74 4 Wave Physics of the Sound Field

Table 4.2

Free-field k" Echo field

IX ~dB IX ~dB

0.84 -1.5 0.37 0.71 -3.0

0.71 -3.0 0.51 0.50 -6.0
0.50 -6.0 0.70 0.25 -12.0
0.32 -10.0 0.87 0.10 -20.0
0.25 -12.0 0.93 0.6 -24.0
0.10 -20.0 1.09 0.1 -40.0
0 -00 1.22 0 -00

Fig.4.22. Divergence of the beam from a

circular oscillator

Example. What is the width of an ultrasonic beam at the distance N using the edge criterion of
a decrease in the echo of 6 dB?
From Eq. (4.17) with z = N = D2/4A and taking k from Table 4.2 for an echo (~= -6 dB
gives k = 0.51) we obtain 2b = O.25D. This result means that the beam is effectively focussed
at the end of the near-field, its sensitivity being concentrated there in a circle with a quarter of
the transducer diameter.
Example. How wide is the beam from an oscillator, having DIA = 16, at the distance of
500mm?
From Fig. 4.21 we have Yo = 4.3 0 and using Fig. 4.22
2b = 2ztanyo= 2 x 500mm x 0.075 = 75 mm.
When using the pulse-echo method of testing we have to expect deviations from the above re-
sults if the pulse is shorter than about six wavelengths, or if the oscillator is excited non-un-
iformly, see Section 4.8.
Equations (4.16, 4.17 and 4.19) are only valid for values of D much greater than A. With
decreasing DI A the angle of divergence increases to 90 0 remaining constant thereafter. The
free-field characteristics of a small transducer with DI A = 1 for longitudinal waves is nearly
spherical. The hemispherical shape, often erroneously expected, cannot be achieved, because
a free longitudinal wave propagating along a free surface cancels itself since there is a phase
reversal at the grazing incidence.
Figure 4.23 represents the angular characteristics of a point-source transmitter according
to calculations by Roderick [1275] (see also [442]). It has a nearly spherical characteristic for
longitudinal waves, and additionally off-axis transverse waves with two lobes on each side of
the axis. It is clear therefore that a small source of longitudinal waves will also transmit trans-
verse waves at an angle and the same is true of a receiver.
The point source directivity diagram has an important consequence in the generation of
oblique transverse waves by so-called angle probes (Section 10.4.2). If transverse waves are
generated by refraction of a longitudinal beam, the directivity characteristics according to
Eq. (4.16) are axially symmetrical, when calculated from the refraction law, Eq. (2.3), only if D
is much larger than A. This would be the "geometrical" directivity, but with decreasing DIA it