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drama activities on
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aggressive behaviour
DOI: 10.1177/0034523719858219
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of preschool children
Helena Korošec and Marcela B Zorec
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Abstract
This article presents the findings of a research study examining the impact of creative
puppetry activities on aggressive behaviour in preschool children. The aim of creative
drama was to allow for experiences that help children understand interpersonal rela-
tions, put themselves in another’s shoes and see alternative possibilities of behaving or
acting in given situations. Play with a puppet in small groups offers children opportu-
nities to establish pro-social peer interactions and learn socialisation skills including
solving minor conflicts. The research was conducted with 22 preschool teachers in
Slovenian preschools and first grades of elementary schools (including 460 children
aged 4–7). The teachers completed a scale of social behaviour for each child in the
group before introducing the puppetry activities and after concluding them, i.e. after
three months of intense, daily creative work with puppets. The paired difference t-test
showed that according to the teachers’ assessments after the three-month conduct of
creative puppetry activities in the group, the frequency of the occurrence of aggressive
behaviour in the total population was diminished, especially in the children who had the
lowest scores in the initial assessment.

Keywords
Creative drama, puppets, preschool education, aggressive behaviour, social relationship

Corresponding author:
Helena Korosˇec, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Kardeljeva pl.16, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia.
Email: helena.korosec@pef.uni-lj.si
2 Research in Education 0(0)

Introduction
Humans are distinctly social beings who can realise themselves through relation-
ships with others. Interpersonal communication is the foundation of mutual influ-
ence, or giving and receiving. An individual’s psychophysical, cognitive, social and
emotional development is influenced by the quality of interpersonal communica-
tion. According to Vygotsky (1978), a child’s cognitive development mainly takes
place in the context of social relationships. The starting point of his theory is that
cognitive abilities depend more on an individual’s activity in social institutions of
culture during their upbringing than on innate factors.
While experiences in the family play one of the most important roles in a child’s
social development, an increasing number of studies show that children’s peer play
is also important (Brajsˇa Zˇganec, 2003; Katz and McClellan, 2005). If children are
rejected by their peers or are prevented in some other way from learning how to get
by in society, an essential source of social information is lost (Katz and McClellan,
2005). Friendships formed in the preschool period create a valuable context for
learning and testing the skills that are crucial for a child’s social, cognitive, com-
munication and emotional development (Guralnick et al., 2007; in Yu et al., 2011).
Moreover, children look for social support from their friends to be more adept at
coping with stress and changes in life, and to support their own cognitive and social
development (Berndt, 1989; in Brajsˇa Zˇganec, 2003).
Creative puppet workshops are an excellent opportunity to foster different peer
interactions and forge friendly ties in groups of preschool and elementary school
children. In this context, learning through drama activities can be a successful
method for developing qualities such as empathy, self-confidence, self-control, tol-
erance towards others and the ability to focus, listen and work co-operatively in
groups. Unavoidably, drama activities are a social form of art in which children
cannot participate without making connections, agreements and communicating
with others in the group. O¨zbek (2014) writes about an integrative approach, which
combines the method of creative drama and drama in education and, amongst
other things, highlights goals related to holistic development, such as positive self-
concept, increasing self-awareness and awareness towards others, as well as
communication in social skills.
Therefore, there is a dual relationship between drama and such skills, which are pre-
requisites for drama as well as being exercised in drama. Because the successful enjoy-
ment of drama depends upon the practice and use of these skills, drama can be an
exceptionally effective platform for children to develop them through experience.
(Winston and Tandy, 2005: 107)

Peer relations and aggressive behaviour

Kemple (2004) writes that peer relations provide opportunities for a child to inter-
act with relatively equal partners. The equality in peer interaction presents several
challenges for the child and diverse opportunities to take on roles that are different
Korosˇec and Zorec 3

from those in their relationships with adults. The peer group represents a special
context in which children learn and test the ‘give and take’ system, which is import-
ant for competent social interaction (Hartup and Moore, 1991; in Kemple, 2004).
Children who do not manage to establish satisfactory peer relationships, par-
ticularly those who are rejected by peers for being aggressive, may form subgroups
with similar children, offering them social and emotional support. The subgroup
members’ feelings of belonging depend on the group intolerance and disinclination
towards the wider group that had rejected them (Katz and McClellan, 2005).
The child’s likeability, or lack thereof, considerably influences how they feel in
the group; the child’s acceptance or rejection by the peer group has consequences
for their future adjustment and mental health (Schaffer, 1996). Children who are
likeable amongst their peers and those who are assessed as socially skilful by their
parents and teachers mainly are able to control their anger. They do not tend to
trigger new conflicts and can keep a relationship (Papalia et al., 2003). If a child
does not learn how to appropriately recognise and sufficiently understand the
emotions of people in their environment, it is in turn difficult for them to learn
social norms, customs and rules of behaviour in their group. Regulation of emo-
tions plays an important role in the process of socialisation, as the inability to
regulate emotions influences children’s interaction with their environment and
their learning of social norms and rules of behaviour (Brajsˇa Zˇganec, 2003).
Children who better understand others’ beliefs and emotions less often enter into
conflicts with their friends and more frequently co-operate with them in diverse
activities (Marjanovicˇ-Umek and Fekonja Peklaj, 2008). It is the play with the
puppet, which the teacher organises according to the principles of creative
drama, that enables children to recognise their own emotions in interpersonal
interactions as well as understand those of others.
According to Putallaz and Gottman (1981; in Katz and McClellan, 2005) a
tendency to have problems later in life can be seen in adults who had socialisation
problems in their early childhood (perhaps resulting from neglect, rejection and a
limited number of positive peer interactions). Early peer status can predict a later
psychological adjustment. This is particularly evident in rejected children, who are
classified as facing the highest risk for later social maladjustments. While reserved
children tend to develop internalising problems, rejected children, stigmatised with
aggressive behaviour, tend to develop externalising problems (Schaffer, 1996).
We often speak about aggressive behaviour as the kind of behaviour that is
undesirable. Typically, it shows antisocial tendencies, which, despite being part
of human nature, children have to quickly learn how to control and redirect.
Being a part of human nature, aggressive behaviour has an adaptive value in the
history of humankind. Without our capacity for aggression we would not have
survived. Undoubtedly, however, a high level of individual aggression can present a
threat to social order. While each aggressive act is not always antisocial, depending
on its aim and level as well as society’s demands and expectations, each society sets
specific requirements for the control of aggression (Schaffer, 1996).
4 Research in Education 0(0)

Zˇuzˇul (1989; in Brajsˇa Zˇganec, 2003) defines aggressive behaviour as every

action, performed to cause damage or injury of any kind to others regardless of
whether the intention was fully realised or not. Children with highly aggressive
behaviour belong to the group at risk of being rejected by their peers. Early aggres-
sive behaviour is a strong predictor of later antisocial behaviour, violence and
serious adjustment problems (Kemple, 2004). Aggressive behaviour can also have
a positive meaning related to self-preservation or self-affirmation. Moreover, it can
represent an active approach to the environment that shows that the child can
stand up for themselves, assert their will and develop independence (Puklek and
Gril, 1999; in Marjanovicˇ-Umek and Zupancˇicˇ, 2004). Katz and McClellan (2005)
write that aggressive behaviour is amongst the biggest problems to be faced by
teachers and preschool teachers. Teachers may provide a safe environment in a
group, while also playing an important role in offering help to the child in changing
aggression into socially acceptable behaviour.
To provide specific support to children who lack the skills for making friends,
Dowling (2000) suggests that teachers work in small groups, using puppets and
miniature dolls to tell a story and then initiate discussion on a topic. Research by
Ivon (2005) showed differences in the occurrence of social play in a group during
spontaneous play with a puppet, and a control group in which puppets were rarely or
never used. Ivon (2005) also found differences in the occurrence of social play in a
group during spontaneous play with a puppet, and a control group in which puppets
were rarely or never used. In the experimental group, the play in pairs or small
groups was significantly more frequent. Such forms of play enable good interaction
and help build friendships. In regard to advantages of play in pairs or in a small
group as flexible social forms, Ivon found that children who interact daily with the
preschool teacher through a puppet also prefer to play in these two forms.

Creative drama and puppets in the development

of social skills
By introducing play with puppets according to the principles of creative drama
(Siks, 1981; McCaslin, 2006) we created situations allowing children to actively
participate in creating puppet stories, in which they were enabled and encouraged
to co-operate, communicate, make agreements, share ideas and be creative with the
aim to carry out their team task (Ahmad, et al. 2008; Vallerand, et al., 1986).
Somers (2005) sees drama as an alternative pedagogy as it includes stories through
which interpersonal relationships can be explored. Dramatic experience contributes
to achieving changes more so than, for example, critical discussions or the use of
video. This is because we participate in drama personally and actively, with all our
senses and our whole body. If we aim for a more problem oriented approach that
foregrounds social skills, empathy, tolerance and integral development, creative
drama has much to offer. In creative drama, preschool children can learn to
take responsibility and make group decisions, work co-operatively, develop new
interests and look for new information. An activity is often proposed through a
Korosˇec and Zorec 5

story, poetry, an authentic idea or music created by children or adults. Cooper

(2017) writes that drama offers children the opportunity to explore the world
through the story. In drama, they get an opportunity to articulate frustrations,
which they cannot do in their everyday life. In the safe shelter of fiction, they
develop empathy, co-operation and learn to control their emotions.
One of the central advantages of creative puppetry workshops lies in the oppor-
tunity to co-operate and learn social skills while preparing a common project.
Psycho-socially, theatrical puppet plays enable numerous possibilities for compre-
hensive child development, by making communication easier, enabling quality
organisation of spare time, contributing to the improvement of one’s own body-
image and self-image as well as offering an opportunity for the appropriate
solution of problems with authority (since the teacher’s, mentor’s or therapist’s
authority is formed through co-operation). They help establish healthy interpersonal
and group relations and give the child a sense of belonging. All this importantly
contributes to an individual’s socialisation (Petrovic´, 2013). ‘Drama provides models
of human behaviour and human relationships. /.. ./. Drama incorporates not just the
physical shape of the conflict, but the emotional content and subjective meanings for
the characters’ (O’Toole et al., 2005). In an educational drama, children’s social
skills develop naturally and spontaneously through the need for co-operation and
play with other members of the group (Mavroudis and Bournelli, 2016).
A successful approach to dealing with violence and conflicts in schools through
drama was developed by O’Toole et al. (2005) finding typical connections between
drama and conflict solving. For example, the main poles in conflict are defined
by the terms ‘protagonist’ and ‘antagonist’, which come from Greek drama. The
central elements of drama are dramatic tension and the expectation of the final
resolution of this tension. Dramatic actions include dialogue, opposition, negoti-
ation and argumentation; all in the service of resolving the dramatic tension in the
theatre, and in conflict.
In the study (Korosˇec, 2012) of the inclusion of puppets in the educational
process, preschool teachers reported that in the process of creative play with pup-
pets, children tend to spontaneously divide into groups or pairs and start playing
without any prior adult encouragement. All children participate regardless of
their capabilities and learning outcomes. They become involved in dynamic com-
munication, are interested in what they are doing and strive towards a common aim
– the preparation of a scene.
In our research, the teachers used puppets in the creative drama process.
Puppets were included in the daily life of the preschool in various ways during
the daily routine, guided activities or as an emotional haven for individual children.
Curricular themes can be introduced through stories, and stories can also help
develop an attitude towards theatre. We propose various ways for the use of the
puppet in early education:
– Puppet, the beloved of the group: the puppet is present in various everyday situ-
ations and habits of the group (how we arrive and come into the preschool
6 Research in Education 0(0)

centre and leave to go home, behaviour at lunch, at rest, solving small conflicts,
during naps, during various daily chores);
– Certain subject-matter of the curriculum with stories and puppets: various simple
puppetry techniques help us achieve curricular goals, offer better motivation for
work, memorising and understanding of the learning content;
– Project work with the puppet: the puppet appears in the group with a certain
problem. The children help the puppet solve the problem, getting acquainted
with their environment;
– Motivation through the puppet: for the introductory motivation the preschool
teacher speaks to children through the puppet or performs an informal, impro-
vised scene with two or more puppets, presenting a dialogue between the
puppets;
– Expressing emotions, experiencing the world: (symbolic value of playing with a
puppet). The puppet is an outstanding motivational tool for elevating the chil-
dren’s emotional and social potential, because it requires that children feel
empathy with the puppet and its experiences;
– From spontaneous to dramatic play: puppet shows have an extraordinary peda-
gogical power as they are watched or performed by children themselves. Children
learn through two models of social learning. When they are in the role of the
audience, they take part in observational learning, while active co-operation in
the show influences children’s creativity and their emotional, social and intellec-
tual development (Korosˇec, 2007; Smilansky, 1968). Puppet-theatre shows can
either be improvisations or dramatisations, i.e. adaptations of artistic texts.
Preschool teachers who guide children in creative puppetry activities report that
children who tend to be excluded in regular activities are equally included in the
group during puppetry activities and contribute an important part to the final
creation, which has a significant impact on their self-image. Not unimportantly,
children enjoy these activities; they relax and are willing to participate in dialogue,
which makes their learning of social skills easier. Children are offered experiential
learning of positive interpersonal relations. During play with the puppet they learn
how to communicate, socialise and solve minor conflicts. They develop solidarity,
interpersonal help and tolerance of differences. Social differences and stigmatisa-
tions are forgotten in the aim of sharing ideas and improvising scenes (Korosˇec,
2012). One of the teachers reported:
Since September we had a lot of work with establishing relationships in the group. If
I wrote that until about New Year it was only the group rules that we had worked on,
this is only a mild presentation of the situation of the first few months. I say this,
because I am really proud of the progress the children have made, starting to co-
operate amongst themselves, playing with and talking to each other. Since September,
there have been a lot of conflicts in the group, and restlessness. Now, this is no longer
the case, and ever since we have had the puppets, there has been a great change.
During this past month, I almost have not noticed any physical fights, that before
were frequent.
Korosˇec and Zorec 7

As Debouny (2002: 72) writes, pupils should learn how to listen, try to understand,
substantiate their thinking, compare their ideas with others, develop critical think-
ing, accept decisions and adopt the final group decision – although sometimes this
can be frustrating, especially if somebody else’s idea is chosen. The fundamental
dimensions of co-operation include sharing a common interest based on teamwork
or a team-task, working together (in a group) towards a common goal and develop-
ing positive interdependence (Ahmad et al., 2008).
The many different emotions that children experience daily need a healthy, free
outlet. Children need to find a way to express strong emotions in an acceptable
way. This is offered to them by play with puppets. By playing a corresponding
scene, the child can express and release emotions that we all feel from time to time,
such as anger, fear, jealousy and negativity, and resolve internal conflicts.
Relationships from the child’s environment can also be reflected through this
play. ‘Numerous symbolic and real puppets enable play that connects the subcon-
scious and conscious. In play with the puppet the conflict is acted out with all its
might, thus, losing its strength and energy charge’ (Bastasˇic´, 1990: 36). With the
help of a puppet, a preschool teacher gets to know the children and can establish
individual relations with individual children. In their play with puppets, children
express their emotions and relationship to the world, providing an opportunity for
the teacher to observe, through their own expression, the children’s experiences and
emotions, which might otherwise remain unnoticed.
In our previous studies, we used qualitative approach to research the role of
puppet in educational process from different points of view: a puppet as the
didactical tool, the puppet’s role in communication between children and
adults and between children (Korosˇec, 2004, 2005, 2012). These studies showed
that teachers noticed less aggression and discipline problems in theirs classes.
Even the children, who usually disturbed the educational work, participated in
puppet play and enjoyed. The animated puppet had drawn the attention of chil-
dren, who became willing to do the work carefully and quickly for the puppet.
The teachers reported that their communication with children improved with the
help of the puppet. Puppets sensitised the teacher to notice emotions and char-
acteristics of children, which would be impossible during classic lessons. Because
of the puppet play with the teacher, the children also trusted the teacher more.
The educational process was dynamic and all children were included into work
regardless of their intellectual and communication skills. Puppets made the com-
munication more relaxed and the children were more open for the acquiring of
new knowledge. An important finding is also that shy children and children with
learning and speaking difficulties were included in the communication with the
puppet. Especially because in previous studies many teachers reported positive
changes in social behaviour of preschool children, in this study we wanted to
research if puppet play reduces aggressive behaviour by using bigger sample and
quantitative methods.
8 Research in Education 0(0)

The research
Problem and research aim
The impact of creative drama using puppets on the change in aggressive behaviour
after the teachers’ assessments was examined within a wider research study into the
impact of play with puppets on the social behaviour of preschool children.
Our preliminary studies (Korosˇec, 2005, 2012) show that teachers rarely use
puppets in the classroom. Also in this study, before participating in the training
course the selected group of teachers were checked for their views and experience
with puppets. It was found that before training almost a quarter (25%) of all the
teachers participating in the training had never used puppets in their work, and a
good quarter (26.97%) used them once or twice a month. Only a good quarter of
teachers reported using puppets every day (11.24%) or at least twice a week
(13.48%). Moreover, it is very important to find that before our training course
preschool teachers only used puppets following the model of work used in profes-
sional puppet theatres, that is learning the text, distributing the roles to
children, ‘directing’ the play, while the children only participate to a small
degree or not at all.
Preschool teachers participated in courses on puppetry/drama activities, after
which they performed diverse puppetry activities in their respective classes daily
over three months. They were offered the most diverse ways of including puppets in
children’s everyday lives at the preschool centre: the puppet was included in the
daily routine as the beloved friend to the group, the making of simple puppets,
spontaneous play with puppets, playing of scenes, connections between different
parts of the curriculum with the puppet and conversation through the puppet. The
research hypothesis was that a process–developmental approach to play/creative
work with the puppet enables children to better co-operate and connect with each
other and share ideas, and that this approach to puppetry/drama activities will
bring changes in social behaviour, which contribute to the development of the
social competence of children.
The aim of the research was to establish whether regular and continuous use of
puppets, according to the principles of creative drama, contributed to positive
changes in the aggressive behaviour of preschool children with regard to preschool
teachers’ assessments.

Sampling
Empirical research was conducted with a group of preschool teachers from pre-
schools and first grade classes of primary schools in various regions of Slovenia
who were undertaking part-time study of Preschool Education at the Faculty of
Education in Ljubljana. This comprised 30 hours of education in puppetry and
drama activities in preschool, and was delivered by the researchers themselves.
Twenty-two preschool teachers working with children aged 4–7 participated in
the research study.
Korosˇec and Zorec 9

Four hundred and sixty-two children aged 4–7 from different preschools and
primary schools across Slovenia were included in the research.

Respecting the ethics of research

At the initial informative lecture, the method, purpose and benefit of the study were
presented to the participants of the training course. They were each given the code-
mark that was agreed upon, so that data could be monitored and statistically
processed. Only those children were included in the study whose parents signed
the agreement of participation. The participants of the training then signed the
protocol of co-operation including a detailed specification of the relationship of co-
operation and responsibility.

The process of data collection and data processing

The teachers’ perceptions of changes in the social behaviour of children in the class
were measured with Child Social Behaviour Rating Scale, consisting of 24 items.
The scale was designed by the authors of this paper on the basis of expert literature
(Goodman, 2001; Ivon, 2005; Katz and McClellan, 2005; Kroflicˇ, 1999; Zupancˇicˇ
and Kavcˇicˇ, 2007). Using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, the Scale achieved sufficient
reliability and validity, with the pre-test value of a ¼ 0.89, with the first factor
explaining 31.44% of the variance and the post-test value of a ¼ 0.91 with the
first factor explaining 33.90% of the variance. This scale was completed by the
teachers for all of the children in the group before practical implementation of
puppetry activities and after three months of daily and continued use of puppets in
the class. The teachers were trained on how to use the rating scale in our training
course.
The appraisals of the frequency of a behaviour in individual children were given
on a five-point rating scale from 1 – never behaves like this to 5 – almost always
behaves like this.
Factor analysis was used to identify latent variables or system factors that
explain a latent structure of connections between manifest variables. Seven factors
were obtained. Seven variables were classified under the first factor: Gets very angry
(shouts, hits, damages things) if she/he does not get their way; Argues with other
children; In games with other children, wants to assert her/his own will; Breaks rules
and agreements; Ignores opinions and feelings of other children, if she/he want to
obtain something; Often fights with other children and teases them; Is a telltale.
We named this factor ‘aggressive behaviour’.
With the t-test for even numbered comparisons, the degree of statistical signifi-
cance was established for the differences between arithmetic means for individual
variables and for the summary variables before the introduction of puppetry activ-
ities and after three months of carrying out the activities. The statistical significance
of differences was estimated at an error probability of p < 0.05. The analysis of
changes in aggressive behaviour of children was then carried out for the total
10 Research in Education 0(0)

observed population and separately for the 10% of children who had reached the
lowest values in the initial rating. We named this group of children the lowest-score
group (LSG). The results for each separate variable and for the summary variable
for the category of aggressive behaviour are presented below.

Results
Aggressive behaviour in the total population of the assessed children
After the training course the teachers’ work with the puppets was positively chan-
ged to start encouraging children’s imagination, their contribution of ideas, cre-
ation of the story, making of the puppets and carrying out of an improvised
performance. The teachers mainly played the role of observers, organisers of sup-
portive environment and promoters of the making of children’s creations. This
kind of work principle allows for more interactions, more agreement-making and
co-operation, and enhances the development of the child’s creativity.
The results of the arithmetic means of the summary variable and of each indi-
vidual variable for aggressive behaviour as assessed by the teachers, and the results
of the t-test for the total assessed population are presented below (see Table 1).

Table 1. Parameters of descriptive statistics and the t-test for aggressive behaviour of the
total population of the assessed children.
Descriptive statistic t-test

Arithm. Stand.
Variables Phase N means deviation t df Sig.

Aggressive behaviour Initial 433 3.81 0.83 —8.581 432 0.00

Final 433 4.03 0.77
Gets very angry (shouts, hits, Initial 459 4.22 1.01 —5.94 458 0.00
damages things) if she/he does Final 459 4.42 0.86
not get their way. (V2)
Argues with other children. (V5) Initial 449 3.70 0.99 —5.40 448 0.00
Final 449 3.91 0.93
In games with other children, wants Initial 459 3.63 1.05 —5.04 458 0.00
to assert her/his own will. (V6) Final 459 3.84 1.03
Breaks rules and agreements. (V8) Initial 450 3.79 1.02 —5.40 449 0.00
Final 450 3.98 0.95
Ignores opinions and feelings of Initial 458 3.87 0.99 —5.77 457 0.00
other children, if she/he wants to Final 458 4.09 0.91
obtain something. (V9)
Often fights with other children and Initial 459 4.07 1.09 —5.06 458 0.00
teases them. (V13) Final 459 4.25 0.96
Is a telltale. (V18) Initial 453 3.40 0.98 —5.35 452 0.00
Final 453 3.61 0.97
Korosˇec and Zorec 11

A statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) has been observed in the aggres-
sive behaviour of children according to their teacher’s assessment before the intro-
duction of puppetry activities and after three months of their implementation.
Statistically significant differences were noticed in all variables of aggressive behav-
iour and in the summary variable.
Table 1 shows that the initial value of the arithmetic mean for the summary
variable is 3.81, and its final value is 4.03. According to their teacher’s assessment
there is an increase in the non-aggressive behaviour of children.
As expected, the average assessment values of the frequency of aggressive behav-
iour were low, even in the beginning. The lowest mean value and, in turn, the most
frequent behaviour is found in the variable ‘Is a telltale’ (3.40), followed by
‘In games with other children, wants to assert her/his own will’ (3.63) and ‘Argues
with other children’ (3.70). The variable ‘Is a telltale’ also has the lowest mean value
in the final measurement (3.61). Behaviours whereby children show physical
aggression occur to a smaller extent. Initially, the mean value of item ‘Often
fights with other children and teases them’ was 4.07, and the mean value of item
‘Gets very angry (shouts, hits, damages things) if she/he does not get their way’ was
4.22, which means that such behaviour almost never occurs. The biggest differences
in the arithmetic means between the initial and final measurements were found in
the variable ‘Ignores opinions and feelings of other children, if she/he wants to obtain
something’ (0.22), in which the final estimate of behaviour is 4.09. Compared to the
final estimate of other variables, this is a large difference. Large differences between
the arithmetic means of the initial and final measurements, i.e. a rather positive
change, are found in the items ‘Argues with other children’, ‘In games with other
children, wants to assert her/his own will’ and ‘Is a telltale’, where the difference is
0.21. The most positive result, and, thus, the rarest occurrence of the behaviour is
noticed in the ‘Gets very angry (shouts, hits, damages things) if she/he does not
get their way’ item with the mean value of 4.42 in the final measurement and a
difference of only 0.20 in arithmetic means. On final measurement, the following
variables were found to have a mean value below 4.00 (Rarely behaves like this)
‘Is a telltale’ (3.61), ‘In games with other children, wants to assert her/his own will’
(3.84), ‘Argues with other children’ (3.91) and ‘Breaks rules and agreements’ (3.98).

Aggressive behaviour for 10% of children with the lowest scores in

the initial assessment
Table 2 shows the results of the descriptive statistics and the t-test for the summary
variable aggressive behaviour and for individual variables from this group for the
10% of children who, in the initial assessment, achieved the lowest scores in the
aforementioned items. The results show that in the initial assessment, the mean
values in all variables are essentially lower (which means a higher degree of aggres-
sive behaviour) than in the total assessed population.
These are children with more frequent occurrences of aggressive behaviour as
assessed by teachers, i.e. children with low social competence. In the initial
12 Research in Education 0(0)

Table 2. Parameters of descriptive statistics and the t-test for aggressive behaviour for the
lowest-score group (LSG).
Descriptive statistic t-test

Arithm. Stand.
Variables Phase N means deviation t df Sig.

Aggressive behaviour Initial 50 2.18 0.32 —6.19 49 0.00

Final 50 2.82 0.72
Gets very angry (shouts, hits, Initial 50 2.44 0.95 —5.31 49 0.00
damages things) if she/he does Final 50 3.14 1.01
not get their way. (V2)
Argues with other children. (V5) Initial 50 2.08 0.57 —4.20 49 0.00
Final 50 2.68 0.87
In games with other children, Initial 50 1.94 0.62 —5.42 49 0.00
wants to assert her/his own Final 50 2.68 0.96
will. (V6)
Breaks rules and agreements. Initial 50 2.24 0.77 —4.05 49 0.00
(V8) Final 50 2.72 0.97
Ignores opinions and feelings of Initial 50 2.16 0.62 —4.60 49 0.00
other children, if she/he wants Final 50 2.90 0.91
to obtain something. (V9)
Often fights with other children Initial 50 1.94 0.62 —6.26 49 0.00
and teases them. (V13) Final 50 2.74 0.85
Is a telltale. (V18) Initial 50 2.50 0.86 —2.77 49 0.01
Final 50 2.92 1.08

teachers’ assessments of the social behaviour of these children, the average assess-
ment score for the summary variable aggressive behaviour was only 2.18, while in
the final estimate, this value amounted to 2.82. This result shows a significant drop
in aggressive behaviour according to teachers’ assessments (much larger than in the
total population) or substantial progress in the development of social competence
in these children. The results are complemented by the records made by the pre-
school teachers who carried out puppetry activities in their classes.
The teacher Simona in a group of 2–6 year old children wrote:
After the project work with puppets, the group of children acted more coherently, the
number of interactions increased, and even more importantly, the number of positive
interactions increased. In spite of the fact that negative interactions still occurred, the
quality of resolving them changed for the better.
Interestingly, the initial measurement in this group of children of the item ‘Often
fights with other children and teases them’, which in the total population of children
was extremely rare (mean value 4.07), had the lowest arithmetic means (1.94).
This means that this behaviour in children in the LCG group was quite common
in the initial measurement.
Korosˇec and Zorec 13

Low medium values in the initial measurement were also observed in the items
‘In games with other children, wants to assert her/his own will’ (1.94) and ‘Argues
with other children’ (2.08), which were also increased by a statistically significant
degree in the second measurement.
The results showed the largest difference in the arithmetic means in the variable
for which the means in the initial assessment was the lowest ‘Often fights with other
children and teases them’ (initial assessment 1.94, final assessment 2.74). A large
difference in the mean values between the initial and final assessment of this popu-
lation was also observed in the variable ‘Ignores opinions and feelings of other
children, if she/he want to obtain something’ (initial assessment 2.16, final assessment
2.90) and ‘In games with other children, wants to assert her/his own will’ (initial
assessment 1.94, final assessment 2.68).
In the teacher’s assessment, the largest shift towards less aggressive behaviour is
observed in physical aggression and uncompromising assertion of one’s will.
Figures 1 and 2 show the comparison of the results of the initial and final
assessments of aggressive behaviour. Figure 1 shows the differences for individual
variables of aggressive behaviour for the total assessed population, and Figure 2
shows differences for the 10% of the assessed children (the LSG group) who in the
initial assessment received the lowest scores. Both figures show that between the
initial and final assessment, there are statistically significant differences in arith-
metic means in all variables referring to aggressive behaviour, both in the total
population and in the LSG population; however, in the latter, the differences are
notably larger according to the teachers’ assessments.
Considering the results obtained, it can be concluded that, by the teachers’
estimates, after the intense three-month daily puppetry activities, the children’s
aggressive behaviour significantly decreased. Therefore, the teachers’ assessments
reflect a strong decrease in the aggressive behaviour of children in the total assessed
population, and even more evidently in the LSG group of children. Children who,

Figure 1. Comparison of the results of the initial and final assessments of aggressive
behaviour in the total assessed population.
14 Research in Education 0(0)

Figure 2. Comparison of the results of the initial and final assessments of aggressive
behaviour 10% of the assessed children who in the initial assessment received the lowest
scores.

by their teachers’ estimates, were ‘at risk’, i.e. faced more problems in social adap-
tation before the introduction of puppetry activities to the preschool class, after
three months of on-going activities, showed an increase in non-aggressive behav-
iour. As the teacher Aleksandra in the class of children aged 4–6 reported:
Nejc, the puppet - the beloved of the group, helps us carry out diverse activities. Nejc
has helped me incredibly; it was much easier to run the activities with him than if I
would try to do it on my own. Now and then we do have a small argument, because all
the children want to have Nejc for themselves. Particularly boys, which rather sur-
prised me. I am impressed over the power of the puppet, as I did not imagine that it
would influence the children so positively. We have a boy in the class who is very
impulsive and has difficulties focusing. Only in one week, there has been progress. The
boy talks to the puppet and can persist longer in the play that he chooses. He even fell
asleep with Nejc, although he was not able to fall sleep in preschool at all for over a
month.
The expression of anger through verbal or physical aggression especially dimin-
ished, as perceived by their teachers, with the children becoming more sensitive to
the feelings of other children in the class, they were better at respecting agreements
and broke fewer rules, and conflicts (quarrels, assertion of will) became less
frequent.
We can conclude that play with puppets, organised in various ways, helps the
child develop social skills. A teacher, who worked with children aged 3–6 reported:
The puppets play an important role in the children’s socialisation, encouraging chil-
dren, with their very presence, to collaborate and communicate. Through the making
of and playing with puppets children had fun, they talked more and accepted each
other. This progress was reflected in the different activities of our group. The children
started to make agreements amongst each other, being more considerate to each other,
whether it was during play, a puppet play or just a walk. Puppets taught children at
Korosˇec and Zorec 15

each step. With their model behaviour towards others they showed the way towards
friendship.
This is why the teacher’s knowledge about pedagogical and psychological aspects of
the use of the puppet is so important. Puppet play was introduced in the class in
several different ways: spontaneous play with the puppet; preparation of scenes with
puppets; short, informal scenes as an introduction to, or motivation within, an activ-
ity; talking through puppets, making puppets. In various conflict situations, the
teacher can join in with the animation of a puppet – the beloved friend of the group.
The children were excited about the developments related to the puppet – the beloved
of the group. At the very beginning, they got so fascinated by the story that all of
them, down to the last one, participated. /.. ./ Piki, the Dinosaur connected to the
children in a way so that they co-operated better. The Pikosaur was most eagerly
adopted by one very lively boy. As soon as he came to the preschool in the morning he
put away his own toy, took Piki, and carried it along wherever he went to play. Piki
became our permanent company from breakfast to rest time, and until they went
home. His influence was particularly noticeable during lunch and rest. (The teacher
Lidija, children aged 2–4)
Usually, such a character is typically accepted by children as their confidant
and friend. Children can easier tell the puppet than directly to adults their frustra-
tions, wishes and conflicts. The teacher Nina, worked in a group of children, aged
3–5 years:
Also my assistant teacher, who has worked in this position for over 25 years noticed
the children’s progress. She told me that so far, no other teachers have regularly used
the so called ‘‘beloved’’ of the group, and she was surprised at the puppet’s impact as
well as the children’s responses. We are both aware that these are only small steps, but
they are shifts in the right direction, with progress being seen in a specific group that
occasionally demands so much energy and took away hope that anything would
change for the better.
Children feel safer with their puppet friend; it represents the mediator between
them and their teacher or peers. The teachers who participated in our study also
reported that children themselves used the puppet to comfort a crying child. Puppet
play with good follow-up or continuing activities helps develop social skills.
Through the puppet, children experience various emotions and relations, and
learn about appropriate reactions. To continue a story with a child, working the
puppet is a good opportunity to play through alternative possibilities for how
individual characters in the story can behave. Puppets present an acceptable way
to express one’s unpleasant emotions. Through dramatic plot and relations
between the characters, the child’s inner conflicts and frustrations lose their
power (Bastasˇic´, 1990).
Our results are very similar to Ivon’s (2005) findings. She researched the con-
nection between different uses of the puppet in education and pro-social or aggres-
sive behaviour. She compared the teachers’ assessments of pro-social and
16 Research in Education 0(0)

aggressive behaviours of children in the experimental group, where the puppets

were often used, with the control group in which teachers almost never used pup-
pets. As in our study, the results showed that in groups in which the puppets were
used daily, the teachers noticed an increase in pro-social behaviour and a decrease
in aggressive behaviour. These findings can be complemented with the words of the
teacher Aleksandra who worked with the group of 4–6 year olds:
I hardly understand this myself, but the puppet really works miracles. I learnt many
new things from the children, and got to know them as completely different children,
I talked to them and played with them more. I can say that the puppets connected
us as a group and as friends, who talk and trust each other, and are nice to each
other. What we failed to achieve in previous months, the puppets succeeded in doing
in just weeks.

Conclusion
With research into the implementation of puppetry activities according to the prin-
ciples of creative drama in preschool education, the meaning of puppet play for the
development of the child’s social competence was highlighted through theoretical
starting points and selected instruments. The results of the study are in line with
those of other studies of children of various ages and different countries, and
suggest that the regular and continuous inclusion of diverse forms and methods of
work with puppets significantly influences the reduction of children’s aggressive
behaviour. Here, the key role is played by the teacher, who needs to offer children
the puppets and the possibilities to play the improvised scenes at the right moment,
which, of course, can grow into more complex stories.
This research is based on the adult’s perception only. We are aware that chil-
dren’s perception is crucial for education and research, but in this manuscript, we
have presented only the results of this study. Of course, in past we gained many
children’s opinions connected with the use of puppet (that they enjoyed, what they
liked and want to do more, etc.), but children’s answers were not connected with
the purpose of this study. We cannot aspect that the children would comment
their (non)aggressive behaviour when asked about their feelings and wishes in
puppet play.
The teachers estimate that after three months of creative drama with puppets,
aggressive behaviours are considerably diminished in the total observed population
of children, and even more so in the group of children who showed the lowest
scores in the initial assessment. Puppet theatre is symbolic communication that
enables direct, less stressful communication and dialogue amongst individuals in
the class as well as a good functioning of the class. With the occurrence of aggres-
sive behaviour becoming ever more frequent, and with teachers facing problems in
coping with it, along with the knowledge of the effects that can be achieved with the
puppet, in regard to reducing aggressive behaviour, there is a strong case for the
inclusion of puppetry in daily preschool and school activities. The changes that
Korosˇec and Zorec 17

teachers can achieve with the use of puppets in the social behaviour of individuals
and in creating a positive atmosphere in the class are of key importance to present
and future preschools and schools.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.

ORCID iD
Helena Korosˇec https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0388-1854

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