Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Indications of embalming in Roman Greece by physical, chemical

and histological analysis
C. Papageorgopoulou a, b, *, N.I. Xirotiris c, P.X. Iten d, M.R. Baumgartner d, M. Schmid d, F. Rühli a
a
Applied Anatomy Workgroup, Division of Macroscopic Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
b
Seminar für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, University of Basel, Petersgraben 11, CH- 4051, Switzerland
c
Laboratory of Anthropology, Demokritus University of Thrace, PO Box 209, GR-69100, Komotini, Greece
d
Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The partially mummified remains of a high-status female (ca. 1700 BP, Thessaloniki, Greece) were found
Received 10 March 2008 inside a Roman-type marble sarcophagus containing a lead coffin. The individual was positioned on
Received in revised form 27 June 2008 a wooden pallet, wrapped in bandages, and covered with a gold-embroidered purple silk cloth. Besides
Accepted 8 July 2008
the clothes, remnants of soft tissue as well as the individual’s original hair style and eyebrows were
exceptionally well preserved. In addition to the macroscopic examination, microscopic and biochemical
Keywords:
analyses were undertaken. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis,
Electron microscope
and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were applied to examine the tissue preservation
Energy dispersive X-ray analysis
Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and probable mechanisms of mummification. The presence of chemical components, such as sesqui-
Hair terpenes, triterpenoids, and diterpenoids, originating from coniferous and pistacia resins, myrrh, and
Lead coffin other spices, verify ancient information on preparation methods of the dead in Greek and Roman times.
Mummy These chemical components are thought to have played a prominent role in the mummification
mechanism in this particular case. The potential effect of the lead coffin in the mummification process
was also examined. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis failed to detect lead penetration into the tissues,
suggesting that the coffin played a limited role in the preservation of soft tissue.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (natural), spontaneous-enhanced, or indeterminate (for term

The study of human skeletal remains and burial customs
provides important information concerning the demography,
nutrition, and health status of past populations; they may also
provide data about social identity, social organisation, ideology,
rituals, religion, and symbolism (Larsen, 1997; Pearson, 1999;
Walker, 2000). Treatment of the corpse after death varied
considerably in different periods and regions; the most popular
burial practises worldwide included inhumation, cremation, and
mummification (Pearson, 1999). Due to the soft tissue preserva-
tion, mummified bodies may represent an even more detailed
source of information concerning mortuary practices and burial
rites (Lynnerup, 2007).
Soft-tissue survival on prehistoric bodies, however, is rare and,
when present, is usually due to multiple mummification mecha-
nisms that can be either anthropogenic (artificial), spontaneous
* Corresponding author. Applied Anatomy Workgroup, Division of Macroscopic
Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-
8057 Zurich, Switzerland. Tel.: þ41 446355358; fax: +41 44 635 57 02.
E-mail address: christina.p@anatom.unizh.ch (C. Papageorgopoulou).
definitions, see Aufderheide, 2003; Lynnerup, 2007). Mummified
human bodies or partially mummified human tissues have been
found sporadically in every part of the world (Cockburn, 1980;
Lynnerup, 2007).
In the present study, we report on a rare case of a partially
mummified body dating to 1700 BP found in Northern Greece.
Mummified human soft tissue and hair are uncommon for this
period in Greece, and no histological or chemical study of preserved
human tissue has ever been made of a Greek mummy. The present
work seeks to describe this rare finding and to determine the cause
of this unusual preservation.
2. Materials and methods
An individual was found inside a Roman marble sarcophagus
containing a lead coffin. The marble sarcophagus, measuring
95 cm  200 cm, was uncovered in 1962 during archaeological
excavations on the eastern cemetery of Thessaloniki (Northern
Greece), which was used from the Hellenistic to the Byzantine
Periods for burial and ritual practises (Lambrothanassi, personal
communication, 2006). The individual was positioned on
a wooden pallet in the interior of the lead coffin and covered with

0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.07.003
36 C. Papageorgopoulou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42
a gold-embroidered, purple silk cloth (Kampassakali and Varella,
2002; Kampassakali et al., 2003). The body was wrapped with
cotton or linen bandages, some of which were found in situ,
especially around the upper and the lower limbs.
The skeleton, remnants of soft tissues especially on the axial
skeleton, hair, and loose compact particles varying from 3 to 12 cm
long were found inside the lead coffin. The compact particles are
composed of several layers, probably a combination of cloth and
soft tissue, and have a dark brownish colour. Some of them are
extremely fragile, being of powdery texture.
Prior to any microscopic analyses, the gross anatomy of the
skeleton and the soft tissues were examined macroscopically
for paleopathological lesions. Sex determination was based on
morphological features of the skull, the pelvis (Workshop of
European Anthropologists, 1980), and the long bones (Bass,
1995). Age estimation was made according to the degree of
closure of the cranial suture (Meindl and Lovejoy, 1985), the
changes of the pubic symphyses (Suchey et al., 1984; Brooks
and Suchey, 1990), the auricular surface of the pelvis (Lovejoy
et al., 1985, Meindl and Lovejoy, 1989), and the degree of
dental attrition (Brothwell, 1981; Miles, 1962). The stature was
estimated based on the measurements of long bones (Bach,
1965).
Standard histological analysis of the hair and the compact
particles found within the lead coffin was performed. The samples
were fixed in 4% formalin and immersed in multiple baths of
progressively more concentrated ethanol to dehydrate the tissue;
xylene was used as a clearing agent. The tissues were embedded in
paraffin wax and sectioned into ultra-thin sections (5–8 mm), using
a rotation microtome (Microm HM 325, Adamas Instrumenten,
Rhenen, Netherlands); for half the samples routine hematoxylin
and eosin (HE) staining was used. A wide-field microscope (Zeiss
Axiophot, Carl Zeiss AG, Feldbach, Switzerland) equipped with
a digital camera and a confocal laser-scanning microscope (Leica
SP2, Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) were used for
the analysis of the sections.
In order to describe the fine structure of the soft tissue and scalp
hair a scanning electron microscopy analysis was performed. Hair
shafts from the individual’s scalp hair and the distal epiphysis of
a second right metacarpal were sputter-coated with gold palladium
(15 nm) and examined with a scanning electron microscope (JEOL
JSM-6360LV, JEOL Ltd. Tokyo, Japan).
A part (17 mg) of the compact, powder-like, particles, a prox-
imal hand phalanx (1.194 g) with soft tissues on it, and two
samples of scalp hair (107.5 mg and 86.5 mg) were further
analyzed chemically. All samples were extracted in a non-
destructive manner, first with methanol in an ultrasonic bath for
30 min, then without ultrasonification for 2 days, and finally with
t-butyl methyl ether for 30 min again in an ultrasonic bath.
Insoluble parts were removed by centrifugation. The combined
extracts were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectros-
copy (GC/MS, Varian Saturn 4D).
Additional elemental analysis was performed using an
energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). Bone particles with
adhering soft tissues on them from a third left metacarpal and
a proximal hand phalanx were examined. The analysis was
performed in the Laboratory for Electron Microscopy and Nano-
Analytic (EMOTT AG, c/o University of Zurich) and the
Microscopy Centre (University of Zurich). The samples were
investigated in the first laboratory, without any further prepa-
ration, in an environmental scanning electron microscope
(Philips, ESEM Xl40) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray-
system (EDAX Sappire); in the second laboratory, the samples
were sputter-coated with carbon and analysed using a scanning
electron microscope (Zeiss Supra 50 VP, Carl Zeiss MicroImaging
GmbH, Offenbach, Germany).
3. Results
3.1. Skeleton
According to the sex and age determinations, the skeleton
belonged to a mature female individual between 50 and 60 years of
age, with a stature of 160 cm.
The individual had lost ante-mortem three mandibular teeth:
the right second premolar and molar, and the left first molar. Slight
calculus deposits on the mandibular anterior teeth, slight resorp-
tion of the alveolar crest, and an infraosseus periodontal pocket on
the right upper incisor and on the left and right central lower
incisors were further recorded. Severe attrition was present
throughout the entire dentition, especially on the anterior upper
and lower teeth. The upper central and lateral incisor displayed
characteristic U-shape attrition.
Slight signs of degenerative lesions were observed on the
articular facets of the first and the second cervical vertebrae, on the
body of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae, and on the articular
facets of the lumbar vertebrae. Similar findings were observed on
the sternal epiphysis of both clavicles, on the right scapula (glenoid
fossa) and on the pelvis (right and left auricular surface).
3.2. Hair
The hair was detached from the scalp (Fig. 1a) although sporadic
hair shafts were still present on the right and left parietal bones.
The eyebrows were preserved in excellent condition. The current
colour of the hair was brown with reddish highlights.
Scanning electron analysis of the scalp hair showed that the
cuticle was very well preserved in many hair shafts; the cuticular
cells were observable as overlapping scales with irregular edges
(Fig. 1b) very similar to modern scalp hair that has not undergone
any degradation process (Fig. 1c). Although the hair shafts showed
the absence of cuticular scales there were limited signs of other
types of bio-deterioration artefacts, such as tunnelling, vesicles, and
fragmentation (Fig. 1d). The histological analysis of the hair cortex
showed the presence of large oval-to-round-shaped structures
known as ovoid bodies and pigment granules (Fig. 1e). In one of the
hair shafts, it was possible to identify the medulla, a discontinuous
line of cuboidal cells which run through the centre of the cortex.
The medulla was observable under confocal laser scanning (Fig. 1e)
and light microscopy (Fig. 1f). Characteristic was the lack of fungal
attack on the medulla.
3.3. Soft tissues
Macroscopically, the soft tissues were brittle, extremely desic-
cated, and very thin (1–4 mm). Under scanning electron micros-
copy, remnants from the dorsal interosseus muscle were observed
on the proximal epiphysis of the third left metacarpal (Fig. 2);
despite the thinness of the samples, the muscle contained a large
number of structures composed of several parallel layers. Histo-
logical analysis of the soft tissues also showed the presence of
human erythrocytes, which were distributed in small aggregates
and retained their classic biconcave form (Fig. 3).
3.4. Chemical analysis
The GC/MS analysis of the extracts of the second metacarpal, the
hair sample, and the loose particles showed the presence of various
substances, mainly sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and triterpenes,
fatty acids, steroids, cinnamates, vanillin, and substances the exact
origin of which was not identifiable (Table 1).
Vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) and cinna-
mates were detected in the bone and the hair extract, whereas
 C. Papageorgopoulou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42 37

Fig. 1. Macroscopic and microscopic view of the scalp hair: (a) the detached scalp hair is well preserved and formed into a long plait. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of the
mummy’s scalp hair: the cuticle of the hair is well preserved, and the cuticular cells are still observable as overlapping scales; the structure is similar to that of modern scalp hair (c)
which has not experienced degradation processes (first author’s hair). Scanning electron micrograph of the mummy’s hair shaft with no cuticle, showing degradation of the
cuticular scales and transverse fractures but no eroded cortex and limited signs of fungal hyphae (d). Confocal laser scanning microscope 3D photo (e) and light microscope photo
(f), exhibiting morphological features within the hair, such as ovoid bodies, pigment granules, and the medulla.

4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, a compound structurally similar to
vanillin, was only present in the bone extract. Hydrocarbons
were present in all extracts. They were recognized as such by
their mass spectroscopic properties, but have not been further
identified.
More than 10 compounds from the compact-particle extract
were identified by mass spectral libraries as compounds with
sesquiterpene structure. Considering the great variety of possible
stereo-isomers among the known sesquiterpenes and the lack of
reference material, it was not possible to identify all of the
sesquiterpene compounds detected. Unequivocal mass spectral
evidence was obtained for the presence of patchouli alcohol and
beta-elemene. Further assignments of mass spectra to known
sesquiterpene compounds were made in a tentative manner,
namely for seychellene, isoledene, beta-selinene, gamma- or delta-
cadinene, alpha-elemol, gamma-muurolene, beta-caryophyllene,
cadalene, and beta-guaiene, all found in the extract from the loose
particles (Fig. 4).
Diterpenes, triterpenes, and steroids (with the exception of
cholesterol) were not further identified. Nicotine, phthalates, and
1,4-phenylendiamine were also found.
The EDX analysis of two bone samples with soft tissues on
them exhibited no lead (Pb) penetration. Measurements were

Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrograph of the left third metacarpal, showing remnants Fig. 3. Light microscope photo of the preserved erythrocytes from loose soft tissue,
from the dorsal interosseus muscle. showing characteristic aggregation and biconcavity. Hematoxylin–eosin stain.
38 C. Papageorgopoulou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42

Table 1 4. Discussion
Results of the GC/MS analysis of the extracts of bone, soft tissue and hair

Bone Soft tissue Hair 4.1. Body treatment

Vanillin, Vanillin
4-hydroxybenzaldehyde The female individual was wrapped in bandages and covered
A cinnamoate Cinnamoate with a gold-embroidered purple silk-cloth. The wrapping of the
Fatty acids (detected as Fatty acids (detected
body was common practise in the ancient Greek world. Data
methyl esters) as methyl esters)
Some of them unsaturated acquired from written sources including Homer (7th century BC)
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons (2004), Herodotus (ca. 484 BC to ca. 425 BC) (2007) and Pliny the
Sesquiterpenes Sesquiterpenes Elder (23/24 AD to 79 AD) (1960), as well as from representations in
most important ancient Greek pots (Garland, 2001), suggest that as far back as the
Patchouli alcohol Patchouli alcohol
(main compound) (main compound)
Geometric Period (2900–2700 BC) the body of the deceased was
beta-Elemene dressed with a funeral garment consisting of a long ankle-length
(main compound) robe. Later, the corpse was wrapped in a shroud (endyma) supple-
alpha-Copaen mented by a looser covering (epiblema). We believe that, in this
alpha-Cubeben
case, the traditional ceremony was followed and that the body was
Seychellene
Isoledene wrapped in a shroud.
beta-Selinene The presence of sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and triterpenes in
gamma- or delta-Cadinene the bone and tissue samples, suggest either a direct treatment of
1S-cis-Calamenen the body and/or impregnation of the shroud with other organic
alpha-Elemol
gamma-Muurolene
preservatives as part of the funerary practise. It is well known that
beta-Caryophyllene in ancient Greek and Roman periods, the corpses were washed with
Cadalene water and wine and treated further with essential oils (Garland,
Aristolon 2001; Kurtz and Boardman, 1971; Toynbee, 1971). The exact
beta-Guajen
consistency of the oil is not known. It is unclear whether only olive
alpha-Calacoren
Mansonon C oil was used or whether it was mixed with aromatic substances,
such as myrrh, styrax, oil from laurus (daphnaeleon), oil from plants
Diterpenes? Diterpenes
Triterpenes
of the family lentiscinum and terebinthinum (schinelaion), or oil
Steroids Steroids? Steroids, among from pistacia (mastichelaion).
them cholesterol Regarding the identification of vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-
methoxybenzaldehyde) and cinnamates in the metacarpal and the
hair extract, and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, a compound structurally
made on the soft tissues, the outer surface of the bone, and the similar to vanillin present in the bone extract, we can suggest that
trabecular bone (Fig. 5a). Lead ions were not detected in any of styrax oil was used. Vanilla, a plant of Mexican origin, was not
the samples; very small white particles were observed on the known in Europe until the beginning of the sixteenth century (Rao
surface of the bone and were identified to be solid lead (Pb) and Ravishankar, 2000), but vanillin is found as a minor component
particles (Fig. 5b). in many plants, e.g. in cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) and together

Fig. 4. GC/MS: sesquiterpene region of the chromatogram (total ion current) of a methanolic extract of loose particles. Patchouli alcohol (A) and beta-elemene (B) unequivocally
identified. Identification of the other sesquiterpenes is tentative. *Compounds belonging to the sesquiterpene group by mass spectroscopic evidence.
 C. Papageorgopoulou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42 39

Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrograph of trabecular bone (left third metacarpal) using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, showing high peaks for calcium and phosphorus but no
peaks for lead (a). On the surface of the same sample, white microscopic particles were identified as lead particles, based on the high EDX lead peaks (b).

with various cinnamates, in styrax oil (storax) from Liquidamber presence may confirm in a chemical manner the antioxidative and
orientalis (Hamamelidaceae), a plant known on the broader region conserving properties of the embalming material used.
of Eastern Mediterranean (RÖMPP, 2008). Vanillin is an aldehyde The presence of sesquiterpenes in the loose particles and the
and, as such, is easily oxidized under oxidative conditions. Its hair extracts is indicative of the use of essential oils or resins for
40 C. Papageorgopoulou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42
embalming. More than 10 compounds from the loose particle
extract were identified by mass spectral libraries as compounds
with sesquiterpene structure. Characteristic is the presence of
patchouli alcohol and beta-elemene in the extract from the loose
particles. Patchoulol was also present in the hair extract. Today,
patchoulol is mainly known as a compound in patchouli oil,
a steam-distillate of the dried leaves of Pogostemon cablin Benth.
(Lamiaceae) and an important raw material in creating perfumes.
Patchoulol is also found in many other plants, such as, in lemon
balm (Melissa officinalis) (Nykanen, 1985). beta-Elemene is
a component of anise (Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae) and many
other plants.
The presence of other compounds, such as nicotine, phthalates,
and 1,4-phenylendiamine, probably should be regarded as
a product of modern contamination.
Analyses of embalming material and tissue wrappings from
ancient Egyptian human and animal mummies using GC/MS
(Buckley and Evershed, 2001; Buckley et al., 2004; Koller et al.,
2003, 2005; Mauer et al., 2002) showed the presence of sesqui-
terpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, fatty acids, and steroids. The
diterpenes and the sesquiterpenes were attributed to coniferous
resins (Buckley et al., 2004; Koller, 2005; Mauer et al., 2002), the
triterpenes to pistacia resins (Buckley and Evershed, 2001; Buckley
et al., 2004), while the fatty acids in most cases were not related to
distinct sources. According to recent research (Barber et al., 2000;
Koller et al., 2003, 2005), the above-mentioned organic extracts
played an important antimicrobial and antifungicidal role and, in
combination with the inorganic substances used for dehydration of
the body, were instrumental in the preservation of ancient Egyptian
bodies.
Buckley and Evershed (2001) also refer to the important role of
unsaturated oils and fats. Unsaturated oils and fats have special
properties which allow them to polymerize spontaneously,
producing a highly cross-linked aliphatic network which can
stabilize fragile tissues and/or textiles.
Although there is no written data for the practise of mummifi-
cation in ancient Greece, it is known that the Greeks were:
(1) familiar with the extraction of essential oils and resins from the
plants discussed above, most of which were widespread in the
eastern Mediterranean (Newman and Serpico, 2000; Serpico
and White, 2000; Serpico, 2000);
(2) aware of the antimicrobial, disinfectant, and bactericidal
properties of plants, as described by ancient physicians
(Hippocrates 460–370 BC) (2005) and pharmacologists
(Dioscorides Pedanius 40–90 AD) (1988); and
(3) familiar with the ancient Egyptian mummification methods
through the written texts of Herodotus (450 BC) (2007),
Diodorus Siculus (ca. 90–27 BC) (1992), Strabo (63/64 BC to ca.
24 AD) (2002) and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 AD) (1960).
Even earlier, during the Geometric Periods, there is some
evidence to suggest that embalming was not unknown; it has long
been recognised that the means by which the bodies of Homeric
figures (Achilles, Sarpedon and Hektor) were preserved until their
final disposal were, in fact, reminiscent of the art of the Egyptian
embalmers (Garland, 2001). Another example is Alexander the
Great (356–323 BC), who was reported to be preserved in beeswax
(Kurtz and Boardman, 1971; Aufderheide, 2003). The same applies
for the Roman Period, where, although embalming was looked
upon as a foreign custom and was, on the whole, not extensively
practised, mummies embalmed according to the ancient Egyptian
customs were sporadically discovered both in Italy and the prov-
inces, e.g. the Empress Poppaea Sabina (30–65 AD) (Toynbee, 1971)
and the mummy of Grottarossa (Ascenzi et al., 1996; Toynbee,
1971).
4.2. Lead coffin
An important factor that should not be neglected is the presence
of the lead coffin. Lead is a natural enzyme inhibitor and is known
for its antimicrobial and fungicidal properties; this function is
enhanced when the micro-environmental conditions (pH, water
movement, temperature) allow the penetration of lead ions into
organic residues. In cases where the lead coffin is well sealed, the
lead ions have little opportunity to sufficiently saturate the body
tissues in order to preserve them (Aufderheide, 2003).
The absence of lead ions in the soft tissues and the bones of the
female individual suggests a dry micro-environment within the
lead coffin in which no penetration of lead ions took place. Traces of
microscopic lead particles were found superficially both on the soft
tissues and the bones; we attribute this more to the corrosion of the
lead coffin in the atmospheric and storage conditions. Ancient lead
artefacts are quite stable but, when exposed to the atmosphere,
they actively corrode when placed in or near corrosive organic acid
emissive materials, such as cardboard, wood, display cases, or
storage cabinets (Boccia-Paterakis, 2003; Caley, 1955; Degrigny and
Le Gall, 1999; Mattias et al., 1984; Raychaudhuri and Brimblecombe,
2000).
In other burials in lead coffins from the Roman Period from
Great Britain (Aufderheide, 2003; Bahn, 2002; Toller, 1977; Barber
et al., 1990; McWhirr et al., 1982), Belgium (Brulet and Coulon,
1977), Germany (Haberey, 1962; La Baume, 1960; Friedhoff, 1991),
France (Reynaud, 1974; Santrot and Frugier, 1982), Switzerland
(Ulrich-Bochsler, 1995), Spain (Fernàndez-Chicarro, 1956) Israel
and Lebanon (Rahmani, 1999), no preservation of organic human
remains has been reported. Exceptions in terms of soft tissue
preservation have been recorded in France (Harrington, 1998), in
Germany (Pfäffgen, 1992), and in England (Taylor et al., 1993;
Morris, 1986; Collignon, 1772). These reports exhibit similarities
with the case presented in this article; however, since no infor-
mation exists concerning the preservation and the biochemical
analysis of the bodies, the textiles, or the resins, no further corre-
lations can be established.
Little is known about the deliberate use of the lead coffin as
a potential preservation agent in antiquity. A lead coffin was seen
primarily as a symbol of high status, since its construction required
a certain level of economic prosperity and, only secondarily, as
a preservation agent (Rahmani, 1999; Toller, 1977). Green, 1977
suggests that the use of the lead coffin, in some cases combined
with the use of gypsum, known as plaster burials had a preservative
purpose. The presence in some plaster burials of additional organic
substances may indicate attempts at embalming (Green, 1977;
Philpott, 1991; Morris, 1986).
4.3. High-status individual
The use of the lead coffin in this case should be connected
primarily to the high status of the individual, supported by the
archaeological findings, e.g. silk, purple-coloured embroidered
fabric, and marble sarcophagus. The stature estimation further
indicates that this particular lead coffin, with a length of 170 cm,
had been constructed especially for her and was not created
through mass production or for another member of her family, as is
reported with similar findings from Great Britain (Toller, 1977) and
the Near East (Rahmani, 1999).
The anthropological examination verifies these suggestions. The
individual exhibits minimum osteoarthritic lesions and complete
lack of musculoskeletal stress markers suggesting less intense labour
activities during life (Molnar, 2006; Weiss, 2007). No bone lesions
were present, indicating no infectious disease, inflammation,
anaemia, or malnutrition. The condition of the teeth in terms of
minimal calculus and ante mortem tooth loss, suggests relatively
 C. Papageorgopoulou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 35–42
good oral hygiene, especially for an elderly individual. The slight
resorption of the alveolar crest is probably related to old age (peri-
odontal atrophy), and the infraosseus periodontal pockets to the
severe attrition (Hillson, 2000).
The presence of extreme differences in the degrees of attrition
between the anterior and the posterior teeth, as well as the type
and the form of attrition, are indicative of a non-masticatory use
(Alt and Pichler, 1998; Littleton and Frohlich, 1993). The nature and
the type of tooth use, however, cannot be accurately determined.
No malocclusion problem that could have contributed to the
formation of severe attrition was recorded.
4.4. Biodegradation of the erythrocytes and the hair
The presence of erythrocytes, although rare, has been reported
in previous analyses of human mummified remains, e.g. on a child
mummy found in Salts Cave, Kentucky (2000 BC) (Zimmerman,
1973), an ancient Egyptian female (2200 BC) (Riddle et al., 1976),
and on the mummy of Nakht (ROM I, 3200 BC) (Horne and Lewin,
1977). In the first two cases the erythrocytes were distributed
either singularly or in small aggregates, as in the present study, and
in all cases the biconcave shape of the disk was retained. The
erythrocytes partially exhibited the staining characteristics of red
blood cells; the overall staining intensity, which is proportional to
the content of haemoglobin, was not as strong as is usually the case
in modern erythrocytes, but this must be interpreted as a variation
in the staining characteristics due to mummification.
The scalp hair was formed on a long plait which was probably
pulled back into a chignon, according to data for hair-style recon-
structions of that period (Houston, 2003). The good preservation is
evident both macroscopically and microscopically. SEM analysis
revealed a hair structure similar to that of a modern individual. In
some cases, we noticed a de-lamination of the cuticle cells and
transverse fractures, also reported by Rowe (1997), but no
destruction of the underlying cortex. This suggests that the struc-
tural breakdown of the hair initiated from the cuticle and pro-
ceeded to the cortex. The sequence of the structural breakdown of
the fibres, the lack of tunnelling, grooving, and the presence of
many intact structural hair components suggests the limited
activity of fungi which mediate most of these alterations in
degraded hair shafts (DeGaetano et al., 1992; Rowe, 1997; Wilson
et al., 2007a).
The current colour of the hair is brown with reddish highlights,
a common observation on many mummies, and probably origi-
nated through post-mortem alteration (Aufderheide, 2003; Wilson
et al., 2001). Sun-exposure, bacterial reaction, and embalming
methods are some of the factors that may affect the original hair
colour. As a result, hair that was originally black or brown exhibits
reddish, orange or even blond colour due to post-mortem alter-
ations. All human hair, however, does not turn red over archaeo-
logical time-scales (Wilson, 2001). Based on the histological
analysis of the unstained hair samples, the limited fungal influence,
and the macroscopic view, it can be assumed that the original hair
colour was brown. Similar cases of hair preservation have been
reported in studies of both mummified and non-mummified
human remains (Aufderheide, 2003; Brothwell and Dobney, 1986;
Lubec et al., 1987; White, 1993; Wilson et al., 2002, 2007b).
5. Conclusion
According to the macroscopic observations and the analytical
results, certain conclusions can be drawn. Considering the
archaeological findings and the anthropological observations, this
mature female individual belonged to the upper class. Soft tissues
and hair were relatively well preserved, as shown by the SEM, light,
polarised, and confocal laser-scanning microscope analyses. The
41
cause of mummification, as indicated by the GC/MS analysis, is
attributed to the post-mortem application of resins and lipids to the
body. This is the first time that such substances were identified in
material from this specific geographical and temporal setting. The
presence of the lead coffin as a natural disinfectant medium has
contributed to the stabilisation of the tissues, but since no lead was
found within the tissues examined by EDX, we suggest that the
effect of the lead was supplementary to that of the embalming.
We have demonstrated in this study that, through the combined
applications of standard and modern anthropological and forensic
methods, it is possible to identify specific burial practises and to
acquire important data concerning tissue preservation under
diverse taphonomic conditions.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dimitrios Grammenos, Eleni
Lambrothansi, Aggeliki Koukouvou, Liana Stefani and Dimitrios
Karolidis (Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki) for sharing
information concerning the archaeological findings, Gerry Bart-
mittler, Charlotte Burger, Hans-Peter Gautschi, Gisela Kuhn (Insti-
tute of Anatomy, University of Zurich) for their assistance during
the histological preparation and analysis, Dieter Quast (Römisch-
Germanisches Museum, Mainz), Frank Siegmund and Tanya Uldin
(Seminar für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, University of Basel) for
providing information on lead coffin burials, Heather Gill-Robinson
(Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Emergency Manage-
ment North Dakota State University) and Phillip Hendrickson
(Institute of Anatomy University of Zurich) for editing the English
version of the paper.
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