PHYS 5302, Notation and 4 vectors

We recall from classical, nonrelativistic mechanics, the importance of certain

observables such as; displacement, velocity, mass, momentum, energy. These
same observables continue to be needed in relativistic mechanics, however, now
we can no longer assume that all reference frames measure the same time, t.
So the coordinates of the same point, P, in space-time described in two iner-
tial frames K and K’ are P(t,x,y,z) and P(t’,x’,y’,z’). These coordinates are
related to each other by the Lorentz transformation, Jackson eqn. 11.16, and
introduce the concept of ”4 vectors” as critical elements of decribing some ob-
servables. Classical electricity and magnetism, which is the main focus of this
course, described electrical and magnetic phenomena extremely well because the
phenomena that were experimentally accessible at first were those for which the
velocities investigated were much smaller than the speed of light. The discovery
that there is a limiting speed, v ≤ c, of bodies moving through space actually
is not a consequence of some special property of light, except perhaps that the
mass of the photon is zero. See the discussion in Jackson’s sect 11.3, equations
11.15, 11.16 and 11.17 for the prototypical form of a four vector based on the
space-time four vector, xµ ,

xµ = (ct, ~x) (1a)

xµ = (ct, −~x) (1b)
xµ xµ = (ct)2 − ~x · ~x = 0. (1c)

Equation 1c tells us that for any point P (t, x1 , x2 , x3 ) no body or information

can be moved faster through space with a speed ~v = ~xt greater than ~c.

There are other type of four vectors which we recognize, somewhat in hind-
sight now, that appear in the equations of electromagnetism. All four vectors
transform upon reference frame translation by usng the Lorentz transformation
like the space-time four vector shown in Jackson’s equation 11.22. We’ll iden-
tify them as they appear during the course. Four vector contraction produces
Lorentz invariant scalar quantities. See Jackson, equation 11.24, for example.

First, however, we introduce the relativistic terms we need to un-

derstand particle kinematics.

A particle has a velocity ~u = d~x in an observer’s reference frame K. Time is

dt
measured in frame K. The particle has a momentum in K with the direction of
the velocity ~u, p~ = M (u)~u. If m is the rest mass of the particle then M (u) = γm
where γ = q 1 , β~ = ~u
c.
1−β 2
p~ = γm~u. see eqn 11.46 in Jackson

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 It is much better to work with momentum in relativistic kinematics. There
is no limit to the magnitude of the momentum whereas we know that 0 ≤ u ≤ c.

The energy of the particle is given by

E(u) = γmc2 see eqn 11.51 in Jackson

c~
p
β~ = E see eqn 11.53 in Jackson.

The expressions for momentum and energy and rest mass can be combined
to show

E 2 = (mc2 )2 + (pc)2

It is customary and convenient to use units where c = 1 This simplifies our

expressions. In these units it is sensible to use the electron-volt, (eV )as the unit
for energy for our study in electricity and magnetism.

Energy is measured in MeV(106 eV ), GeV(109 eV )

Mass is measured in eV

momentum is measured in eV
c

velocity is measured as a fraction of c, β~ = ~u

c

Our expression for the energy of a particle is thus

E 2 = m2 + p2

Kinetic energy is still a meaningful observable except we must use the proper
expression. We recall from non relativistic mechanics the work-energy theorem.
The change in kinetic energy of a particle is given by the work done on it by
external forces. A particle has a rest mass m. This is its energy before external
forces do work. When the external forces do work the energy of the particle
changes. So define the kinetic energy as T

T = E-m.

Example. The rest mass of a proton is about 938.3 MeV. The proton is
accelerated through a potential difference of 100 million volts, work = 100MeV.
E = (938.3+100) MeV. What is the momentum of the proton?

q q
p = E − m = 1038.32 − 938.32
2 2 (2)

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 p 444.6 = 0.428.
p = 444.6 MeV/c., β = E = 1038.2

energy momentum four vector

We can combine the energy E and momentum p~ into an important four vector.

pµ = (E, p~), pµ = (E, −~

p)

the contraction of this four vector is a relativistic scalar invariant

pµ pµ = E 2 − p2 = m2

Suppose there are two particles of mass ma and mb in reference frame K.

Then the observer considers the two body system of bodies a and b. Each parti-
cle has a given energy and momentum four vector. Four vectors add component
wise.
(E, p~) = (Ea , p~a ) + (Eb , p~b ). (3)
where E = Ea + Eb and p~ = p~a + p~b .
Here the total energy and total momentum in reference frame K are E and p~.

Suppose we want to create a particle of mass mc from the collision of a and

b, that is a + b → c. We assume there are no external forces acting on a and
b. This means that the total energy and total momentum must be conserved. So

(Ea , p~a ) + (Eb , p~b ) → (Ec , p~c ) (4)

Can the reaction that we want in equation 4 actually take place? Given the
masses, ma , mb , mc is there sufficient energy available to conserve both energy
and momentum? We have at our disposal only the momenta p~a , p~b . Consider
the actual case where the Z0 boson, mZ = 91.2GeV was first experimentally
produce by the CERN Super Proton Synchroton(SPS) in 1983 using proton and
antiproton collisions.
p + p̄ → Z0 (5)
Consider the options available to produce the Z0 by reaction 5. Assume the
SPS energy was at most 450GeV. Bear in mind that the total momentum and
total energy are properties of the system. In the initial state of reaction 5 the
system is p + p̄ in the initial state and Z0 in the final state. Since there are no
external forces acting on the system the system energy and momentum must be
the same in the initial and final state!
Use a fixed target of liquid hydrogen, pp = 0
Write the Lab energy and Lab momentum of the antiproton.
What is the total energy and momentum in the Lab?
What must the minimum energy of the antiproton be to produce Z0 bosons?

Use counter circulating beams of protons and antiprotons

Write the Lab energies and Lab momenta of the counter circulating proton

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and antiproton beams.
What is the total energy and momentum in the Lab?

What must be the minimum lab energies of the proton and antiproton to
produce Z0 bosons. Recall that in colliding beam experiments the proton and
antiproton are in head on collisions.