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Study Unit
Basic Drafting Math

The amount of mathematics that you’ve learned in your life-
time is quite substantial. In fact, you may find that all the
ideas and mathematical techniques applied in drafting aren’t
entirely new to you. Up to now, however, you may not have
needed to use all the mathematics that you’ve learned. Any
Preview
learning that a person doesn’t use or practice routinely isn’t
retained well—the learning must be refreshed and put into
practice. Studying Basic Drafting Math will help you to recall
the mathematics that you’ve already learned so that you can
start applying it in drafting.
No mathematical idea presented in this study unit is difficult
to master. However, if you’re not used to working with math-
ematics, you may need to practice applying some concepts. It
may be difficult to remember, for example, a certain sequence
of operations—that is, whether you should first add this or
multiply that in solving a problem—but your lessons will
remind you of whatever you need to know. With the skills
you’ll master in Basic Drafting Math, you’ll have a solid foun-
dation on which to build a career in drafting.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be

able to
• Recognize and apply the special vocabulary and symbols
used in the study of mathematics
• Use math to solve problems involving equations and
geometric constructions
• Apply the standard order of operations when solving
problems that involve multiple operations and fractions
Remember to regularly check your student portal. Your instructor may

post additional resources that you can access to enhance your learn-
ing experience.
iii
NUMERALS AND OTHER SYMBOLS 1
Numerals 1
Symbols for Showing Relationships between
Contents
Expressions 3
Signs for Other Mathematical Operations 7
SIGNED NUMBERS AND THE FOUR BASIC

OPERATIONS 16
Addition and Subtraction with Positive and
Negative Numbers 16
Multiplication and Division with Positive and
Negative Numbers 20
THE STANDARD ORDER OF OPERATIONS 24

Special Vocabulary Associated with Multiple
Operations 24
Fencing in Numbers within a Polynomial 27
Solving Problems That Involve Multiple
Operations 29
FRACTIONS 32
Equivalent Fractions 32
Preparing to Work with Fractions 35
Addition and Subtraction of Fractions 37
Multiplication and Division of Fractions 41
Working with Mixed Units of Measurement 44
PLANE GEOMETRY 48
Identifying Specific Shapes 48
Describing Relationships between Shapes 49
Working with Lines and Angles 50
Working with Two-Dimensional Figures 55
LEARNING CHECK ANSWERS 67
v
Basic Drafting Math
NUMERALS AND
OTHER SYMBOLS
To begin your studies, let’s take a look at the very basic ele-
ments of drafting mathematics—the numbers themselves.
What do numbers mean? Consider, for example, the number
five. By itself, the word five is practically meaningless; in a
counting system, it merely means, “One more than four.” But
if you specify the units being counted—for example, five
inches, five degrees, or five meters—the meaning comes
through loud and clear.
This is essentially what mathematics in drafting is all
about—relating numbers and calculations to meaningful
quantities or specific units of measurement. A number that
isn’t associated with some kind of unit has practically no
meaning. As a drafter, you’ll have to pay careful attention
both to the numbers and to the units of measurement.
Numerals
A numeral is a conventional symbol that represents a num-
ber. For example, the Roman numerals I, V, and X represent
the numbers one, five, and ten, respectively. We’re more
familiar, however, with using Arabic numerals, all of which
consist of one or more of the following digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9. As shown in Figure 1, we can list and combine
these digits to label an unlimited number of intervals on a
number line.
1
FIGURE 1—In this number line, Arabic numerals are used to mark off specific intervals.
The intervals shown on the number line in Figure 1 continue

out to the left and right of zero. The numbers, including zero
itself, mark the limits of these intervals. These numbers are
known as integers. The numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on are
called negative integers; the numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on
are called positive integers.
Arabic numerals are also used to mark off fragments of the
intervals that lie between each integer. These fragments of an
interval—for example, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, and so on—are known as
fractions. Fractions can be expressed using the decimal sys-
tem. For example, 1/4 0.25, 1/2 0.5, 3/4 0.75, and so on.
Numerical Numbers
Integers and fractions are helpful in more ways than just
marking off parts of a number line. In a more practical appli-
cation, numerals are used to specify quantities in terms of
known units of measurement. For example, we can indicate
such specific quantities as 3/16 inch (3/16), 60 degrees (60°),
and 4.76 millimeters (4.76 mm). When Arabic numerals are
used in this way—as symbols for specific quantities—they’re
known as numerical numbers.
Literal Numbers
Along with numerical numbers, there exists another kind of
symbol for specifying quantities. This kind of symbol, fre-
quently used in drafting, is known as a literal number. (Here,
the word literal means “expressed in letters.”) For example, in
the expression x feet, x is a literal number. Used in this way,
the letter x represents, or stands for, a specific number of
feet.
Typically, we use literal numbers to represent quantities of
units when we don’t know the actual numerical values of
those quantities. Exactly how many feet is x? We don’t know.
2 Basic Drafting Math

If we did know, we would use a numerical number—such as
3, 51/2, or 36.25—to designate that quantity. And we don’t
have to use only x to designate a particular unknown quan-
tity. We can let any letter be a literal number that stands for
an unknown quantity of units. However, once a letter has
been selected to serve as a literal number, that letter should
be used consistently within any calculations. This literal
number represents a specific unknown quantity. You should
continue to use the same letter to represent this specific
unknown quantity until you can calculate the numerical
value that the letter is supposed to represent.
Symbols for Showing Relationships

between Expressions
In mathematics, special symbols are used to indicate certain
relationships between numbers and between groups of num-
bers. When we see these symbols, we immediately recognize
the relationship between the two numbers or quantities.
Oftentimes, mathematical skill is simply a matter of recogniz-
ing the precise meaning of a few of these symbols.
Indicating Equality
The symbol you’re probably most familiar with is the equal
sign (). When you see this sign, you know that the quantity
to the left of the sign is exactly the same as the quantity to
the right of it. Consider, for example, the equality relation-
ship expressed in the following equations.
3 2 5
5 5
When an equal sign is present, we can sometimes determine
the value of a literal number. To solve such a problem, we
need to show only how the unknown quantity is related to
some known quantity. The equal sign indicates that relation-
ship. For example, consider the following expression where x
is representing an unknown length.
x 5 8
Basic Drafting Math 3

This expression can be read as “(Quantity) x plus five feet
equals eight feet.” Thus we know that adding five feet to the
quantity represented by x will result in a total of eight feet.
Only by adding five to three can you get a total of eight.
Therefore, the x in the equation must represent three feet.
Some equations, however, may be more complicated than
this one is. Such equations can be too difficult to solve by
doing the calculations in your head.
However, you could solve a complicated equation by isolating
the unknown quantity using some basic rules of algebra. In
other words, you can try to get the literal number to stand
alone on one side of the equal sign while maintaining the
equality relationship. In the previous example, the x can be
isolated by subtracting 5 from the quantity on the left side of
the equal sign. However, if you subtract 5 from the quantity
on the left side, you’ll also have to subtract 5 from the quan-
tity on the right. (By removing the same amount from both
sides of the equation, the equality relationship won’t be
upset.) Note how the value for x is thus revealed by isolating
the literal number.
x 5 8
x 5 5 8 5
x 0 8 5
x 3
Indicating Other Relationships

Here are some more mathematical symbols that you’re proba-
bly already familiar with. Even though these symbols aren’t
used as often as the equal sign, you’ve undoubtedly seen
them before. For each of these signs, note that the point of
the sign is always toward the smaller quantity.
• The sign means is greater than. The expression
9 cm 75 mm is read, “Nine centimeters is greater
than seventy-five millimeters.”
• The sign means is less than. The expression 10 1

is read, “Ten inches is less than one foot.”

• The sign means is greater than or equal to. The expres-
sion x 5 is read, “(Quantity) x is greater than or equal
to five degrees.”
• The sign
means is less than or equal to. The expression
y
6 is read, “(Quantity) y is less than or equal to six.”
Sometimes, you may see used to indicate greater than or

equal to. It means the same thing as the symbol , but the
concept of equality may be more easily recognized using the
symbol . (In other words, an actual equal sign can be seen
in .) Similarly,
is sometimes used instead of
to indicate
less than or equal to.
For more practice with these symbols, read through the
expressions in the following list.
For a practical example of how you would use the concept of

less than or greater than, consider the following scenario.
Let’s say you wanted to express the fact that any notch
machined into a certain part can be no more than 4 deep.
You could state this idea using a simple mathematical ex-
pression. First, let the variable d stand for the depth of any
notch cut into the part. You now want to state that the quan-
tity represented by d could be equal to or less than four
inches. To do so, you would write d
4. As long as you
specify that d represents the depth of any notch, this mathe-
matical expression can be quickly understood by all others
involved in the part’s production.
Indicating “Not” in a Mathematical Expression

Sometimes, you may be able to express a literal number only
in terms of what value or values the number cannot be equal
to. You can indicate this concept of not by drawing a diagonal

slash (/) through the symbol showing the relationship. As
illustrated in the following list, the slash negates the relation-
ship originally expressed by the symbol.
• The sign ≠ means is not equal to. The expression x ≠ 1 mm
is read, “(Quantity) x does not equal 1 millimeter.”
• The sign ≯ means is not greater than. The expression x 13

is read, “(Quantity) x is not greater than 13 inches.”
• The sign ≮ means is not less than. The expression x ≮ 2°

is read, “(Quantity) x is not less than two degrees.”
Realize that if you write x ≠ 5, you won’t have done much to

narrow down the possible values for x. With such an expres-
sion, you’re merely stating that x can be any number on a
number line except for the single number 5. However, when
you use ≯ or ≮ with an isolated variable in an expression,
you’ll have eliminated more than just one possible value for
the unknown quantity. For example, if you write x ≯ 5, you’re
effectively saying that the value represented by x can’t be any
number greater than 5. Thus, the x can’t be 51/2 nor can it be
5.75 nor 6 nor 106 nor any other number greater than 5.
Similarly, if you write x ≮ 5, then you’re saying that the value
represented by x can’t be any number less than 5.
Note that if a certain number—let’s say, x—isn’t greater than
some other quantity, then x must be less than or equal to
that quantity. Thus, the expression x ≯ 5 means the same
thing as x
5. And the expression x
5 means the same
thing as x 5.
For practice with these symbols, read through the expressions
in the following list. Note how in the first two examples, the
same concept is expressed. Similarly, in the last two examples,
the concept first expressed by negating the less than sign is
then expressed by using the greater than or equal to sign.

Signs for Other Mathematical
Operations
Most likely, you’re already familiar with the basic mathemati-
cal operations of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing. However, before you should begin practicing per-
forming these basic operations, we’ll need to establish some
ground rules for properly using the signs commonly associ-
ated with these operations.
We’ll also have to explore any special rules or techniques that
apply when the operations involve literal numbers or any
unusual numerical numbers, such as fractions. For example,
when used in calculations, literal numbers aren’t handled in
the same way that you would handle numerical numbers. In
other words, you can’t carry out all mathematical operations
the same way with both types of numbers. For instance, you
know that 4 5 can be expressed more simply as 9. But
what if the same length was expressed as a b? Without
knowing the numerical values for a and b, the expression a
b is already in its simplest form. Essentially, you can’t always
perform the same operations with literal numbers that you
can with numerical numbers.
The following signs are the ones traditionally used to indicate
the four basic mathematical operations.
• The sign means plus or added to. The expression 4
2 6 is read, “Four plus two equals six.”
• The sign means minus or subtract. The expression 7

5 2 is read, “Seven minus five equals two.”
• The sign means times or multiplied by. The expression

3 4 12 is read, “Three times four equals twelve.”
• The sign means divided by. The expression 15 3 5

is read, “Fifteen divided by three equals five.”
In drafting, however, some of these particular signs may be

too troublesome to use—used on drawings, they may even
cause confusion. For example, you’ll probably never see the
multiplication sign nor the division sign used in drafting
math. Instead, drafters have other ways of indicating multi-
plication and division.

Indicating Multiplication
Special vocabulary. Before examining the alternative ways
to indicate multiplication, let’s consider some of the special
vocabulary related to this mathematical operation. Knowing
these standard vocabulary words will allow you to discuss
mathematics more effectively. Once you learn the words,
you’ll better understand what you read and study. While you
may not use these words in your everyday work, the vocabu-
lary sometimes appears on standardized math tests used to
evaluate candidates for drafting jobs.
Factors and Products: Numbers that are multiplied together
are called factors. The result of multiplying the factors is the
product. In the equation 5 3 15, for example, the num-
bers 5 and the 3 are factors, and the number 15 is the
product. Studying the following equation may help you
remember the definitions of factor and product.
factor factor product
If you’re ever asked to “factor” a number—for example, a
question on a test may ask you to “factor” 21—you’re merely
being asked to find factors for that number. In the case of 21,
you know that 7 3 21; thus, you could answer the ques-
tion by saying that the factors of 21 are 7 and 3. What are
the factors of 18? You could base your answer on the fact
that 6 3 18, or you could base the answer on the fact
that 3 3 2 18. Thus, the factors of 18 are 9 and 2, but
it would also be correct to say that the factors of 18 are 3
and 3 and 2. Factoring is used to solve many mathematical
problems. Therefore, standardized tests frequently include
various questions about factors. You may, for example, be
asked on a test, “Is 7 a factor of 42?” The answer is “Yes”
because 7 6 42.
A number that can’t be factored into two new integers is
called a prime factor. The number 6, for example, is not a
prime factor; however, the number 6 can be factored into the
prime factors 3 and 2 (3 2 6). Let’s consider the number
27. We can factor 27 into 9 and 3 (9 3 27). We can then
go on to factor the number 9 into the factors 3 and 3 (3 3
9). That’s as far as we can go. Thus, the prime factors of
27 are 3 and 3 and 3 (3 3 3 27). On a standardized

math test, you may be asked such questions as, “What are
the prime factors of 35?” or “Is 14 a prime factor?” Remember
that—in order for a number to be considered a prime factor—
you must not be able to factor that number into different
integers. Thus, you can factor 35 into the factors 7 and 5
(7 5 35). The number 7 can’t be a product of any two
integers other than 7 and 1, and the number 5 can’t be a
product of any two integers other than 5 and 1. Therefore,
7 and 5 are the prime factors of 35. The number 14, on the
other hand, can be factored into two integers other than 14
and 1. In other words, you know that 7 2 14. Therefore,
the number 14 is not a prime factor.
Coefficients: The word coefficient simply means the other fac-
tor(s) involved in a multiplication operation. In the term 5
6, for example, the coefficient of 6 is 5. In that same term,
the coefficient of 5 is 6. In the term 5 6 7, the coefficient
of 7 is 5 6, the coefficient of 5 is 6 7, and the coefficient
of 6 is 5 7. In each case, the coefficient consists of the
other factors in the term. What’s the coefficient of 6 3 in
the term 6 3 2? If your answer is 2, you’re right.)
The word coefficient is primarily used with mathematical
terms containing literal numbers. For example, in 5 a, the
coefficient of a is 5. In 6 y 2 z, the coefficient of y
2 z is 6.
Now that we’ve reviewed the basic standard vocabulary
involved in multiplication, let’s examine the alternative ways
to indicate this operation.
Alternatives to the traditional multiplication sign. Along
with the traditional symbol used in such expressions as 3
3 9, there are various other ways to indicate multiplication.
Using a multiplication dot: A dot may be used to indicate mul-
tiplication. For example, 3 • 3 9 means the same thing and
is read the same way as 3 3 9. However, when using this
method to indicate multiplication, be careful to distinguish
the decimal point (.) from the multiplication dot (•).
Using parentheses: The factors in a multiplication operation
can each be enclosed in parentheses. Used in this way, the
parentheses themselves indicate multiplication. For example,
(3)(3) 9 or 3(3) 9 means the same thing and is read the
same way as 3 3 9.

Using an exponent: When a number is multiplied by itself, an
exponent can be used to indicate how many times the num-
ber would appear if the expression were written out using
individual multiplication signs. Essentially, the exponent tells
you how many times the number is a factor in the term. For
example, consider the equation 32 3 3. The small num-
ber 2 placed to the upper right of the base number is the
exponent. It tells you that the number 3 would appear as a
factor two times if the term were written out with multiplica-
tion signs. The expression 32 may be read, “Three (raised) to
the second power” or “Three squared.”
Now, consider the expression 43. The exponent 3 indicates
that the 4 would appear as a factor three times. Thus, 43 4
4 4. The expression 43 may be read, “Four (raised) to the
third power” or “Four cubed.” When the expression is multi-
plied out, you would get 43 4 4 4 64.
How should we read the expression (34)(5)? It should be read
as, “The quantity three to the fourth power times the quantity
five.” (We should specify the “quantities” to identify the entire
term [34] as the coefficient of 5. Otherwise, someone may
misinterpret our statement and assume that only the expo-
nent [4] is the coefficient of 5.) The entire expression (3)(5)
can be rewritten as (3 3 3 3)(5). Thus, when you cal-
culate it out, (34)(5) 405.
Look through the following list to see some more examples of
expressions that involve exponents. Note in the last example
how an exponent of 1 indicates that the base number would
be a factor in the term only one time.
Using no sign: With literal numbers, the absence of any oper-
ational sign can indicate multiplication. For example, instead
of writing A B 10, we can write AB 10. Both expres-
sions mean that the quantity A multiplied by the quantity B
is equivalent to ten. When multiplying literal numbers, we
can even abbreviate, or shorten, the way we read the expres-
sions. For example, the expression AB 10 can be read as,
“AB equals ten.” With literal numbers, multiplication is thus
understood to be the intended operation in the absence of
any specific sign.

The same concept holds true when multiplying a literal num-
ber by a numerical number—the absence of any sign can
indicate multiplication. For example, the expression 4y 12
means that four multiplied by the quantity y is equal to twelve.
This expression can be read as, “Four y equals twelve.”
Indicating Division
Special vocabulary. As is true with multiplication, a special
vocabulary is associated with division. For example, in the
equation 15 5 3, the number listed first (15) is called the
dividend—it’s the number into which another number is
being divided. The next number (5) is called the divisor—it’s
the number divided into the dividend. The solution to the
division problem (in this case, 3) is called the quotient.
Studying the following equation may help you remember
these definitions.
dividend divisor quotient
Alternatives to the traditional division sign. The symbol
( ) is rarely used as the division sign in drafting math, and,
as is the case with the multiplication sign, more than one
alternative exists.
Using a colon: Sometimes, a colon is used instead of the
usual division sign. Consider the expression 1⬊2, which may
be used, for example, to indicate the scale of a drawing.
Usually, this expression—called a ratio—is pronounced, “One
to two.” As a drawing scale, the ratio tells you that every one
unit measured on the drawing would be equal to two units
when measuring the real object or area. In other words, the

ratio tells you that the drawing was made one-half the size of
the object. In a purely mathematical sense, however, this
ratio means exactly the same thing as one divided by two.
Using a fraction line: Another way division is frequently indi-
cated in drafting is with a fraction line that separates the
dividend from the divisor. Thus, if we wanted to indicate that
6
six is to be divided by two, we could write or 6/2. When a
2
fraction line is used, the top number (or the number listed
first) is called the numerator. In the context of a division
problem, the numerator corresponds to what you would call
the dividend. The bottom number (or the number listed last)
is called the denominator in a fraction. In a division state-
ment, the denominator corresponds to what you would call
the divisor. Thus, as shown here, a number of popular ways
exist for expressing the same division statement.
6 23
6⬊2 3
63
6/
2 3
You can look at a fraction, therefore, as simply another way
to express division, and this point of view extends to all frac-
tions. For example, the fraction 1/3 means one divided by
three—even though we would typically read the fraction as
“one over three” or “one third.” The fraction 4/7 means four
1
divided by seven, and the fraction means one divided by
2x
two x. However, if a fraction is shown without its quotient
and without any unit of measurement, it’s probably intended
to serve as a ratio rather than as a statement of division. Thus,
it’s sometimes preferable to read a fraction such as 1/3 as
“one to three” rather than as “one divided by three.” Never-
theless, even when the fraction serves as a ratio, the fraction
line still indicates the mathematical operation of division.
Indicating Addition and Subtraction

In drafting, the addition and subtraction signs are the same
as those used in other applications: for addition and for
subtraction. However, some special vocabulary is associated

with these mathematical operations. For example, the word
addend refers to any number that’s to be added to another.
In the expression 4 2 6, the 4 is an addend as well as
the 2. The result of an addition operation—in this case, 6—is
called the sum. With subtraction, the subtrahend is the num-
ber subtracted from the minuend. The result of the
subtraction operation is called the difference. Thus, in the
expression 10 7 3, the 10 is the minuend, the 7 is the
subtrahend, and the 3 is the difference.
Studying the following equations should help you learn the
definitions for these new vocabulary words related to addition
and subtraction.
addend addend sum
minuend subtrahend difference
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned about
numerals and math symbols by completing Learning Check 1.

Learning Check 1
At the end of each section of Basic Drafting Math, you’ll be asked to check your under-
standing of what you’ve just read by completing a “Learning Check.” Writing the answers
to these questions will help you review what you’ve learned so far. Please complete
Learning Check 1 now.
Questions 1–5: Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
1. The numeral 54 can be factored into 9 and ________.
2. The prime factors of 54 are 2, 3, 3, and _______.
3. The numeral 18 can be factored into 3, 3, and _______.
4. In 2x43, the coefficient of 43 is _______.
5. In the term a3b4, there are _______ separate factors.
Questions 6–10: Select the one lettered choice that best answers each question.
6. In which of the following expressions is an addition operation indicated?
(4)
a. ——— c. 3 • 4
(3)
b. (4)(3) d. (3) (6)
7. In which of the following expressions is multiplication indicated?
a. 4 • 8 c. (4) (8)
b. 4.8 d. (4) (8)
(Continued)

Learning Check 1
8. In which of the following expressions is division indicated?
a. 4/7 c. 7 • 2
b. (4) (3) d. (5) (3)
9. In which of the following expressions is subtraction indicated?
a. (4) (3) c. (4) (3)

b. 4/3 d. 3(4)
10. In the equation 15 8 4 3, which of the following is the subtrahend?
a. 15 c. 4
b. 8 d. 3
Check your answers with those in the back of this book.

SIGNED NUMBERS AND THE
FOUR BASIC OPERATIONS
Mathematics in drafting can be complicated by the use of
signed numbers, which are numbers designated as either
positive or negative. You’re already familiar with the use of
signed numbers in the form of temperature scales. Five
degrees above zero, for example, can be recorded as 5°.
A temperature of five degrees below zero may be recorded
as 5°.
In drafting, positive and negative numbers may be used in a
similar way to indicate, for instance, the direction of elevation
as measured from sea level. With sea level corresponding to
an elevation of zero feet, a point 25 feet below sea level would
be at an elevation of 25. Meanwhile, a point 30 feet above
sea level would be at an elevation of 30, or simply 30.
Addition and Subtraction with Positive

and Negative Numbers
Confusion may occur, however, when trying to distinguish a
number’s sign from a mathematical operation. For example,
when you see the expression 5, should you consider this
expression as designating the number negative five, or should
you interpret it as instructions to subtract five? And when
you see the expression 6, should you interpret it as mean-
ing positive six or as instructing you to add six? The answer
to these questions is that the sign always belongs to the
number. In other words, a plus sign immediately before a
number means that the number is positive, and a minus sign
just before a number means the number is negative.
Adding Signed Numbers

In the expression (5) (6) (5) (2), addition is the
only operation specified. This expression can be pronounced,
“Positive five plus positive six plus negative five plus negative
two.” The sum of the four numbers is easily calculated in
stages. First, you can total together the positive numbers
(5 6 11). Then, you can total the negative numbers

(5 2 7). When you add the two totals, the equivalent
positive and negative values will “cancel” each other out,
leaving you with the final sum of 4. The 7 addend “cancels
out” a 7 value within the 11 addend. Thus, as a result of
the addition operation, all you have left is 4.
When adding together positive and negative numbers, try
thinking of the process as combining terms. That way, you
won’t confuse the process with subtraction. When combining
terms, you determine the total positive quantity, then deter-
mine the total negative quantity, and finally state your result
by combining the positive and negative quantities. The sign of
your result—positive () or negative ()—depends on which
of the two totals was expressed with a larger number. If the
larger total was positive, the result will be positive; if the
larger total was negative, the result will be negative. Exactly
how much larger the one total is when compared with the
other determines the number you’ll use for your final answer.
For some practice with combining terms, try calculating the
following sum.
(6) (2) (5) (7)
(6) Your first step is to total your positive

(2) numbers separately from the negative
8 numbers.
(5) Next, total the negative numbers.

(7)
12
(12) Finally, combine the positive and negative

(8) totals. Your negative total is larger, so your
4 answer will be negative. How much larger
12 is when compared with 8 gives you the
number to use in your final sum. Answer:
The sum of the numbers is equal to 4.
Subtracting Signed Numbers

Distinguishing subtraction from addition. When dealing
with signed numbers, many people become confused in try-
ing to identify adding and subtracting as two distinct

operations. They become confused because the process of
adding negative and positive terms involves taking the
smaller amount away from the amount with the opposite
sign. Thus, the addition operation appears to be what people
would normally call subtraction. Despite these appearances,
however, addition and subtraction are two distinct opera-
tions. To illustrate this fact, let’s add 9 and 6 and then
subtract these same two numbers.
(9) (6) = 3, or simply 3
(9) (6) = 15, or simply 15
The 3 and 15—two very different results—show that, even
with signed numbers, addition and subtraction are two dis-
tinct operations. Precise definitions should make the
distinctions between them clear. Addition is the process of
determining a total amount. (If any of the addends are nega-
tive, the total must—to some extent—fall.) Subtraction, on the
other hand, involves finding the difference between two num-
bers. To picture what’s meant by the word difference, look at
the illustration in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2—The concept of the “difference” between numbers is illustrated here using a number line.
You can find the difference between ⴙ9 and 6 by counting the number of units between those two
points on the number line.
Always remember, subtraction involves finding the difference

between two numbers; addition involves calculating a total.
With subtraction, the special challenge comes in determining
which sign ( or ) to use with the answer to any problem.
By looking at the number line in Figure 2, you can clearly see
that the difference between 9 and 6 is 15 units. But, in
solving a subtraction problem, how would you decide what
sign to use for the answer? Knowing which to choose involves
realizing that the subtraction operation is essentially a
description of a certain amount of movement on the number
line. The exact amount of movement is expressed as the

difference. The sign for the difference, meanwhile, corre-
sponds to the direction of movement. On a number line,
movement in the positive direction is any movement from left
to right; movement in the negative direction is movement
from right to left. With a subtraction problem, the sign for the
difference is the direction of movement from the subtrahend
to the minuend. In the problem (9) (6), for example, you
can identify the sign for the difference by determining what
direction is involved in moving to 9 from 6. The movement
is across 15 units from left to right; therefore, the answer to
this subtraction problem is 15 (or 15 units in the positive
direction). In the problem (6) (9), on the other hand, the
movement would be from right to left. Therefore, the answer
to this problem would be 15 (or 15 units in the negative
direction). Reading through the following examples—and con-
sulting the number line—should help you visualize how
subtraction is actually a description of movement.
Calculating the difference. Of course, when subtracting

signed numbers, you don’t have to refer to a number line. A
simple method exists for calculating differences. First, change
the sign of the subtrahend; then, simply combine the terms.
Thus, you’re able to use the process of combining terms in

solving both addition and subtraction problems. Look over
the following sample problems to see how this method of cal-
culating a difference actually works. With enough practice,
the method will become second nature.
Problem 1. (6) (3)
((3)
6) Step 1. Change the sign of the
(3) subtrahend.
9 Step 2. Combine the terms.
Answer: The difference is equal to 9.
Problem 2. (6) (4)
((4)
(4) subtrahend.
Answer: The difference is equal to
10.
Problem 3. (4) (5)
((5)
(5) subtrahend.
Answer: The difference is equal to 1.
Multiplication and Division with

Positive and Negative Numbers
Determining the Sign for a Product or Quotient

• When you multiply or divide a positive number by a posi-
tive number, will the result be positive or negative?
• When you multiply or divide a negative number by a neg-

ative number, will the result be positive or negative?

• When you multiply or divide a positive number by a neg-
ative number, will the result be positive or negative?
• When you multiply or divide a negative number by a pos-

itive number, will the result be positive or negative?
The answer to all these questions concerning multiplication

and division can be found in one statement: If the signs of
the two numbers are alike, the answer will have a positive
sign; if the signs aren’t alike, the answer will have a nega-
tive sign.
You can test the truth of this statement by examining some
selected multiplication and division problems.
When the signs are both positive.
• In multiplication. (4)(4) 16
8
• In division. 4
2
When the signs are both negative.
8
• In division. 4
2
When the first number is positive and the second is negative.
8
• In division. 4
2
When the first number is negative and the second is positive.
8
• In division. 4
2
Even with these examples, you may still be unsure about
whether you should get a negative or positive result when
multiplying or dividing. To help lessen any confusion, always
keep in mind the following basic rule.
Whenever two signed numbers are multiplied or divided,
LIKE signs will give a positive result and
UNLIKE signs will give a negative result.

Signs and Exponents
Even when exponents are being used to express multiplica-
tion, you would still follow the same rule that states like
signs will produce a positive solution. The key to avoiding
mistakes is to watch what numbers are grouped under any
parentheses. For example, the expression (4)2 means the
same thing as 4 • 4, which equals 16. On the other
hand, (42) means (4 • 4), which equals 16. (Remember
that, whenever a number’s sign isn’t shown, you must
assume that the number is positive.)
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned
about working with signed numbers by completing
Learning Check 2.

Learning Check 2
Calculate the solution to each of the following problems.
1. (3) (4) (9) (2) _______
2. (20)(6) _______
3. 11 1 _______
4. 20/
20 _______
5. (425) (45) _______
6. (425) (45) _______
7. (6) (8) (3) (4) _______
18
8. ——— _______
9
9. (2) (8) (4) (2) _______
12
10. ——— _______
4
11. 4 6 5 _______
12. 14 6 7 8 12 _______
13. 42 3 _______
14. 42 ⬊ 2 _______
15. (2)2 _______

THE STANDARD ORDER OF
OPERATIONS
Having practiced the various mathematical operations, you’re
probably discovering that mathematics is a lot like a separate
language—a language composed of its own special signs, or
symbols. Just as you would study vocabulary and grammar
in learning a new language, you study numbers and opera-
tions in learning math. Now that you understand how the
four basic mathematical operations work, you can begin
studying how to combine these operations within a single
mathematical expression. (To continue the comparison with
learning a new language, this combining of different opera-
tions is like building a more advanced or sophisticated
sentence.) You already know how to add, subtract, multiply,
and divide; all that you have left to learn is when you should
do each of these operations.
Special Vocabulary Associated with

Multiple Operations
Before you should start actually solving problems that involve
multiple operations, you should learn the related vocabulary.
That way, we can discuss the process more effectively.
Distinguishing Expressions, Terms, and Equations

Throughout your math studies, the words “expression,” “term,”
and “equation” have been used repeatedly. But these words
were never precisely defined. Now, it’s necessary to do so.
A mathematical expression. In mathematics, the word
“expression” can be used to refer to practically anything.
Outside of mathematics, the word is just as loosely defined
and freely used—that is, any significant word or phrase can
be referred to as an “expression.” Similarly, a mathematical
expression is any mathematical symbol or combination of
symbols. Thus, operational symbols, individual numerals, and
written math problems can all be referred to as “expressions.”

A mathematical term. How “term” is used in mathematics
is similar to how “word” is used in a more familiar or conven-
tional language. Just like a word can be defined as a
meaningful expression composed of one or more letters, a
mathematical term can be thought of as an expression com-
posed of one or more numerals or symbols. And, just as you
can write a complicated sentence by stringing together lots of
words, you can express a long math problem by stringing
together terms. When looking at a written sentence, everyone
can spot where one word ends and another begins. The
words are clearly separated by spaces and punctuation
marks. When a mathematical expression is written out, the
terms are also made clearly distinct from one another.
However, within a long mathematical expression, it’s a plus
sign () or a minus sign () that marks where each term ends
and another begins. Thus, a term in mathematics is any ex-
pression separated from another by a plus or minus sign.
Note how, according to this definition, each mathematical
expression in the following list is actually a single term.
• The numerical number 5 is a single term.
• The literal number x is a single term.
• The fraction 1/2 is a single term.
• The expression 14x(2z) 4 is a single term.
Thus, any number (or combination of numbers) is a term as

long as there are no plus or minus signs included in the
expression. The expression 4 5a 6, for example, isn’t a
single term; it actually consists of three terms. The three sep-
arate terms are 4, 5a, and 6.
A mathematical equation and inequalities. An equation
is a statement that emphasizes the equality of some mathe-
matical expressions. The symbol for equality is, of course, the
equal sign. Thus, the expression 4 5a 6 isn’t an equa-
tion. However, because the two expressions are shown
related to each other by an equal sign, the statement 4 5a
6 10 5a is considered an equation.
Related to this concept of a “statement of equality” is the idea
of a “statement of inequality.” An inequality is like an equa-
tion, except the symbol used isn’t an equal sign. Instead, the

symbol would show some relationship other than equality.
Thus, to make an inequality, you would use a symbol like
less than or equal to (
) or not equal to () or not greater than
( ), and so on. For instance, 17 3x is an example of an
inequality.
Classes of Expressions
Mathematical expressions are given specific names according
to how many terms they have. Using these names isn’t really
important for most work involving math, but knowing what
the words mean may become important if you’re ever asked
about them on a test or during an interview for a job. Each
word is composed of a prefix that indicates a certain quantity
connected to the root nomial, which is derived from a Latin
word meaning name (or, more appropriate for our purposes,
meaning term). Therefore, each of these new vocabulary
words literally refers to a certain quantity of terms. In the fol-
lowing list, each prefix is defined along with the vocabulary
word that it helps to form.
• Mono—means “one.” (A monorail has one rail.) Thus, a
monomial is a mathematical expression consisting of a
single term. The expressions 5, 6x, and (5x)(2y) are all
examples of monomials.
• Bi—means “two.” (A bicycle has two wheels.) Therefore, a

binomial is a mathematical expression consisting of two
terms. For instance, 5 4, 5x 4y, and (5x)(2y)
(6xy)(2z)(3) are all examples of binomials.
• Tri—means “three.” (A tripod has three “feet.”) Thus, a

trinomial is a mathematical expression consisting of three
terms. For instance, 5 4 6 and 5x 6y 7z are
examples of trinomials.
• Poly—means “many” or “several.” (A polygraph, or lie

detector, is an instrument that simultaneously records
changes in several different measurements.) A polynomial
is thus an expression that has more than one term. The
polynomial could consist of two terms (making it a bino-
mial ) or three terms (making it a trinomial ), or it could be
an expression that contains many terms, like the expres-
sion 5x 3xy (4x)(2z) 7(3x) (8x)(4y).

Fencing in Numbers within a
Polynomial
Types of Fences and Their Use

Along with showing multiplication, parentheses can be used
to fence in, or group together, parts of a single expression.
Used this way, the parentheses in a math problem are called
fences. As an example of how fences are used, consider these
following problems.
632
6 (3 2)
The first math problem is read, “Six minus three plus two.”
To solve the first problem, you would simply perform each
operation in sequence from left to right. Thus, you would
subtract 3 from 6, leaving you with a difference of 3. You
would then add 2 to this difference, giving you a final result
of 5. The second problem is very similar to the first except for
the fences. In the second problem, the fences group together
the two addends—3 and 2. In mathematics, everything inside
the fences must be treated as though it were a separate
expression, distinct from the rest of the polynomial. In other
words, the entire expression—(3 2)—will serve as the sub-
trahend in the second math problem. This problem is read,
“Six minus the quantity three plus two.” Because 3 2 5,
the second math problem could be rewritten as 6 5, giving
you a final result, therefore, of 1.
In effect, using fences changes the left-to-right order in which
you would normally solve addition and subtraction problems.
Everything inside the fences must be done before any other
operations.
You can also have fences within fences in a mathematical
problem. For example, consider again the expression 6
(3 2). Suppose you wanted to multiply this entire expres-
sion by 4. How would you rewrite the problem? If you were to
write 4 6 (3 2), you would actually be saying, “Four
times six minus the quantity three plus two.” According to
that statement, 4 and 6 are the only factors included in the
multiplication operation. However, you wanted the entire

expression—6 (3 2)—to be the factor multiplied by 4.
Therefore—to identify it as a separate quantity—the entire
expression would have to be grouped within its own pair of
fences.
Simply putting another pair of parentheses around the entire
expression may create some confusion. When looking at the
expression 4(6 (3 2)), you may have trouble seeing how
one pair of fences is nested within the other. The two closing
parentheses—))—may even be misinterpreted as a typo, a
mistake in writing out the problem. Therefore, mathemati-
cians have established the use of other markings for fencing
in an expression that already contains parentheses. Brackets
and braces are used for this purpose.
In any one problem, the parentheses would be used first,
then brackets—[ ]—would be used to fence in the parenthe-
ses, and braces—{ }—would finally be used to fence in the
brackets: { [ ( ) ] }. If more levels of fences are needed, you
would use parentheses, brackets, and braces that are
noticeably larger than the others. You would nest these
fences within each other in the same order that applies to
their smaller versions.
So, to return to the original problem, you would write out the
expression “Four times the quantity six minus the quantity
three plus two” as 4[6 (3 2)].
Simplifying
Whenever you’re dealing with polynomials, you should sim-
plify any lengthy terms as well as the contents of any fences
before you begin making copies of the expression or trying to
calculate a solution. Doing so will lessen the possibility of
making errors in your copies or calculations. For example,
consider the following two expressions.
(5) [6(2x)]
3(4) (8y)
Now, these are unnecessarily bulky versions of what are
essentially two elementary binomials. Written out in this way,
the expressions take up more space than is truly needed. The

expressions would also take more time to copy than is really
necessary. After all, each expression is showing only the
addition or subtraction of a single pair of terms. Thus, you
can work within each pair of fences to simplify the terms in
both expressions. Unnecessary fences can be eliminated,
and—once the terms are simplified—the two expressions
would look as follows.
5 12x
12 8y
Solving Problems That Involve Multiple

Operations
If several operations are involved in one problem, you must
perform your calculations according to an accepted pattern,
or order. For example, consider the following expression.
100 40 5
You may attempt to solve this problem by performing each
operation as you encounter it when working from left to right.
Thus, 100 40 60, and 60 5 12. But, what if you
were to solve the problem by working from right to left? In
that case, 40 5 8, and 100 8 92. Given these two
very different results, it obviously makes a great deal of dif-
ference which operation is performed first in such a problem.
Luckily, a standard order of operations has been established
worldwide. According to the accepted standard, the division
operation in this particular problem should be performed
first. The standard order of operations requires that you first
work within any fences and then simplify every term in a
problem before adding and subtracting. The complete stan-
dard order of operations is as follows.
1. Parentheses
2. Powers and square roots
3. Multiplication and division (from left to right, whichever
comes first in the problem)
4. Addition and subtraction (from left to right, whichever
comes first in the problem)

Look at the binomial 5 2 6. You know that you’re sup-
posed to multiply 5 by 2, but what about 6? Should you
multiply the 5 by the 6? Should you add the 6 to the 2 before
you multiply? The answer to both of these questions is the
same: NO! According to the standard order of operations, the
multiplication must be done before the addition. The expres-
sion 5 2, after all, is a single term. You would simplify this
term by expressing it as 10. Because this binomial has no
fences—and knowing that 10 6 16—the correct solution
to this problem is 16.
For more practice in applying the standard order of opera-
tions, examine the following sample problems.
Problem 1. 32 6(4 1) 100
32 6(5) 100 Step 1. Work within the paren-
theses first.
9 6(5) 100 Step 2. Powers and roots next.
9 30 100 Step 3. Multiplication/division

(left to right).
39 100 Step 4. Addition/subtraction

(left to right).
61 Answer: The solution is 61.

(39 100 61)
Problem 2. 10 3 6 102 (6 1) 4
10 3 6 102 (7) 4 Step 1. Work within the paren-
theses first.
10 3 × 6 100 (7) 4 Step 2. Powers and roots next.
10 18 100 28 Step 3. Multiplication/division

(left to right).
8 100 28 Step 4. Addition/subtraction

(left to right).
92 28
120 Answer: The solution is 120.
(92 28 120)

about multiple operations by completing Learning Check 3.

Learning Check 3
Calculate the solution to each of the following problems.
1. 6 3 • 4 8 _______
2. 7 4 • 8 9⬊3 _______
3. 5 6 • 2 7 _______
4. 9/3 7 6 • 4 _______
5. 5 14⬊2 3 • 4 _______
6. 6 • 5 4 • 3 _______
4 3
7. 7 _______
2
8. 9 2 • 4 6/3 _______
9. 6 5 2 • 7 _______
10. 9 8 7 4 _______
11. 6 4 • 32 _______
12. 36/
3 2(8 2) 5 _______
13. 8[3(32 8) 1] _______
⎡ 3(6 7 8) ⎤
14. 22 • 4 ⎢ ⎥ _______
⎢ 5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 3(17 2) 25 ⎤
15. ⎢ ⎥ (10 3 15 10) _______
⎢ 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

FRACTIONS
At this point in your studies, you’ve learned almost every-
thing there is to know about adding, multiplying, dividing,
and subtracting numbers—almost everything. You still need
to practice working with fractions. Fractions can be confus-
ing, but they don’t have to be. To become skilled in handling
fractions, you need to learn only a few basic principles.
First, let’s review what’s meant by the word fraction. A frac-
tion names part of a whole. Suppose a circle is sectioned into
four equal parts, as is shown in Figure 3. Each part is 1/4 of
the whole circle.
Mathematically, a ratio is like a fraction. However, using a
ratio is preferred for emphasizing how one number is related
to another number. Regarding the circle in Figure 3, the ratio
of shaded parts to the total number of parts is 1⬊4, or “one to
four.” Furthermore, the ratio of the circle’s unshaded parts to
the total number of parts is 3⬊4, and the ratio of shaded
parts to unshaded parts is 1⬊3.
FIGURE 3—One of this cir-

cle’s four equal parts is
shaded. You can point out
this fact using a fraction by
saying that one-fourth (or
a quarter) of the circle is
shaded. Three of the four
parts aren’t shaded, so you
would say that three-
fourths of this circle isn’t
shaded.
Equivalent Fractions
The following statement expresses perhaps the most impor-
tant principle concerning fractions and mathematics. When
you multiply or divide both the numerator and denominator

of a fraction by the same number, the value of the fraction
will remain the same. Learning about just this one basic
principle will take most of the confusion out of fractions.
The fraction 1/4 refers to one part out of the four parts that
make up the whole. Imagine that you wanted to apply this
same ratio to, for example, a circle divided into eight equal
parts. Essentially, you’re looking for the value of x in the fol-
lowing statement.
One part is to four parts just as x part(s) is to eight parts.
This same statement is expressed mathematically in both of
the following equations.
1⬊4 x⬊8
1 x

4 8
To solve for x in the fraction, you must isolate the x on one

side of the equation without upsetting the equality relation-
ship. You can do so by multiplying the fractions on both
sides of the equal sign by 8, as shown here.
(8)1 (8)x

4 8
8
x
4
2x
Thus, the fraction 1/4 is equivalent to the fraction 2/8. In other
words, if the numerator and the denominator of 1/4 are both
multiplied by 2, the result is the equivalent fraction of 2/8. In
fact, according to the principle described earlier, if you multi-
ply both the numerator and the denominator of any fraction
by the same number, the result will be another fraction with
the same value as the first. After all, if you multiply both the
numerator and the denominator of a fraction by the same
number, you’re effectively multiplying the fraction by the
equivalent of 1. When a fraction is multiplied simply by a fac-
tor of 1, the fraction’s value can’t change. The mathematical
reasoning behind this principle is shown here applied to the
fraction 1/3 with 5/5 serving as the equivalent of 1.

1 1 1
If:
3 1 3
1 5
and:
1 5
1 5 1
then:
3 5 3
1 5 5

3 5 15
1 5

3 15
The principle also applies when you divide both the numera-
tor and the denominator of a fraction by the same number.
This fact is demonstrated here using the fraction 4/8 with 2/2
serving as the equivalent of 1.
4 1 4
If:
8 1 8
1 2
and:
1 2
4 2 4
then:
8 2 8
4 2 2

8 2 4
4 2

8 4
You see, as long as the numerator and denominator of a frac-

tion are both multiplied by the same factor—or both divided
by the same divisor—the actual value of the fraction remains
the same. All of the fractions listed here represent the exact
same value.
1/
2 2/4 4/8 8/16 16/
32 32/
64 64/
128 128/
256 and so on.
This principle is important. Over and over, you’ll rely on

it whenever adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing
fractions.

Preparing to Work with Fractions
Reducing Fractions
To make your calculations easier and less susceptible to
error, you should try to reduce fractions to their lowest
terms. To reduce a fraction, divide the numerator and the
denominator by the largest number that will go evenly into
both. For example, 10/25 is reduced to 2/5 by dividing both the
numerator and the denominator by 5. (Because the numera-
tor and denominator were divided by the same number, the
two fractions—10/25 and 2/5—are equivalent.) The following are
a few more examples of fractions being reduced. Note how
each reduced fraction is smaller and thus easier to use than
the original version.
6 6 6 1

24 24 6 4
49 49 7 7

56 56 7 8
72 72 8 9

80 80 8 10
27 27 9 3

36 36 9 4
30 30 10 3

50 50 10 5
Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers

An improper fraction is one with a numerator that’s as large as
or larger than the denominator. In other words, an improper
fraction represents a number of parts that together are equiv-
alent to more than one unit of something. Thus, an improper
fraction can also be expressed as a mixed number—whereby
you specify the total number of complete units along with the
number of parts left over. For example, reconsider the circle
divided into four equal parts. If you had five of such parts,
you would have enough parts for a whole circle and you

would have one part left over. Mathematically speaking, five
quarters of a circle is equal to one whole circle and a quarter.
This statement can be expressed numerically as follows.
5 1
1
4 4
The quantity to the left of the equal sign in this equation is

an improper fraction—note that the numerator is larger than
the denominator. The quantity to the right of the equal sign
is a mixed number—it consists of a whole number together
with a fraction.
You can change an improper fraction to a mixed number by
carrying out the division indicated by the fraction. You would
thus calculate the whole number and can simply put any
remainder over the divisor. For example, how the improper frac-
tion 9/4 would be changed to a mixed number is shown here.
9 The fraction line indicates division.

9 4
4
2 Four can go into nine 2 times with 1


4 9
−8
as a remainder.
1 Thus, the mixed-number equivalent of

2 9/
4 4 consists of 2 as the whole number
and 1/4 as the fraction.
To change a mixed number to an improper fraction, you do

the reverse. Multiply the whole number in the mixed number
by the fraction’s denominator and add the product to the
numerator; then, place the total over the denominator.
For example, how the mixed number 63/4 is changed to an
improper fraction is shown here.
3 643
6
4 4
6 4 3 27

4 4
3 27
6
4 4

Why are improper fractions and mixed numbers important?
To work with fractions, you must be able to change the num-
ber value from one form to the other. For instance, you can’t
conveniently add or multiply mixed numbers; you would need
to change them to improper fractions. The result of such
computations, though, aren’t clearly expressed as improper
fractions; you should therefore change a problem’s answer to
a mixed number.
Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

If you’re adding two fractions that have the same denomina-
tor, all you have to do is add the numerators and place the
total over the common denominator. For example, think
again of the circle divided into four equal parts. If you were to
add one part to another, you would have two of the circle’s
four parts. Mathematically, this fact is expressed as 1/4 + 1/4 =
2/ . Of course, 2/ can then be reduced to 1/ . (Two out of four
4 4 2
parts of the circle is half the circle.)
Subtracting fractions that have the same denominator is just
as easy; you have to deal only with the numerators to get an
answer. Before you can add or subtract any fractions,
though, the denominators have to be the same. Therefore, if
the denominators are different, you’ll need to figure out some
way to express at least one of the fractions as an equivalent
fraction so that the denominators of the two fractions will be
the same. Then, to add or subtract, you can concentrate on
working only with the numerators.
For example, consider how you would add 1/7 and 3/14.
Because the denominators are different, you’ll need to
express at least one of the fractions as an equivalent.
Multiplying 7 by 2 will give you a result of 14. Therefore,
multiplying 1/7 by 2/2 is probably the easiest way to get two
addends with the same denominator. The addition problem,
then, would be worked out as follows.
1 3
Problem.
7 14
1 2 2 Step 1. Calculate whatever equivalent

7 2 14 fractions you need to make the denomi-
nators of the two fractions the same.

2 Step 2. Add the fractions that now have
14 a common denominator. Answer: The
3 sum of 1/7 and 3/14 is 5/14

14
5
14
When adding and subtracting fractions, the trick is in figur-

ing out the easiest way to get a common denominator for both
fractions. Let’s practice with some actual addition problems.
1 1
Problem 1.
5 10
1 2 2 Step 1. Because 2 5 10, you can

5 2 10 change the fraction 1/3 so that it has a
denominator of 10.

1 sum of 1/3 and 1/10 is 3/10.

10
3
10
1 1
Problem 2.
3 9

3 3 9 change the fraction 1/3 so that it has a
denominator of 9.

1 sum of 1/3 and 1/9 is 4/9.

9
4
9
1 5
Problem 3.
4 16

change the fraction 1/4 so that it has a
4 4 16
denominator of 16.

5 sum of 1/4 and 5/16 is 9/16.

16
9
16
More than one number can serve as a common denominator.
Usually, though, it’s easiest to find the smallest one, which is
called the least common denominator. Keeping the numbers
in your calculations as small as possible will also help you
avoid making errors in your computations.
But what if you can’t multiply the smaller denominator by a
whole number to make it the same as the other denomina-
tor? For example, how would you add 1/3 and 1/4? You can’t
multiply 3 by a whole number to get 4, so you need to
change the denominators in both fractions. Find the smallest
number that both denominators will divide into evenly. That
smallest multiple common to both denominators will be your
least common denominator for the addition problem. To get
the equivalent fractions that will each have the least common
denominator, you need to mu ltiply the two addends—1/3 and
1/ —by the appropriate factors.
4
By trial and error, you can find the least common denomina-
tor for 1/3 and 1/4. You can check successive multiples of
4—growing larger and larger—until you find the first multiple
that 3 will divide into evenly. The product of 4 and 2 is 8.
Because 8 is not divisible evenly by 3, you’ll need to go on.
The product of 4 and 3 is 12. The number 12 is evenly divisi-
ble by 3; therefore, 12 will work in the addition problem as
the least common denominator. The problem, then, is solved
as follows.
1 1
Problem.
3 4

3 4 12 change the fraction so that they each
have a denominator of 12.
1 3 3

4 3 12

3 sum of 1/3 and 1/4 is 7/12.
( (

12
7
12
For more examples on finding least common denominators,
read through these sample problems.
3 3
Problem 1.
10 8
3 4 12 Step 1. Find the least common denomi-

10 4 40 nator. Multiples of the denominator 10
are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. The
3 5 15 other dividend, 8, won’t divide evenly

8 5 40 into 10, 20, or 30, but it will divide evely
into 40. Thus, 40 is the least common
denominator.

15 sum of 3/10 and 3/8 is 27/ .
40
40
27
40
5 3
Problem 2.
8 12
5 3 15 Step 1. Find the least common denomi-

8 3 24 nator. Multiples of the denominator
12 are 12, 24, 36, and so on. While the
3 2 6 other denominator 8, won’t divide evenly

12 2 24 into 12, it will divide evenly into 24.
Thus, 24 is the least common
denominator.
15 Step 2. Subtract now that the fractions

24 have a common denominator.
6

24
9
24

9 3 3 Step 3. Reduce the answer to the lowest

24 3 8 terms. Answer: Subtracting 3/12 from 5/8
results in a difference of 3/8.
Multiplication and Division of Fractions
Multiplying Fractions
You’ve already had practice in multiplying fractions when you
were working with the principle of equivalent fractions. Now,
however, instead of multiplying by the fractional equivalent of
1, you’ll be multiplying by a fraction in which the numerator
is different from the denominator. The basic process, though,
remains the same. To multiply fractions, you need to multiply
the numerators together to get the numerator of the product,
and then you need to multiply the denominators together to
get the denominator of the product. It’s that simple; only
examine your answer to make sure it’s reduced to the lowest
terms. The process of multiplying fractions is demonstrated
in the following problem.
Problem. A drafter spent 3/4 of the workday drawing. One par-
ticular project took up 2/3 of the time spent drawing. What
fractional part of the workday was spent making drawings for
that project alone?
2 3 Step 1. Set up the multiplication prob-

3 4 lem using the fractions 2/3 and 3/4 (You’re
being asked to calculate 2/3 of the 3/4
workday.)
6 Step 2. Multiply the numerators

3 4 together.
6 Step 3. Multiply the denominators

12 together.
6 6 1 Step 4. Reduce the fraction to express

12 6 2 the product in the lowest terms. Answer:
The drafter spent 1/2 the workday making
drawings for the one project.
In the preceding problem, none of the fractions were simpli-

fied until the very end, when the answer was reduced to its
lowest terms. In multiplication, however, it’s often possible to

simplify the factors of the problem before you actually do the
operation. Doing so should make the multiplication process
easier, since the numbers to be multiplied are being made
smaller. This process of simplifying the factors before they’re
multiplied is called canceling. Canceling is a lot like reducing
a fraction to the lowest terms. But instead of dividing the
numerator and denominator of the same fraction by a number,
you divide the numerator of one fraction and the denomina-
tor of another by a number that will go into them evenly. In
the following multiplication problems, note that the canceling
is done before the result of each problem is calculated.
Problem 1. Multiply 2/3 by 3/4 again. This time, however, use
cancellation to simplify the factors.

3 4 lem using the fractions 2/3 and 3/4.
1
2 3 Step 2. Divide the denominator of the

3 4 first fraction and the numerator of the
1 second fraction by 3.
1
2 1 Step 3. Divide the numerator of the first

1 4 fraction and the denominator of the

1 2 together.

2 together. Answer: The product of 2/3 and
3/ is 1/2.
4
Problem 2. Multiply 5/8 by 1/20.

8 20 lem using the fractions 5/8 and 1/20.


8 4 together.

32 together. Answer: The product of 5/8 and
1/ is 1/32.
20
Dividing Fractions
Before you start dividing fractions, there’s one more vocabu-
lary word you should learn. A reciprocal is the inverse of any
number when the number is expressed as a fraction. For
example, the reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2; the reciprocal of x y/5 is
5/ . A reciprocal isn’t equal to the original fraction, but
xy
multiplying any fraction by its reciprocal will result in a
product of 1.
Even whole numbers that aren’t originally expressed as frac-
tions have reciprocals. You now know that dividing any
number by 1 doesn’t change the value of that number. The
number 6 can therefore be expressed as 6/1 without changing
the number’s value (divide 6 by 1 and you get 6). Thus, the
reciprocal of 6 is 1/6, the reciprocal of 8 is 1/8, the reciprocal of
a is 1/a, and the reciprocal of 10x is 1/10x.
Essentially, you can obtain the reciprocal of any number by
reversing the position of the numerator and the denominator
when the number is expressed as a fraction. Reciprocals
come in handy when you’re dividing fractions. To divide one
fraction by another, you would simply multiply the dividend
by the reciprocal of the divisor. This principle is demonstrated
in the following sample problems.
Problem 1. Divide 3/8 by 1/2.
3 1 Step 1. Set up the division problem

8 2 using the fractions 3/8 and 1/2.
2 Step 2. Invert the divisor to get its

1 reciprocal.
3 2 Step 3. Multiply the dividend by the

8 1 reciprocal of the divisor.
3 2 Step 4. Divide the denominator of the
8 1 first fraction and the numerator of the


4 1 together.

4 together. Answer: Dividing 3/8 by 1/2 will
result in the quotient 3/4.
Problem 2. Divide 12/ by 8.

15
12 8 Step 1. Set up the division problem

12/
15 1 using the fractions 15 and 8/1.
1 Step 2. Invert the divisor to get its

8 reciprocal.
12 1 Step 3. Multiply the dividend by the

15 8 reciprocal of the divisor.

3 1 Step 5. Divide the new numerator and

15 2 the denominator of the first fraction
5 by 3.

5 2 together.

together. Answer: Dividing 12/ by 8
10 15
will result in the quotient 1/ .

10
Working with Mixed Units of

Measurement
In drafting, you must always be conscious of the units of
measurement involved in your calculations. Sometimes, these
units may be mixed. Consider, for example, how measure-
ments are frequently expressed in both inches and feet.
When adding 2 3 to 4 5, you can total the feet and inches
separately to get a sum of 6-8 . But what if you were adding
together 2 6 and 410? If you again total the feet and

inches separately, you’ll get a sum of 6 16. Expressed this
way, the result may be misleading (at first, the total may
seem to be less than 7).
To successfully handle these types of calculations, you
should always remember that a certain number of the
smaller units comprise one larger unit. In relation to the
larger unit of a foot, for instance, 6 can be thought of as 6/12
because there are 12 inches in a foot. Therefore, a dimension
that’s expressed using a large and a small unit of measure-
ment can be expressed as a mixed number using only the
large unit of measurement. The dimension 2 6, for instance,
can be expressed as 26/12. The dimension 4 10 can be
expressed as 410/12. If the dimensions are expressed this
way, adding them will actually involve adding together mixed
numbers as shown here.
Problem. Add 26/12 to 410/12.
1 5 Step 1. Reduce fractions where possible
6 10 to make handling the problem easier. In
2 4
12 12 the first fraction, you can divide the
2 6
numerator and denominator by 6. In the
second fraction, you can divide the
numerator and denominator by 2.
2 2 1 4 6 5 Step 2. Convert each mixed number to

2 6 an improper fraction. Multiply the whole
number by the denominator, add the
numerator, and place the total over the
denominator.
5 3 15 Step 3. Add the improper fractions. Be-

2 3 6 cause 2 • 3 6, you can change the first
29 1 29 fraction so that both denominators are 6.

6 1 6
44
6
44 2 22 Step 4. Reduce the answer to the lowest

6 2 3 terms (Divide the numerator and de-
nominator by 2.
22 1 Step 5. Express the improper fraction as

7
3 3 a mixed number. Dividing 22 by 3 re-
sults in a quotient of 7 with 1 as a
remainder. Answer: The sum is 7 1/3.

When dealing with mixed units of measurement, however, it’s
often easier to simply express all the units in terms of the
smaller units. Any calculations that are done will involve that
single unit of measurement. The final answer can then be
converted back to an expression of mixed units. This technique
may be especially appropriate when subtracting dimensions.
For example, consider the following sample problem.
Problem. Subtract 3 9 from 17 2.
3 • 12 9 45 Step 1. In each dimension, convert the
17 • 12 2 206 feet measurement to inches by multiply-
ing by 12. Add the inch measurement
from the rest of the dimension to the
product.
206 Step 2. Subtract 45 from 206.

45
161
13 Step 3. Divide the result by 12 to convert


12 161
12
the answer back to an expression of
mixed units. Dividing 161 by 12 results
41 in a quotient of 13 with 5 as a remain-
36
der. Answer: Subtracting 3 9 from 17
5
2 results in the difference of 13 5.

about fractions by completing Learning Check 4.

Learning Check 4
Questions 1–5: Calculate the solution to each of the following problems. Express your
answer in simplest terms.
1. 1/9 4/63 _______
2. 13/8 13/4 _______
3. 24 11/3 _______
4. 11/9 • 9/10 _______
5. 1/5b • 15b _______
Questions 6–10: Express these fractions as mixed numbers. Reduce your answers to their
simplest terms.
6. 21/
5 _______
7. 7/2 _______
8. 296/
10 _______
9. 18/
15 _______
10. 18/
8 _______
Questions 11–15: Express these mixed numbers as improper fractions.
11. 21/3 _______
12. 61/10 _______
13. 71/9 _______
14. 171/2 _______
15. 211/10 _______

PLANE GEOMETRY
In drafting, mathematics involves more than just numbers. A
drafter must know how to perform calculations involving drawn
shapes. The phrase plane geometry refers to that branch of
mathematics dealing with two-dimensional figures—figures
that you would draw on only one plane.
Just as numerical expressions have their equal signs and
signs that show inequalities, there are also special symbols
that indicate relationships between shapes, or figures.
However, before you learn about these new signs that show
relationships, you’ll need to study the geometric symbols and
special vocabulary related to the figures themselves.
Identifying Specific Shapes

The symbol means triangle. The triangle in Figure 4 may be
identified as ABC, pronounced as triangle ABC.
FIGURE 4—There are sev-

eral ways to designate a
triangle and its component
angles. All of these ways
rely on labeling different
parts of the triangle.
The symbol ⬔ means angle, and the point where two lines
meet to form an angle is called a vertex. The angle formed by
the dotted line and the dashed line in Figure 4, the angle
with the vertex labeled A, may be called ⬔BAC or ⬔CAB or
simply ⬔A. Note that if you label an angle by listing several
points, the vertex is always the middle point that’s desig-
nated. Thus, if you wanted to include all three points in the
angle’s name, the angle formed by the solid line and the
dashed line can be called ⬔BCA or ⬔ACB. Angles are some-
times named by referring to a single letter or number that

represents the opening of the angle rather than the angle’s
vertex. Such is the case with ⬔1. Angle 1 can also be called
⬔C, ⬔BCA, or ⬔ACB.
Sometimes, the sides of figures are lettered. Other times, the
figure’s terminal points, or vertices, are lettered. Thus, side a
can also be called side AC in the triangle pictured in Figure 4.
Describing Relationships
between Shapes
Now that you know how to designate particular shapes,
you’re ready to learn about how to describe relationships
between geometric shapes.
Similarity
The symbol ~ means is similar to. The two triangles shown in
Figure 5 are similar to each other. This relationship between
the two triangles is described in the expression ABC ~ DEF.
When read aloud, this expression would be pronounced,
“Triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF.”
FIGURE 5—The two triangles shown here are similar to each other.
Similar figures always have the same shape, but they don’t necessarily
have to be the same size.
In geometry, the word similar means that the shape of the fig-
ures is the same. Look again at the two triangles pictured in
Figure 5. Each angle in ABC has exactly the same shape as
an angle in DEF. If you measured, for example, ⬔A, you
would find that this angle is open to the same number of
degrees as is found in ⬔D. Furthermore, ⬔B ⬔E and ⬔C
⬔F. In contrasting the triangles, it’s only the lengths of the
sides that are different. Thus, similar figures share a com-
mon shape, but they aren’t necessarily the same size.

Congruence
The symbol ⬵ means is congruent with. In Figure 6, GHI ⬵
JLK. Read aloud, this expression would be pronounced,
“Triangle GHI is congruent with triangle JLK.”
FIGURE 6—The two trian-

gles shown here are
congruent. Congruent fig-
ures have the same shape
as well as the same size.
In plane geometry, the word congruent means that the figures

have the same shape and size. In short, congruent figures are
exactly alike.
In Figure 6, the angles labeled with the same numbers are all
equal. Furthermore, if the two triangles are congruent, each
side would match the length of a side on the other triangle.
Side HI, for example, is the same length as side LK. Also, the
length of side IG equals the length of side KJ, and the length
of side GH equals the length of side JL.
The word congruent and the word similar retain their meaning
regardless of what kind of figures are being compared. All cir-
cles, for instance, are similar to each other because they all
have the same perfectly round shape. Circles that are con-
gruent would have both the same shape and the same size.
Working with Lines and Angles
Intersecting Lines
When drawing various shapes, you’ll invariably need to
make lines that intersect, or cross each other. Whenever two
lines intersect, four angles are formed. In some ways, the
relationships between these angles are consistent and
therefore predictable.

Look at the intersecting lines in Figure 7. The angles formed
by the intersecting lines are designated A1, A2, B1, and B2.
Note how the subscripts—those small numbers placed at the
bottom right of the let-ters—help to distinguish the various
angles. Another method of distinguishing angles that share
the same letter would be to use primes—the short slashes
sometimes used as symbols for feet and inches—at the top
right of the letters. Thus, the angles shown in Figure 7 could
have been labeled A, A, B, and B. These labels would be
pronounced as A prime (A), A double prime (A), and so on.
FIGURE 7—Four angles are

formed whenever straight
lines intersect. Here, the
same letter is used in the
labels for those angles that
are positioned opposite to
each other.
Vertical angles. Instead of each angle in Figure 7 being

labeled with a completely different letter, the four angles are
paired off so that each pair has its own letter. The angles are
paired off in this way because they share a common charac-
teristic: the angles labeled with the same letters are the same
shape. Each pair of angles that share the same letter are
called vertical angles. Especially significant to a drafter is the
fact that vertical angles are always equal. Thus, angle A is
equal to angle A2 (⬔A1 ⬔A2), and angle B1 is equal to angle
B2 (⬔B1 ⬔B2). The subscripts help identify the particular
angle in the drawing and have no further numerical
significance.
Adjacent angles. The opposite angles aren’t the only special
pairs of angles present in Figure 7. Angles that are alongside
each other also form a significant pair. These angles, called
adjacent angles, share a common side and a common vertex.
Like vertical angles, adjacent angles are formed whenever two
lines intersect.

Supplementary angles. Because together they form a
straight line (in other words, a 180° angle), adjacent angles
are also called supplementary angles. In Figure 7, the adja-
cent angles A1 and B2 are supplementary angles because
together they total 180°. Likewise, ⬔A1 and ⬔B1 are adjacent
angles and supplementary angles.
Calculating the sizes of angles. You can calculate the size
of the angles formed by intersecting lines once you know the
size of any one of the angles. It’s possible to do this because
of the known relationships between the vertical angles and
between the adjacent angles. For example, look again at
Figure 7. If you know that ⬔A1 measures 70°, then ⬔A2 must
also measure 70°. The angles A1 and A2 are vertical angles
and are thus equal to each other. You also know that ⬔A1
and ⬔B1 must total 180°—they’re adjacent angles formed by
two intersecting lines. Therefore, ⬔B1 must be 70° less than
180°. In other words, ⬔B1 must measure 110°. And, if ⬔B1
measures 110°, then ⬔B2 must also measure 110°—those
two angles are vertical angles.
Parallel Lines and Transversals

Parallel lines are lines that are always the same distance
from each other—like the rails on a railroad track. They can
be extended indefinitely and will never meet. A third line that
intersects two parallel lines is called a transverse line, or a
transversal. Thus, in Figure 8A, lines P1 and P2 are parallel
and line T is a transversal.
Exterior and interior angles. Just as in Figure 8A, the
lines in Figure 8B consist of a transversal cutting across two
parallel lines. The angles in Figure 8B, however, have been
labeled. Angles E1, E2, E3, and E4 are called exterior angles
because they’re on the outside of the parallel lines. Angles I1,
I2, I3, and I4 are called interior angles because they’re on the
inside of the parallel lines.
Alternate interior angles. The four interior angles can be
grouped into two pairs of adjacent angles. One pair is formed
by the transversal intersecting line P1. The other pair is
formed by the transversal crossing line P2. Each adjacent
angle is equal in size to one of the angles from the other pair.

FIGURE 8—The angles formed when a transversal crosses parallel lines
are all related to one another geometrically. Thus, if you know the size of
only one of these angles, you can calculate the sizes of all the others.
These similar angles are on opposite sides of the transversal

and are called alternate interior angles. For example, ⬔I2 and
⬔I3 are alternate interior angles and are thus equal to each
other. The other two alternate interior angles in Figure 8B are
⬔I1 and ⬔I4.
Alternate exterior angles. Each exterior angle also has a
matching angle at the opposite end and on the opposite side
of the transversal. These matching angles are called alternate
exterior angles. For instance, ⬔E1 and ⬔E4 are alternate exte-
rior angles and are thus both the same size. The other two
alternate exterior angles in Figure 8B are ⬔E2 and ⬔E3.
Corresponding angles. Another important geometric rela-
tionship exists as a result of a transversal crossing two
parallel lines. As the transversal crosses each parallel line, it
forms a group of four angles. Because the transversal crosses
two parallel lines, two groups of angles are formed. The
angles in the groups that have the same relative position (to
the left or right of the transversal and above or below the
parallel line) are called corresponding angles. Because they’re
formed by the same transversal, corresponding angles are
equal to each other. Look again at Figure 8B. Here, ⬔E1 and
⬔I3 are corresponding angles—they’re equal to each other.
The other three angles formed by the transversal crossing
line P1 also have corresponding angles down at the other end

of the transversal. Namely, ⬔E2 and ⬔I4 are corresponding
angles, ⬔I1 and ⬔E3 are corresponding angles, and ⬔I2 and
⬔E4 are corresponding angles.
Exactly how you would describe any angle depends on how
you relate it to the other angles in the figure. Although angles
E1 and I3 are corresponding angles, ⬔E1 can also be
described as an alternate exterior angle in relation to ⬔E4.
Furthermore, ⬔E1 is a supplementary angle in relation to
⬔E2 and a vertical angle in relation to ⬔I2.
So, What’s the Angle Here?

Of course, the purpose of all math is to let us figure out what
we don’t know from what we do know by revealing relation-
ships that exist between the known and the unknown. Thus,
applying geometry is like following directions to some unfa-
miliar street address. However, for the directions to be useful,
they must include one or more reference points that you’re
already familiar with. The first thing that’s done when you
ask for directions is that you and your guide establish a com-
mon reference point. For example, consider the following
exchange.
Visitor: “Can you please tell me how to get to the Red
Barons’ ballpark?”
Guide: “Well—let’s see—do you know where the Davis
Street intersection is?”
Visitor: “Yes.”
Guide: “Well, turn right at that intersection and go up
Davis Street. Keep going straight, past the convenient mar-
ket on your left, and cross the interstate overpass. Then,
take a right at the signal light—the one at the entrance to
the office park—and you’ll be on Montage Mountain Road.
That road will take you right to the ballpark.”
This is what makes mathematics valuable—finding out what
you don’t know from what you do know by exploring the rela-
tionships between the known and the unknown. (In fact, if
you think about it, all your newly acquired knowledge must
be based on something that you already know.)

Regarding the lines and angles shown in Figure 9, you know
that ⬔5 would measure 120° because it’s a vertical angle in
relation to a known 120° angle. The known angle is thus
your reference point in exploring the rest of the angles that
make up the figure.
FIGURE 9—Geometry is
useful for discovering cer-
tain specifics about various
shapes. The 120 angle
shown in this figure can
serve as a reference point
from which you can go on
to discover the sizes of all
the other angles.
You can, for instance, figure out the size of ⬔6 because it’s a
supplementary angle in relation to the known 120° angle.
Thus, ⬔6 must be 120° less than 180°, so it would have to
measure 60°. Knowing the sizes of angles 5 and 6, you can
now identify the sizes of their corresponding angles: ⬔1 must
measure 120° and ⬔2 must be 60° . Knowing the various
geometric relationships can help you determine the size of
each angle without having to physically measure it. All you
need is a known reference point from which to start—a single
angle with a known size.
Working with Two-Dimensional Figures

Now, let’s examine the various kinds of closed figures that
will be helpful to you in determining the known from the
unknown when drafting. At this time, concern yourself pri-
marily with identifying the different classifications for these
figures so that you can more effectively discuss the geometric
relationships involved in their construction. Drawings of plots
of land, buildings, or mechanical parts are all made basically
by combining various parts of these different shapes.

Triangles
Triangles are closed three-sided figures. The angles of a trian-
gle will always total 180°. How the angles and sides relate to
each other determines how you would classify a particular
triangle.
The two major classifications of triangles. How the 180°
is divided up among the three angles determines a triangle’s
particular shape. There are two major classes of triangles
based on the relative sizes of the component angles. These
two classes are shown in Figure 10.
FIGURE 10—The two major classes of triangular shapes are shown here.
The “right triangle” contains an angle that measures 90°; an “oblique tri-
angle,” on the other hand, does NOT contain a 90° angle.
Figure 10A shows an example of a right triangle, which is a

triangle that contains a right angle—an angle that measures
90°. (The small square drawn within the triangle marks the
right angle.) The sides that meet to form the right angle are
perpendicular to each other.
You now know that the angles in any triangle must total
180°. Therefore, if one of the angles measures 90°, the sum
of the other two angles in the triangle must be 90°. Thus, a
right triangle contains one 90° angle and two other angles
that, when added together, total 90°.
Any triangle that does not include a 90° angle can be classi-
fied as an oblique triangle, an example of which is shown in
Figure 10B. In an oblique triangle, all the angles are oblique
angles—that is, they don’t equal 90°. You’ll find that the dis-
tinction between right triangles and oblique triangles is
important when doing calculations.

Subclasses of triangles. Beyond identifying a triangle as
being right or oblique, you can further classify a triangle in a
variety of other ways. Keep in mind, however, that any trian-
gle is essentially either a right triangle or an oblique
triangle—any further distinctions are just subclasses within
these two major classifications. For example, Figure 11
shows several subclasses of triangles.
FIGURE 11—The various triangles drawn here can all be classified as oblique triangles. However, each
can also be considered a representative of a distinct subclass of triangle. You can distinguish each
subclass based on the relationships among the triangle’s three angles or based on the proportions of
the triangle’s three sides.
Figure 11A shows an example of an acute triangle—essen-

tially, an oblique triangle in which every angle measures less
than 90°. Figure 11B shows what may be called an obtuse tri-
angle—an oblique triangle in which one of the angles is
opened up larger than 90°.

Other examples of subclasses for triangles are shown in
Figure 11. These subclasses are used to differentiate trian-
gles based on the geometric relationships among a triangle’s
three sides. For example, Figure 11C shows an equilateral tri-
angle—which is a triangle in which all the sides are the same
length. However, this same triangle can be called an equian-
gular triangle because, in order for the three sides to be equal,
all three angles must also be the same size. Furthermore,
because these equivalent angles must total 180°, the angles
in this type of triangle will each measure 60°, regardless of
the overall size of the figure.
Figure 11D shows an example of an isosceles triangle—a tri-
angle in which only two sides are the same length. Note how
the two angles at the base of the equivalent sides must also
equal each other. If these two equal angles were both decreased
to 45, the two equal sides would have to shorten to form the
legs of a right angle. Thus, the isosceles triangle can be a
right triangle, or—as shown in Figure 11D—it can be an
oblique triangle.
Figure 11E shows an example of a scalene triangle—a triangle
in which none of the sides are equal to each other. Because
the three sides are unequal, all the angles in a scalene triangle
are also unequal. Like the isosceles triangle, the scalene tri-
angle can be either a right or an oblique triangle—depending
on whether one of the unequal angles measures 90°.
Quadrilaterals and Other Polygons

Figures that have four sides. A quadrilateral is a closed
four-sided figure. The interior angles of a quadrilateral will
always total 360°. Figure 12 shows a number of different
types of quadrilaterals. One type of quadrilateral is distin-
guished from another based on whether the shape contains
right angles and on whether the opposite sides of the quadri-
lateral are equal and parallel. You’re probably most familiar
with the type of quadrilateral in which at least two sides are
parallel and at least two opposite sides are equal. Of the
quadrilaterals shown, only the one featured in Figure 12F
contains no parallel sides.

FIGURE 12—A quadrilateral is any closed four-sided figure. Various types of quadrilaterals are
shown here.
Figures that have multiple sides. A polygon is any closed

plane figure bounded by straight lines. Triangles and quadri-
laterals, then, are distinct classes of three-sided and
four-sided polygons. Other classes exist for polygons based
on their distinct numbers of sides. The following is a list of
some these classes. The prefix in the name of each class
reveals how many sides the polygon has.
• The pentagon—a closed figure consisting of five sides
• The hexagon—a closed figure consisting of six sides
• The heptagon—a closed figure consisting of seven sides

• The octagon—a closed figure consisting of eight sides
• The nonagon—a closed figure consisting of nine sides
• The decagon—a closed figure consisting of ten sides
The main distinction within any class of polygons is based on

whether the sides of the figures are equal in length to each
other. If the sides are all equal, then all of the angles are also
equal to each other, and such a figure would be called a regu-
lar polygon. If all the sides are not equal to each other, the
figure is called an irregular polygon. Figure 13 shows exam-
ples of regular and irregular versions of two types of polygons.
FIGURE 13—A polygon can be classified according to how many sides it

has. Shown here are examples of pentagons and hexagons. As demon-
strated here, a polygon can be further classified as regular or irregular
based on whether the figure’s sides are all equal to each other.

Circles and Other Curved Figures
Aside from figures made of angles and straight sides, curved
shapes are also often used by drafters in their drawings.
Certain types of curved shapes are particularly important in
drafting. Among these are the circle and the parabola.
Circles. The circle is a closed curve drawn in the shape of a
hoop. Figure 14 shows an example of a circle together with
an assortment of geometrical constructions that are associ-
ated with this shape.
FIGURE 14—The circle is a

curved shape used fre-
quently in the drawings of
buildings, machines, high-
ways, and so on. One
complete turn around the
edge of a circle would
measure the circle’s cir-
cumference. In addition to
whole circles, portions of a
circle’s circumference
(called “arcs”) are also
used often in drafting
work. Most highway
curves, for example, are in
the shape of a circle’s arc.
According to a more precise definition of a circle, the distance

from the center out to any point on the shape’s perimeter will
be the same. The perimeter of a circle is the circle’s circumfer-
ence, and any portion of the circumference is an arc. A line
drawn from a circle’s center out to any point on the circum-
ference is a radius. A line drawn from one point on the
circumference to another point across the circle is a chord.
The diameter of a circle is a special chord that passes through
the center point so that it cuts the circle completely in half. A
line drawn so that it touches only the outer edge of a circle is
called a tangent.
Parabolas. Another curve employed widely in drafting is the
parabola, which is a bowl-shaped curve that looks more like
a portion of an oval than part of a circle. A vertical curve in a
highway (a straight road that bends over a hill) is in the form

of a parabola or a parabolic curve. Suspension cables hang-
ing down on suspension bridges will also form the shape
of a parabola.
The parabolic surface has many widespread applications. For
instance, the shape is frequently used in the construction of
optical devices. Figure 15 shows the parabolic surface that
might be found, for example, in a flashlight. If a light source
is positioned at a certain point in front of the parabolic sur-
face—a point called the focal point of the parabola—the light
rays will be reflected in parallel lines off the surface. This
trait of a parabola makes the shape especially useful not only
for transmitting beams of light but also for collecting and
concentrating light waves at the focal point. For instance,
large reflecting telescopes use huge parabolic mirrors to col-
lect and focus light. Parabolic antennas and satellite dishes
use the parabolic shape in similar ways for sending and
receiving other forms of radiant energy, such as radio waves
and microwaves.
FIGURE 15—A polished or

mirrored parabolic surface
is often used in such opti-
cal devices as automobile
headlights. When a light
source is positioned at the
shape’s focal point, the
surface will reflect the
radiant energy out in a
coherent beam.

about plane geometry by completing Learning Check 5.

Learning Check 5
Questions 1–5: Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
FIGURE Q1—Use this figure to answer questions 1–5. Assume that lines
A1A2 and B1B2 are parallel. Note also that the sizes of two angles are
shown in the figure.
1. Angle 1 in Figure Q1 would measure _______.
(Continued)

Learning Check 5
Questions 6–15: Identify each shape shown in Figure Q2 by writing its letter in the appro-
priate blank. All ten letters are used. Note: Use each letter once.
FIGURE Q2—Refer to the shapes in this figure to answer

questions 6–15.
6. Octagon _______
7. Acute triangle _______
8. Rhombus _______
9. Trapezoid _______
10. Right triangle _______
11. Quadrilateral _______
12. Parallelogram _______
13. Trapezium _______
14. Square _______
15. Irregular octagon _______
(Continued)

Learning Check 5
Questions 16–20: Identify each geometric construction shown in Figure Q3 by writing its
letter in the appropriate blank. All five letters are used.
FIGURE Q3—Use this drawing of a circle to answer questions 16–20.
16. Tangent _______
17. Arc _______
18. Chord _______
19. Radius _______
20. Diameter _______

NOTES

Learning Check Answers 1
1. 6
2. 3
Answers
3. 2
4. 2x
5. four
6. d
7. a
8. a
9. c
10. b

1. 0
2. 120
3. 11
4. 1
5. 380
6. 470
7. 3
8. 2
9. 8
10. 3
11. 3
12. 23
13. 14
14. 21
15. 4
67
1. 26
2. 42
3. 0
4. 14
5. 24
6. 42
7. 13
8. 19
9. 25
10. 14
11. 42
12. 3
13. 32
14. 13
15. 60

1. 1/21
2. 31/8 or 371/2
3. 18
4. 1
5. 3
6. 41/5
7. 31/2
8. 293/5
9. 11/5
10. 21/4
68 Learning Check Answers

11. 7/3
12. 61/
10
13. 64/
9
14. 35/
2
15. 211/
10

1. 120°
2. 40°
3. 100°
4. 140°
5. 60°
6. j
7. d
8. i
9. c
10. b
11. h
12. f
13. a
14. g
15. e
16. a
17. e
18. c
19. d
20. b

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Study Unit

Basic Drafting Math

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be

Remember to regularly check your student portal. Your instructor may

SIGNED NUMBERS AND THE FOUR BASIC

THE STANDARD ORDER OF OPERATIONS 24

LEARNING CHECK ANSWERS 67

The intervals shown on the number line in Figure 1 continue

2 Basic Drafting Math

Symbols for Showing Relationships

Basic Drafting Math 3

Indicating Other Relationships

• The sign  means is less than. The expression 10  1

4 Basic Drafting Math

Sometimes, you may see used to indicate greater than or

For a practical example of how you would use the concept of

Indicating “Not” in a Mathematical Expression

Basic Drafting Math 5

• The sign ≯ means is not greater than. The expression x 13

• The sign ≮ means is not less than. The expression x ≮ 2°

Realize that if you write x ≠ 5, you won’t have done much to

6 Basic Drafting Math

• The sign means minus or subtract. The expression 7

• The sign means times or multiplied by. The expression

• The sign means divided by. The expression 15 3 5

In drafting, however, some of these particular signs may be

Basic Drafting Math 7

8 Basic Drafting Math

Basic Drafting Math 9

10 Basic Drafting Math

Basic Drafting Math 11

Indicating Addition and Subtraction

12 Basic Drafting Math

Basic Drafting Math 13

Questions 1–5: Fill in the blanks in the following statements.

1. The numeral 54 can be factored into 9 and ________.

2. The prime factors of 54 are 2, 3, 3, and _______.

3. The numeral 18 can be factored into 3, 3, and _______.

4. In 2x43, the coefficient of 43 is _______.

5. In the term a3b4, there are _______ separate factors.

6. In which of the following expressions is an addition operation indicated?

7. In which of the following expressions is multiplication indicated?

14 Basic Drafting Math

9. In which of the following expressions is subtraction indicated?

a. (4) (3) c. (4) (3)

10. In the equation 15 8 4 3, which of the following is the subtrahend?

Check your answers with those in the back of this book.

Basic Drafting Math 15

Addition and Subtraction with Positive

Adding Signed Numbers

16 Basic Drafting Math

(6) Your first step is to total your positive

(5) Next, total the negative numbers.

(12) Finally, combine the positive and negative

Subtracting Signed Numbers

Basic Drafting Math 17

Always remember, subtraction involves finding the difference

18 Basic Drafting Math

Calculating the difference. Of course, when subtracting

Basic Drafting Math 19

Problem 2. (6) (4)

Problem 3. (4) (5)

Multiplication and Division with

• The sign means is less than. The expression 10 1

• The sign ≯ means is not greater than. The expression x 13