Reproductive System
Scrotum – is a pouch of skin that hangs
Morphology - the branch of biology that deals
with the form of living organisms, and with
relationships between their structures.
Physiology - the branch of biology that deals with
the normal functions of living organisms and their
parts.
The Male Reproductive System
FUNCTION OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The functions of the male reproductive
system include producing and transporting sperm,
ejaculating sperm into the female reproductive
tract, and producing and secreting male hormones.
MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Urethra – is the tube that passes through
the penis to the outside of the body, which
carries urine and sperm.
2. Penis – is a soft, tubular organ that hangs in
front of the body and is external sexual
organ of the male through which the sperm
are delivered into the female’s body. It
contains erectile tissue that makes the penis
larger and stiffer due to increase flow of
blood during ejaculation.
3. Testes – oval shaped organs found inside a
protective sac of skin called SCROTUM.
The TESTES begin to produce sperm only after
males hit puberty.
4. Seminiferous Tubules – clusters of
hundreds of compartments with many coiled
tubes. It is a specific site of sperm
production.
5. Epididymis – a long coiled tube that
temporarily stores matured sperm cells until
they are released.
6. Vas Deferens – a tube that receives sperms
from the epididymis of each testicle.
7.
behind the penis, houses the testes ,and
protects the sperm by keeping the
temperature of the testes slightly lower than
the normal body temperature in order for the
sperm to survive.
8. F
FIGURE 1.1 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION OF SPERMS
During the passage of sperm, through the urethra,
sperm mix with the fluids produced by neighboring
glands – ( Prostate Gland, Seminal Vesicles,
Bulbourethral Gland ).
1. Semen – a fluid secretion from the male sex
organ or glands that function to nourish the
sperm.
2. Prostate Gland – produce alkaline fluid that
neutralizes the acids in the male
reproductive system.
3. Seminal Vesicles – Fluid rich in sugars that
sperm cells use for energy.
4. Bulbourethral Gland – produces alkaline
fluid that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in
the urethra.
DELIVERY OF SPERM
Seminiferous Tubules  Testes  Epididymis 
Vas Deferens  Ejaculatory Duct  Prostate
Gland  Urethra.
SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
1. Copulation – a process where in the male
organ deposits the sperm to the female
reproductive system.
2. Ejaculation – the forceful expulsion of the
sperm out of the male’s body.
THE HUMAN SPERM CELL
 Produce by the Testes
 Fertilized the egg cell or ovum.
Three Parts of Sperm Cell
1. Head – made up of nucleus covered by cap
called Acrosome.
2. Mid piece – contains the Mitochondria that
supply the energy needed to propel the
sperm through the female.
3. Tail – Powerful Flagellum that whips back
and forth enabling it to more.
FIG URE 1. 2 PAR T OF THE S PE RM CELL
MALE HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTION
1. LH
 Luteinizing Hormone
 Stimulates the secretion of the sex hormone
testosterone.
2. Testosterone
 Responsible for development of the secondary
sex characteristics during puberty.
3. F – S – H
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone
 Stimulates sperm production in the
seminiferous tubules.
Female Reproductive System
ANATOMY
1. Ovaries – Female Reproductive organ that is
responsible for producing egg cell. During
puberty, the ovaries produce and release one
ripened egg every 28 days called Ovulation.
2. Fallopian Tubes – contains the egg until
fertilization takes place.
3. Uterus – where the fertilized egg develops and
grows into a body.
4. Cervix – connects the lower end of the uterus
to the upper portion of vagina.
5. Vagina – is a hollow tube leading from the
cervix to the outside of the body. Vagina is
elastic, it allows to expand during childbirth and
sexual intercourse.
6. Vulva – external genitalia.
FEMALE EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN1
1. Mons Pubis or Mons Veneris – Hairy skin
covered pad of fat over the public bone.
2. Labia Minora – Small lips covered with
modified skin.
3. Labia Majora – Larger lips covered with pubic
hair.
4. Clitoris – Small almond shape erectile tissue
located below junction of two minora.
5. Vaginal Orifice – Opening into the vagina.
FIGURE 1.1 FEMALE EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. Estrogen – controls sex drive and regulates
the development of female secondary sex
characteristics at puberty.
2. Progesterone – controls the development
of the endometrium (mucus membrane
lining in the womb) during menstrual cycle.
3. Prolactin – stimulates the production of milk
in the mammary glands.
 Colostrum – is a yellowish substance
that contains anti-bodies and necessary
nutrients for the body.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Females begin to menstruate between the ages of
11 to 15. Menstruation is the monthly shedding of
blood from the lining of the uterus. The menstrual
cycle begins when an egg matures or ripens in one
of the ovaries. At the same time, the lining of the
uterus starts to thicken for possible pregnancy.
 Process of ovulation occurs in 14 days
starting at the menstruation.
 EXAMPLE: Nov 13 – start of menstruation
Nov 27 – start of ovulation
( F E R T I L E D A Y S)
 Fertile period – is a period where female
has high tendency to be pregnant.
 2-3 days is the lifespan of egg cell and
sperm cell.
 Infertile Period – is a period where female
has low tendency or not at all to get
pregnant. After the fertile period to
menstrual you are Infertile.
FIGURE 1.2 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Disease of Reproductive
System
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections
passed or transmitted from person to person
through sexually contact or intercourse.
Four Commonly Sexually Transmitted Diseases
1. Chlamydia
 Passage through infected birth canal
 Sexual Contact
2. Genital Herpes
 Contact with blisters or viruses shed by an
infected person with no blisters apparent.
 Clusters of tender, painful blisters, swollen
glands, fever, and achy feeling.
3. Gonorrhea
 Discharge from the vagina or the birth of the
canal.
 Abnormal pus discharge from penis, painful
urination.
4. Syphilis
 Caused by the bacterium “Treponema
Pallidum”.
 A painless sore known as Chancre, initially
develops at the site of infection, typically on
genitals, rectum or mouth.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
Caused by a virus known as the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Aids can be
transmitted through contact with body fluids
containing the virus, sexual intercourses, receiving
contaminated blood via transfusion and birth from
an infected mother. HIV is a virus that attacks cells
that help the body to fight infection. HIV has no
cure.
OTHER DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Epididymitis – The inflammation of the
epididymis.
2. Prostate Cancer – A disease in which
cancer cells grow in the prostate.
 Endocrine System
3. Male Infertility – a man is considered
infertile if he produces low amount of sperm
cells. The sperm cells are abnormal or they
die before they can reach the egg cell.
The Endocrine System is made up of a group of
organs called endocrine glands. A gland is the
4. Cervical Cancer – the cancer cells grows in
smallest living unit in the body that produces and
the cervix. There is a presence of a mass of
releases a chemical substance called Hormones.
tissue in the cervix.
Hormones is a natural substance that is produced
in the body that influences the way the body grows
and develops.

THE OVERALL ROLE OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. The Endocrine System consists of many

FIGURE 1.1 ADVANCE STAGE OF PROSTATE CANCER
Common Disorders of the Female Reproductive
System
Disorder Symptoms
Characterized by severe
Dysmenorrhea pain during
menstruation MAJOR GLANDS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND
THEIR HORMONES
Abnormal absence of
Amenorrhea
menstruation.
Abnormal and
Oligomenorrhea infrequent menstrual
period.
Unable to reproduce
offspring. In females,
Sterility the fallopian tubes are
blocked, which can
cause the failure of the
ovaries to produce eggs.
Vaginitis A vaginal infection or
irritation. One of the
symptoms is burning
sensation during
urination.
glands, which secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream to regulate the daily
activities of the body and controls its overall
development. The Hormones act as
chemical messengers in the body, which
stimulate many organs such as the ovaries
and the testes.
2. The Endocrine System is a system that is
also known as the “System of Checks and
Balances” that works to keep the body
system healthy.
1. Hypothalamus
 is a small gland located at the base of
the brain. It regulates activities of the
body, metabolism, and reproduction.
 It regulates the body temperature,
blood pressure, and use of water.
 The Antidiuretic Hormone increases
water uptake in the kidney
 The Oxytocin released from the
hypothalamus is to control muscle
contractions of uterus and milk
production.
2. Pituitary
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates
adrenal gland to release specific
hormones.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone stimulates
the thyroid gland to release specific
hormones.
  Thyroid stimulating hormone regulates
the growth of the skeletal system.
 Growth hormone prolactin stimulates
milk production in the mammary glands.
3. Adrenal
 It controls the “fight or flight” response.
 The aldosterone hormone increases the
uptake of sodium and water in the
kidneys.
 The adrenalin hormone is released into
the bloodstream when a person is
frightened.
 It produces specific hormones that affect
the functioning of the kidneys,
metabolism, and response to stressful
situations.
 It also secretes both male and female
sex hormones in both sexes.
4. Thyroid
 The Thyroxine is located in front of the
pituitary gland. It regulates the rate of
metabolism. It contains iodine and
calcitonin.
 The Calcitonin controls the calcium
levels in the bloodstream
5. Parathyroid
 These are four tiny glands connected to
the back of the thyroid gland.
 The Parathyroid hormone regulates the
minerals in the body – calcium and
phosphorus in bloodstream.
6. Pancreas
 It is located beneath the stomach.
 The Insulin controls the level of sugar in
the blood.
 The Glucagon stimulates the liver to
convert glycogen to glucose.
 The Hypoglycemia can occur if there is
a low sugar in the blood.
7. Thymus
 The thymus gland is located behind the
sternum and between the lungs.
 Thymosin hormone plays an important
role in developing some of the body’s
defenses against infections.
8. Ovaries and Testes
 These two reproductive glands play an
important role in reproduction
 Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone
DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
1. Hypothyroidism - is a condition in which the
thyroid gland cannot produce the normal
amount of thyroid hormone.
2. Cushing’s syndrome – is a tumor in the
pituitary gland. The tumor will cause adrenal
glands to produce too much of the stress-
related hormone called cortisol.
3. Metabolic syndrome – is also known as
insulin resistance. The patient has elevated
insulin levels and abdominal obesity.
4. Estrogen deficiency – is a disease that
occurs mostly in females due to drop in
estrogen levels.
5. Testosterone deficiency – is caused by low-
level of testosterone due to a pituitary,
adrenal, or ovary/testis problem.
6. Gigantism or acromegaly – is a disease in
the pituitary gland that produces too much
growth hormones.
7. Dwarfism – a condition that causes a
person to stop growing before reaching
normal size adult.
8. Diabetes Mellitus – a variable disorder of
carbohydrate metabolism caused by a
combination of hereditary or environmental
factors.
9. Hypoglycemia – abnormal decrease of
sugar in the blood.
FIGURE 1.3 GIGANTISM OR ACROMEGALY
The Nervous System
The nervous system and endocrine system
together to control and coordinate the working
components of the body. All actions ang thoughts
are coordinated by a complex group of organs and
nerves that enable man to receive stimuli. The
nervous system is like a communication network
that transmits information by electrical signals
called nerve cells or neurons.
THE NERVE AND THE NERVE CELL
Neuron – the basic cell of the nervous system. It
carries nerve impulses, or action potential from one
part of the body to another.
THREE PARTS OF NEURON
 Cell Body – which controls the growth of the
nerve cell.
 Dendrites – which are short branched fibers
that carry impulses and messenger toward
the cell body.
 Axon – typically long, thin fibers, also known
as nerve fibers.
Fibers – the fibers are made up of connective
tissue bundles.
PARTS AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The CNS consists of the Brain and the Spinal Cord
1. Brain stem – serves as the body’s life support
system.
2. Cerebellum – it coordinates muscle movement.
3. Cerebrum – the larger upper region of the brain.
4. Corpus Callosum – a broad band of nerves
fibers joining 2 hemispheres.
5. Hippocampus – associated mainly with
memory, long-term memory.
6. Medulla – controls breathing, heart rate, and
swallowing.
7. Midbrain – also linked to vision and controls the
movements of the eye and constriction and
dilation of the pupil.
8. Pituitary Gland – produce critical hormonnes
that controls various body functions.
9. Pons – regulates breathing and helps control
eye movements.
10. Thalamus – one of the smaller psarts of the
brain. Serves relay station for senses,
responsible for processing info from the sensing
organs.
11. Spinal Cord – rod of brain tissue.
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system is made up of cranial
and spinal nerves
1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – is
responsible for actions that a person can control
such as skeletal muscle and sensory neurons of
the skin. This is under conscious voluntary
control.
2. Automatic Nervous System (ANS) – controls
automatic functions that do not require a person
to think.
COMMON DISEASE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Meningitis – is an inflammation of
meninges of the brain or spinal cord cause
by an bacterial infection or a virus.
2. Cerebral Palsy – is a disorder resulting in a
lack of full control of the physical movement
of a person.
3. Parkinson’s disease – is a disorder of the
nervous system that affect the movement of
a person.
4. Brain Tumor – is formed in the meninges
that cover the brain and the spinal cord.
5. Epilepsy – is a brain disorder in which
clusters of nerve cells or neuron act
abnormally.
FIGURE 1.4 BRAIN TUMOR OR BRAIN CANCER
 DNA
NUCLEOTIDES

 The phosphate and sugar form the back bone

of the DNA molecule whereas the bases form
STRUCTURE OF DNA the rungs.
 Adenine – Thymine, Cytosine - Guanine
 The cells in the human body contains 23 pairs
of chromosomes are made up of a chemical  There are four types of nitrogenous bases.
1. Adenine
substance known as deoxyribonucleic acid or
2. Thymine
DNA.
3. Cytosine
 DNA consists of two molecules that are 4. Guanine
arranged into a ladder like structure called
Double Helix.
 A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of
tiny sub units called Nucleotides.
 DNA is also known as the Blue Prints of Life.
 Because of this complementary base pairing,
the order of the bases in one strand determines
the order of the bases in the other strand.
 To crack the genetic code found in the DNA we
need to look at the sequence of bases. FIGURE 1.9 NUCLEOTIDES FIGURE

 Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis

 The bases are arranged in triplets called DNA REPLICATION
codons.
A process by which DNA molecules form exact
 AGG – CTC – AAG – TTC – TAG
copies or duplicates. The enzymes in the DNA
TCC – GAG – TTC – AGG – ATC
replication speeds up chemical reaction.
 Each nucleotide consist of
 Phosphate Group Semi – Conservative – consist of old strand and
 Pentose sugar new strand.
 Nitrogenous
KEY PLAYERS:

1. DNA Polymerase – is responsible to bond

the new nucleotide together. Works
(builder) only in the ‘S,3’ direction.
2. RNA Primase – add primes which are RNA.
3. Ligase – glues DNA fragment together.
4. Hellicase – unzipping enzymes
5. Primase – initializer

FIGURE 1.8 DNA STRUCTURE UNCOILED AND COILED

FIGURE 2.0 STRUCTURE OF DNA REPLICATION


PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Protein is the most structurally varied molecule in
which the human body contains at least 10,000
different kinds of protein.
Protein Synthesis is a process of copying the
DNA information in a mRNA strand. Takes place in
the nucleus, using the RNA polymerase.
Amino Acids are the building blocks of protein,
which are made up of long chains of chemical units.
There are 20 different amino acids.
 Non – Essential Amino Acids
Glycine Cysteine Tyrosine Glutamate Arginine Aspartic
Arginine Proline Alanine Glutamine Sparagine
 Essential Amino Acids
Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine
Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine
KEY PLAYERS :
DNA
 Double Stranded
 Lacks one oxygen (de-(xy))
 Presence of thymine
RNA
 Single Stranded
 Has one more oxygen
 Presence of Uracil instead of thymine
FIGURE 2.1 STRUCTURE OF DNA AND RNA
PROCESSES OF PRODUCING PROTEIN
FROM DNA
1. TRANSCRIPTION – the genetic information
within the DNA must be transported to the
ribosome in the cytoplasm wherein protein
synthesis takes place. The transcription
occurs when the nucleotide sequence along
the DNA is copied into a strand of mRNA.
2. TRANSLATION – the translation is the
synthesis of small protein through the help of
the mRNA. The transfer of code from the
mRNA to a small protein begins when mRNA
molecules attaches to the ribosome, which
forms the mRNA ribosomes complex. The
codons from the mRNA are translated or
converted into amino acids.
THE THREE KINDS OF RNA IN PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
1. MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) – is a type of
molecule of RNA that travels from the nucleus
to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where the
information in the copy is used for protein
product.
2. RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) – is the RNA
component of the ribosome and a cell’s
protein factories in all living cells. It provides a
mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino
acid and interacts with tRNA.
3. TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) – is an from the
cytoplasm to a ribosome to help in making the
growing protein.