder. An additional lambda probe measure the oxygen content of flue gas after
the VOC-burner, to control the combustion process to be complete.
The lambda probes do not detect the absolute value of oxygen content at the sensor; instead, they
measures the difference in oxygen content between a reference gas (inside the sensor) and the gas
outside of the sensor. Air is usual the reference gas because it easy to get and the oxygen content is
about constant at 21%. A heating element heats the sensor, which is made by zirconium dioxide, to
650°C. When oxygen level is different between the inside and outside of the sensor oxygen ions will
pass through the sensor shell. This ion migration gives rise to a voltage potential that is in reverse
logarithmic proportion to the difference in oxygen content. A linear output signal is available from the
lambda probe unit that scales the measured voltage to a linear signal.
Measuring device
Terminal block,
cold-junction
Thermocouple
Metal 1
input
Thermistor
Thermistor
input
Measuring
junction
Metal 2
FIGURE 11. EXAMPLE OF THERMOCOUPLE CIRCUIT.
3.2.5 MASS FLOW METER AND CONTROLLER

Three mass flow controllers and three meters control and measures different gas and liquid streams.
Two controllers control the nitrogen flow in the top silo and at the last rotary vane feeder. The last
controller measures and regulates the feed water flow for the steam super heater. One mass flow
meter measures the airflow to the VOC-burner and two mass flow meters measure the water flow to
the cooling screw and to the cooler for the VOC-burner.
The air mass flow meter for the VOC-burner is a type called Thermal Gas Mass Flow meters. The
sensor is mainly two temperature detectors in the form of two small steel rods, placed in the gas flow
pipe. First detector constantly measures the ambient temperature of the gas. Second detector is
heated to a temperature above that of the gas stream. Pressure effects are negligible and the
temperature detector compensates for temperature changes. Higher gas velocity implies that more
heat is transferred from the sensor to the gas stream. Therefore, more power is required to maintain
a temperature of the second detector constant over the gas stream temperature. This heat transfer is
directly proportional to the mass velocity of the gas (density*velocity) and by the power demand the
mass flow is calculated.
The mass flow meter part of the two nitrogen mass flow controller is constructed in the same way as
described above. A valve is added to control the gas flow in order to get a mass flow controller.
3.2.6 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

Two differential pressure transmitters are installed in the plant. One sensor is installed at the
beginning of the torrefaction drum and the second at the end of the drum. These are measuring the
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pressure inside the drum to check if there is a small negative pressure. This is for two reasons; to
ensure that formed gas during torrefaction doesn´t leak out and to regulate the flue gas pump.
3.2.7 STATIC FREQUENCY CHANGER AND SOLID STATE RELAY

Static frequency changer (SFC) controls all the electric motors for the screw feeders, rotary vane
feeders, torrefaction drum and fans. This allows changing the speed of the motors in an easy way
since the SFC is in turn controlled by a simple signal, either 0-10 V or 0-20 mA. The input is linear,
meaning that 20 mA is full speed (100%) and 10 mA is half speed (50%). SFCs are expensive but in
return, they give full flexibility of the motors, which is necessary for this project.
Seven solid-state relays, with zero voltage turn-on, control the heaters. When the control signal from
cFP module is above zero volts, the relay is on i.e. heavy current flows through the relay to the
electric heater. Solid-state relays have a low on/off switch time, 10-30ms depending on type. This
allows for example a sinus-wave to control on and off on the relay. Example of two control signal
sinus-waves can be seen in Figure 12. The relay is on 50% of the time if the control signal is the left
curve and is on about 70% of the time if the control signal is the right curve.
1,5
1
Voltage (V)
0,5
-0,5 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8
-1
-1,5
Time (s)
FIGURE 12. EXAMPLE OF TWO CONTROL SIGNAL SINUS-WAVE FOR SOLID-STATE RELAY.
3.2.8 NOISE REDUCTION

Noise reduction is important for obtain a clean signal since the hardware signal conditioning in
Compact FieldPoint or the software signal conditioning in LabVIEW isn´t perfect. Noise can be of
capacitive or inductive nature, depending of the type of noise source. Typical noise sources are
induction from high-current cables, AC voltage cables, bad cable connectors, thermal fluctuations or
electronic devices near or in the circuit. By using shielded signal wires, twisted pair wires, not
installing to long cables and not install signal cables near AC-current conductors the impact of some
noise sources is reduced. All of this was used in the plant where possible. Shielded wires is grounded
in only one side, unless otherwise is stated by the manufacturer.
Analog signal sources, as mass flow meters or lambda probes, can often transmit the signal in either
current (typical 0-20 mA) or voltage (typical 0-5 V). If possible to choose, current signals are
preferable over voltage signals. This is because small currents can cause voltage drops across a wire
pair. Current loops are not as susceptible to noise and are not affected by voltage drops around the
loop. In the pilot plant all controllers and meters, except the mass flow controller for water to the
steam super heater, use current signals.
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3.2.9 SAMPLING RATE

Converting continuous analog signals to digital signals requires reading a certain number of samples
per unit of time. The sampling rate of an A/D converter is the rate that samples are taken. To high
sampling rate leads to data overflow and to slow rate leads to loss of information and the parameters
identified from this data will not describe the dynamics completely. Compact FieldPoint modules have
generally not especially fast sampling rates. The thermocouple module has for example a sampling
rate of 989ms when a 50Hz filter is processing all channels. Since there is no time critical processes
this is not a problem. Sampling rates in the control program is varying, depending on the application
and the connected equipments, between 0.5 and 1 sec.
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4 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
4.1 PID CONTROLLER

A PID controller is a control algorithm widely used in industrial control systems. PID is an abbreviation
of Proportional-Integral-Derivative, i.e. three different and complementing control loop feedback
regulator functions. In a control loop, the measured process variable and the desired set point often
differ and give rise to an error. The error needs to be corrected and the PID algorithm tries to reduce
the error by changing the output so the system changes in the desired direction in an optimal way.
The proportional function is given by:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 (1)
Where Kp is the proportional gain constant and e(t) is the error changing in time. The proportional
response is thereby changing proportional by the constant to the current error.
The integral function is given by:
𝑡
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑖 𝑡0
𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 (2)
Where Ki is the integral gain constant, e is the error and τ is the time in the past that contribute to the
integral response. The integral function sums the error back in time and contributes to the output
variable even if the error is small which mostly won´t be corrected by the proportional parameter.
The derivative function is given by:
𝑑𝑒 𝑡
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑑 (3)
𝑑𝑡
Where Kd is the derivative gain constant and e is the error. The derivative function makes the output
variable smaller if the error changes rapidly, preventing overshooting from the integral function. This
function is sensitive to noise in the error and often the constant is zero.
Combining equation 1, 2 and 3 gives the PID controller algorithm, seen as a block diagram in Figure 13
and as equation 4.
P
+
Setpoint Error + Output
+ Σ I Σ Process
- -
D
Process variable
FIGURE 13. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE PID CONTROLLER.
𝑡 𝑑𝑒 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑡0
𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − 𝐾𝑑 (4)
𝑑𝑡
The usual way to write equation 4 is in the form:

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1 𝑡 𝑑𝑒 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 =𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − 𝑇𝑑 (5)
𝑇𝑖 𝑡 0 𝑑𝑡
Where K is a dimensionless constant, Ti, and Td is constants with the dimension time.
4.1.1 TUNING
For every PID controller each of the three constants needs to be optimally determined to a specific
value. If one of the values is too high or too low, the output process variable can be to low or too high
in a given situation, causing for example overshooting or oscillations of the process variable.
Therefore, it is important to tune each of the PID controllers in the system.
The simplest way is to guess different combinations of values and do a test of the system and check if
it gave a good result, if not change the values more or less and test again. This way is very time
consuming and finding the optimal values is not likely.
A popular method when no mathematical model is known for the system is the Ziegler-Nichols
method [23]. First, the integral and derivative function sets to zero and the proportional gain constant
is increased until oscillation of the system occurs. Depending on if a P, PI or a PID controller is desired,
the three constants are adjusted as stated by the Ziegler-Nichols method.
LabVIEW´s own built in function for auto tuning of PID controller is a third way to tune. This function
works best when the PID controller is somewhat correctly tuned, so actually it can be called a fine-
tuning function. The auto tuning is a wizard that guides the user thru the tuning.
4.2 PROGRAMMING DESIGN

The control system consists of several different so-called modules. Each module controls a specific
equipment or part of equipment. The control system user does not see these modules because they
are merely for easier programming. Each module consists of one loop in the main block diagram.
Most of the modules have one or more sub-VI´s for less cluttered programming. The modules are
named after their function as can be seen in Figure 14.
Non-trivial modules and sub-VI´s are described shortly below. Example of a trivial module is the
Motor control, which only converts the user input of motor speed, 0 to 100% of max speed, to 0-20
mA, which is what the static frequency changer recognizes.
4.2.1 LOG DATA TO FILE

All measured and controlled properties like temperatures, oxygen content and heater output needs
to be logged continually for later evaluation of the process. This module allows the user to log data
whenever wanted and for as long or short time as wanted. It is possible to make a new file with a new
name whenever wanted as long as the main control program is running. This can be useful if many
different experimental runs are conducted in series and one log file is wanted for each run. The
sampling frequency is changeable but recommended is 5 seconds. The sub-VI “Read cFP and write to
file” executes the reading of data from compact FieldPoint, via the “Read and write to cFP” module,
format the data, adds log date and time and then write the information to a text file.
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Main VI Modules Sub VI
Read cFP &

Log data to file
write to file
Motor control
Normal PID or
N2 flow
auto tuning
Normal PID or
Main control Airflow
auto tuning
Profile or single
SP
Temperature
control
Normal PID or
auto tuning
Read & write to Functional

cFP global variable
FIGURE 14. STRUCTURE OF THE CONTROL PROGRAM.
4.2.2 TEMPERATURE CONTROL

This module actually consists of three loops but is considered as one module because the loops
contain the same code. The difference is that they control different heaters. First loop controls
heaters outside of torrefaction drum, second loop is for flue gas pipe and the last is for VOC-burner.
The code actually only connect the user input and user indicators with the “Profile or single SP” and
the “Normal PID or auto tuning” sub-VI´s.
The heaters outside the drum are controlled by the temperature inside the drum. Three of the five
thermocouples inside become the process variables for the PID-controller for the corresponding
heater. The flue gas pipe heaters are controlled by two of the three TCs inside the flue gas pipe. The
heater for the VOC-burner is not controlled by the inner temperature but instead the outer
temperature, between the heater and the burner steel shell. The steel in the torrefaction drum, flue
gas pipe and VOC burner should not be heated to fast, a maximum of 180°C per hour is allowed. This
makes a restriction on the heating rate. If the temperature outside of these three parts is heated
faster than 3°C/minute, the heater output reduces to almost zero, until the heating rate declines to
under 3°C/minute.
4.2.3 PROFILE OR SINGLE SP

The heating rate is also important when the drum should be heated from room temperature to
process temperature. Therefore, during start up phase an automatic profile of the set point (SP) can
be done by this sub-VI, instead of changing the set point manually every minute. The profile start and
end temperature and the start and end time can be chosen freely. Override of the profile with a user
chosen single set point is possible. An example of a temperature profile can be seen in Figure 15; no
heating during first hour, 3°C heating per minute to 210°C during second hour and 1°C heating per
minute to 270°C during third hour.
There is two versions of this sub-VI; one for when a single set point is to be profiled or not, and the
second is for when three or less set points in an array is to be profiled or not. In the array version,
only one profile can be chosen for all set points.
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4.2.4 NORMAL PID OR AUTO TUNING

The function in LabVIEW to auto tune PID controllers is desired in combination with every PID
controller. These two functions are combined in this sub-VI for easy recycle of code and cleaner code.
A button on the front panel starts the auto tune wizard. In this VI the set point and process variable
converts so the PID controller can handle it correctly.
This VI also has two versions. The first is working like one controller, i.e. it´s only controlling one
equipment. The second version is when several equipments have the same PID gains (constants) but
may have different set points or process variables. The three heaters around the torrefaction drum
have these properties and therefore the second version is suitable.
300
250
Temperature (°C)
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3
Time (h)
FIGURE 15. EXAMPLE OF A TEMPERATURE PROFILE.
4.2.5 READ AND WRITE TO C FP

This module is actually not a module in the same way as the others because it is not a loop in the
main control program. It consists of many sub-VI´s, called Functional Global Variable, which are used
in every other module and sub-VI. The function of this is to read and write data to the compact
4
FieldPoint hardware. One functional global variable is constructed for each cFP module and handles
every read of data or write of data to this module. Functional global variables does not allow
simultaneous write (or read) of data, instead a queue of requests is created. Simultaneous read or
write can cause trouble and should be avoided if possible. In the functional global VI mathematical
operations can be done. For example, the temperature data coming from cFP is in Kelvin scale so in
the functional global it is being converted to Celsius scale, instead of convert it at every module or
sub-VI.
4.2.6 CONTROLLER IMPLEMENTATION

There are some different ways to achieve the control of temperature or oxygen content. Mainly one
is used throughout the control system for this plant. It is based on that the user chose a value, the set
point, at which the chosen property should stabilize. A tuned PID controller compares the set point to
the measured value and changes the output accordingly. As an example, the user sees that the
oxygen content after the VOC burner is too low and wants the burner to get more air. The user then
sets the set point for the airflow to the VOC burner to 300 Nl/min, while the actual present airflow is
100 Nl/min. The PID controller sets the output so that the air pump delivers more air until the flow is
at the set point. If the system is not stable, the user might need to change the set point up to once a
minute.
4
A cFP module is a physical module, not to be mix-upped with the programming modules.
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This method described above is probably the easiest way to implement a controller; very little
knowledge of the system complexity is needed at the control system development phase. An
advantage is that the user has very much control of the flexibility of the system, as he can change
everything as desired. This is though not only positive; the user can get to many variables to control
so he maybe misses someone, or maybe needs to change many of them at the same time.
Another way to achieve the control is to automate some controls. It is similar to the controlling
procedure described above but the user sets the set point for another property. For the example
above, the user chose that the oxygen content should be 6% after the VOC burner. The system
measures the oxygen content (with the lambda probe) and a PID controller compares the values and
changes the air pump flow until the measured oxygen content coincide with the chosen one. This is
easier for the user but demands more time for the developer in order for tune and calibrate.
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5 EVALUATION AND FUTURE WORK
5.1 EVALUATION
A full evaluation of the torrefaction pilot plant would be desirable but time limitation on this thesis
restricts it. A first experiment is though achieved and thereby some assessments can be done:
 All of the electric heaters works as wanted and it is possible to control the temperature
inside and outside of the drum. Tuning of the PID controller has not yet been fully
accomplished, but they will be soon.
 All motors are controllable by percent of maximum rpm. The material can thereby be
transported through the whole system and gases can be drawn off to the burner.
 The flue gas pump, that draws gases to the burner, is controlled by the measured pressure
inside the drum. Atmospheric, positive and negative pressure is possible to get inside the
drum.
 The VOC-burner works as planned, temperatures up to 950°C has been tested and
combustible gases were combusted. The cooler afterwards is cooling the flue gas to around
200°C.
 Data acquisition of temperatures, oxygen content etc. works and is possible to log to a text
file for further evaluation.
5.2 FUTURE WORK

Of course, there are things to improve for this torrefaction pilot plant. The process control system and
data acquisition system should not need any large improvements, except:
 Tuning of various parts, as tuning of some heaters.

 Expansion if new components are installed.
 Automate some parts, as described in 4.2.6. For example the airflow to the VOC-burner.
The mechanical parts of the plant may also be improved if something does not work properly. It is
difficult to know in advance which parts that is vulnerable, but one exposed part is the seal on the
sides of the torrefaction drum.
A challenge for the near future is to develop a method to measure the torrefaction residence time. A
few options are discussed but none is determined for this pilot plant. Another important challenge
could be the cooling screw after the torrefaction drum. If tars are formed during torrefaction, it can
stick to the screw, and thereby causing problem. Possibly, the screw also does not cool the torrefied
material enough.
2008-11-07
6 DISCUSSION & CONCLUSIONS

Though the torrefaction plant is not in full operation by the end of this thesis, I am certain it will
function properly. Possibly, there is need for small improvements before full functionality. Exposed
parts for improvements are mechanical parts as the seal on the side of the torrefaction drum and
welded joints. The process control and data acquisition system works properly and there should not
be any encounters causing large problems. In the case of problems, the system is designed so that it
should be easy to modify and extend features and functions.
This torrefaction pilot plant is not designed as a commercial plant would be. Electric heaters are not
economically viable options, as is not the VOC-burner which only combusts the formed gases. The
gases are probably very important in order to get a commercial torrefaction plant profitable. The
torrefaction drum and the cooling screw after the drum are also certainly key parts in a commercial
plant, and both is up for evaluation during the upcoming research projects.
The future for commercial torrefaction seems very bright. The plan is many relocated plants that
pelletize the torrefied material. The pellets then transports to a centralized gasification plant where it
is gasified and converted to some synthetic fuel. The higher energy density for pellets from torrefied
material compared to conventional pellets makes more efficient and probably more economically
transports even at short distances. Additionally, the costs for pellets from torrefied material are lower
per amount of energy than conventional pellets. This combined with all the other positive properties
makes torrefaction a very interesting technique for the future.
2008-11-07
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change., Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. An

Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007.
2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group III., Climate Change 2007:
Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Sverige. Statens energimyndighet, Oljans ändlighet - Ett rörligt mål! ER / Energimyndigheten,
2006:21. 2006, Stockholm: Swedish Energy Agency.
4. Kuhlman, A., Peak Oil - and the Collapse of Commercial Aviation? 2006.
5. Stern, N., The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge University Press.
2007.
6. Biofuels for Transport - An International Perspective. 2004: International Energy Agency.
7. Higman, C. and M.v.d. Burgt, Gasification. 2008, Amsterdam: Elsevier : Gulf Professional
Publishing. 391 s.
8. Minchener, A.J. Coal gasification for advanced power generation. in 5th Coal Research Forum
Meeting. 2004. Edinburgh, SCOTLAND: Elsevier Sci Ltd.
9. Olofsson, I., Low-Tar-Formation using High-Temperature Flash-Gasification of Intelligent
Biomass Fuel Mixtures, in ETPC. 2005, Umeå University: Umeå.
10. Volvo, Renewable fuels. CO2 neutral transports. 2007: Volvo Brochure available at
www.volvo.com.
11. Bergman, P.C.A. and J.H.A. Kiel. Torrefaction for Biomass Upgrading. in 14th European
Biomass Conference & Exhibition. 2005. Paris, France: Energy research Centre of the
Netherlands (ECN).
12. Bergman, P.C.A., et al., Torrefaction for biomass co-firing in existing coal-fired power stations
"BIOCOAL", in ECN-C--05-013. 2005. p. Size: 72 pages.
13. Ruyter, H.P., Coalification model. Fuel, 1982. 61(12): p. 1182-1187.
14. Zanzi, R., et al., Biomass torrefaction, in 2nd World Conference and Technology Exhibition on
Biomass for Energy, Industry and Climate Protection. 2004: Palazzo dei Congressi, Rome,
Italy.
15. Prins, M.J., Thermodynamic analysis of biomass gasification and torrefaction. 2005,
Eindhoven University of Technology.
16. New process for Torrefied Wood Manufacturing, in Bioenergy Update. April 2000.
17. van der Drift, A., et al., Entrained flow gasification of biomass; Ash behaviour, feeding issues,
system analyses. 2004, ECN.
18. Felfli, F.F., et al., Wood briquette torrefaction. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2005.
Volume IX No. 3.
19. Bergman, P.C.A., Combined torrefaction and pelletisation. The TOP process. 2005, ECN
Biomass.
20. Uslu, A., A.P.C. Faaij, and P.C.A. Bergman, Pre-treatment technologies, and their effect on
international bioenergy supply chain logistics. Techno-economic evaluation of torrefaction,
fast pyrolysis and pelletisation. Energy, 2008. 33(8): p. 1206-1223.
21. Zwart, R.W.R., H. Boerrigter, and A. van der Drift, The impact of biomass pretreatment on the
feasibility of overseas biomass conversion to Fischer-Tropsch products. Energy & Fuels, 2006.
20(5): p. 2192-2197.
22. Olofsson, I., A. Nordin, and U. Söderlind, Initial Review and Evaluation of Process
Technologies and System Suitable for Cost-Effiecent Medium-Scale Gasification for Biomass
to Liquid Fuels. 2005, Umeå University, Mid Sweden University.
23. Glad, T. and L. Ljung, Reglerteknik - Grundläggande teori. 2006, Lund: Studentlitteratur.
ETPC I Umeå University
2008-11-07
APPENDIX A - DESIGN OF THE TORREFACTION PILOT PLANT

ETPC I Umeå University
2008-11-07
APPENDIX B – LIST OF INSTALLED EQUIPMENT

Name Description
H1 Heater on torrefaction drum, #1
H4 Heater on flue gas tube #1
H5 Heater on flue gas tube #2
H6 Heater for VOC-burner
H7 Heater for steam super heater
M1 Primary screw feeder
M2 Rotary vane feeder #1
M3 Secondary screw feeder
M4 Rotation of torrefaction drum
M5 Cooling screw feeder
M6 Rotary vane feeder #2 (only on/off)
M7 Flue gas pump
M8 Air pump for VOC-burner
MF1 Air Mass Flow meter, air for VOC-burner
MF2 N2 Mass Flow controller, N2 #1
MF3 N2 Mass Flow controller, N2 #2
MF4 H2O Mass Flow controller, H2O for SSH
MF5 H2O Mass Flow meter, cooling water for VOC-burner
MF6 H2O Mass Flow meter, cooling water for cooling screw
LP1 Lambda probe #1
LP2 Lambda probe #2
LP3 Lambda probe #3
LP4 Lambda probe #4
P1 Differential pressure sensor #1
P2 Differential pressure sensor #2
Scale Weighing scale for silo
T1 Temp inside TF drum, #1
T6 Temp outside TF drum, #1
T9 Temp inside flue gas tube, #1
T10 Temp inside flue gas tube, #2
T11 Temp outside flue gas tube, #1
T12 Temp outside flue gas tube, #2
T13 Temp inside primary screw feeder
T14 Temp inside after torrefaction drum
T15 Temp inside after cooling screw
T16 Temp inside before flue gas pump
T17 Temp outside before flue gas pump
T18 Temp outside VOC-burner
T19 Temp after VOC-burner (at the lambda probe)
T20 Temp cooling water after VOC-burner
T21 Temp of steam after steam super heater
T22 Temp outside steam super heater
T23 Temp cooling water before VOC-burner
T24 Temp cooling water after cooling screw

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Development of the control

system for a small-scale

Master of Science Thesis in

4.2 Programming design ............................................................................................................. 19

DME Dimethyl Ether

GHG Green House Gases

ETPC Energy Technology and Thermal Process Chemistry (Umeå University)

SLU Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

BTC Bioenergy Technology Centre (SLU in Umeå)

FBC Fluidized Bed Combustion

FBG Fluidized Bed Gasification

PIG Products of Incomplete Gasification

VOC Volatile organic compound

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% [1] Energy supply

[1] 26% [2] Industry

[2] 19% [3] Forestry

[7] 3% [7] Waste and wastewater

1.1.2 IS THERE A SOLUTION ?

Efficiency well-to-wheel (%) Land use efficiency (km/hectare/year)

Land use efficiency (km/hectare/year)

0.3M | 0.1E Torrefaction gases

Biomass Torrefied biomass

2.1.1 APPLICATION AREA FOR TORREFIED BIOMASS

By using torrefaction-powder in a gasification facility, as an entrained-flow gasifier (see chapter 2.2.1),

FIGURE 6. OVERVIEW OF THE PRODUCTION CHAIN FROM FOREST TO SYNTHETIC FUEL.

2.2 COMBUSTION AND GASIFICATION

The syngas can be used in many different ways:

2.2.1 ENTRAINED-FLOW GASIFICATION

FIGURE 7. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF A ENTRAINED DOWN FLOW GASIFIER.

3 THE TORREFACTION PILOT PLANT

3.1 DESIGN OF THE TORREFACTION PILOT PLANT

FIGURE 8.OWERVIEW OF THE TORREFACTION PLANT.

3.1.1 SCREW FEEDER AND ROTARY VANE FEEDER

3.1.3 STEAM SUPER HEATER

3.1.4 TORREFACTION DRUM

3.1.5 ELECTRIC HEATERS

3.2 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

FIGURE 9. EXAMPLE OF A BLOCK DIAGRAM.

FIGURE 10. EXAMPLE OF A FRONT PANEL.

3.2.2 COMPACT FIELDPOINT FOR DATA ACQUISITION

3.2.4 LAMBDA PROBES

FIGURE 11. EXAMPLE OF THERMOCOUPLE CIRCUIT.

3.2.5 MASS FLOW METER AND CONTROLLER

3.2.6 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

3.2.7 STATIC FREQUENCY CHANGER AND SOLID STATE RELAY

-0,5 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8

3.2.8 NOISE REDUCTION

3.2.9 SAMPLING RATE

4 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

4.1 PID CONTROLLER

The proportional function is given by:

The integral function is given by:

The derivative function is given by:

FIGURE 13. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE PID CONTROLLER.

The usual way to write equation 4 is in the form:

4.2 PROGRAMMING DESIGN

4.2.1 LOG DATA TO FILE

Main VI Modules Sub VI

Read cFP &

Read & write to Functional

FIGURE 14. STRUCTURE OF THE CONTROL PROGRAM.

4.2.2 TEMPERATURE CONTROL