Three-Phase Systems

The concept and analysis of single-phase alternating current (ac) systems has been
presented in the 1st & 2nd year circuit theory courses. This method of distributing
electrical energy is normally only used for overall power demands of less than 20kW,
one of the reasons for this is because of the resulting instantaneous power flow in
single-phase systems. The diagram in Figure 1 shows a single-phase source
supplying a single-phase load.

i(t)
v(t)
R

i(t)
0

Time

p(t) = i2(t) R

0
Figure 1

The waveforms illustrate the flow of instantaneous 1 current and power in the system.
We can calculate the instantaneous power flow for any complex load (not purely real),
with a phase angle, φ , and power factor, cos φ, as follows:

Vˆ Vˆ 2 ⎛ cos(φ ) − cos(2ωt − φ ) ⎞
p (t ) = vi = Vˆ sin (wt ) sin (ωt − φ ) = ⎜ ⎟ using trig identities
2
Z Z ⎝ 2 ⎠

1
Capital letters represent non time varying values which are usually either average values (dc
quantities) or RMS values (ac quantities). Remember that the generally accepted notation is that, unless
stated otherwise, a capital letter representing a voltage or current is an RMS quantity. Instantaneous
quantities are indicated by the use of lower case letters, i.e., vA or iB, and may also show explicitly that
B

they vary with time by the use of parentheses, i.e., vA(t) or iB(t).
B

2
-2 sin A sin B = cos(A+B) – cos(A-B), with, in this case, A=φ and B=(ωt-φ)
 Vˆ 2 ⎛ cos(φ ) − (cos(2ωt ) cos(φ ) + sin (2ωt ) sin (φ )) ⎞
p (t ) = Z⎜ ⎟ sub . for cos(2ωt-φ) above
3
Z2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ Z cos φ (1 − cos(2ωt )) + Z sin φ sin(2ωt ) ⎞ ˆ 2 ⎛⎜ Z real (1 − cos(2ωt )) + Z imag sin (2ωt ) ⎞⎟

p (t ) = Iˆ 2 ⎜ ⎟=I ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Where φ is the angle between I and V and hence cos φ is the power factor.

What problems might this instantaneous variation in power flow cause?

Notice that this expression consists of the square of the peak value of current
multiplied by a term containing the real component of load impedance and another
term containing the imaginary component of impedance. The term containing the real
component of impedance is the instantaneous power dissipation in the load which, for
a load other than unity power factor, is not the same as the total instantaneous power
supplied by the source.

⎛ 1 − cos(2ωt ) ⎞
Instantaneous power dissipated in the load = Z real Iˆ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
The average value of this over 1 cycle is the same as the average of the total
instantaneous power, p, over one cycle

Iˆ 2 Z real
P= = I 2 Z real = VI cos φ Watts Equation 1
2

What does the term containing the imaginary component of impedance represent?

3
cos (A-B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

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 Figure 2

Components of instantaneous 'power' for φ = 30degrees, power facto

Instantaneous power flow

We are usually concerned with the average power over one cycle and when we talk
about the power rating of an item of electrical equipment it is the average value which
is stated. The complex power consists of real and imaginary components:

S = V I * = P + jQ VA Equation 2 What are the units for Q?

The solution to the problem of time varying power is to use a 3-phase system which is
provided by 3 sinusoidal voltage sources which have the same peak value and
alternate at the same frequency but are displaced in time with respect to each other by
1/3 rd of a cycle. This is the system used to generate, transmit and distribute electrical
power throughout most of the world. The supply is obtained from a 3-phase generator
which is shown in Figure 3.

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Complete the diagram.
Figure 3

Simplified view of
winding conductors A

B’ C’

C B

A’

The rotor of the generator is magnetised and mounted in bearings which allow it to
rotate when driven by a mechanically coupled prime mover. This rotation of the rotor
produces a time-varying magnetic flux density in the machine which induces an emf
in the stator windings. For the sake of clarity this simplified representation of the
generator shows 3 single-turn windings which are displaced by 120 degrees around
the stator. In practice each winding consists of a number of turns with a more
complex distribution than shown here, the details of which will not be considered in
this section of the course but examples of which can be found in the recommended
text number 2 listed on the front of these lecture notes. The fact that each of the
windings is displaced by 120 electrical degrees 4 with respect to each other causes

4
In the simplified diagram of the generator shown in Figure3 electrical degrees are equal to mechanical
degrees. This is not always the case and depends on the number of magnetic pole-pairs, p, of the
machine. This will be dealt with more fully in the machines section of the course and can be found in
recommended text book No. 2.

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 each winding to experience the same induced emf but phase displaced by 1/3 of a
cycle as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4

vA(t) vB(t)
volts vC(t)

0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020

time / seconds

It can be seen from the waveforms that the instantaneous sum of these voltages at any
point in time is zero. The voltage induced in each of the windings is called the phase
voltage. The output of the generator could be taken as 3 electrically separate single
phase sources feeding 3 single phase loads as shown in Figure 5.

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 Figure 5

iA
ZA
A A’
C’ generator B iB

C B’
ZC ZB

iC

Let the system be balanced so that the magnitude of each phase voltage and
impedance is the same and equal to V and Z respectively.
Vˆ
p A = Vˆ sin (ωt ) × sin (ωt − φ )
Z

( )
3 Z
Vˆ
(
p B = Vˆ sin ωt − 2π × sin ωt − 2π − φ
3
)
( )
3 Z
Vˆ
(
p C = Vˆ sin ωt − 4π × sin ωt − 4π − φ
3
)
Using similar trig identities as for the single-phase case the total instantaneous power
may be calculated:
p = p A + pB + pC

p=
Vˆ 2
⎢ +
( 3 +
) 3
(
⎡ cos φ − cos(2ωt − φ ) cos φ − cos 2ωt − 4π − φ cos φ − cos 2ωt − 8π − φ )⎤⎥
Z ⎢ 2 2 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
( ) (
⎡3 cos φ − cos φ cos(2ωt ) + cos 2ωt − 4π + cos 2ωt − 8π ⎤
⎢ 3 3 ⎥
)
Iˆ Z ⎢
2
⎥
p=
2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎣
( 3
) (
− sin φ sin (2ωt ) + sin 2ωt − 4π + sin 2ωt − 8π ⎥
3 ⎦
)
The cos functions of time are 3 equal amplitude cos waveforms which oscillate at the
same frequency but are phase displaced by 1/3rd of a cycle. The instantaneous sum of

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these is zero and this is also true for the sin functions of time 5 . This leaves the total 3-
phase instantaneous power as

3Iˆ 2 Z cos φ
p= = 3I 2 Z cos φ = 3VI cos φ Equation 3
2

It can be seen that the instantaneous flow of power does not vary with time and
therefore it is also equal to the average power flow. This is one of the great
advantages of the 3-phase system because, for a given electrical load, the
instantaneous power demanded from the supply (and ultimately the turbine in the
power station) is constant. Note that the total average power flow is 3 times that of
the average power developed in one phase of the system. Do not try to memorise this
proof, it is the result that is important!

The voltage induced in each of the windings of the 3-phase generator is called the
phase voltage and can be measured between the 2 endings of each winding. Although
3-phase power could be generated and transmitted as shown in Figure 5 a 3-wire
system is used which permits a more economical distribution of power by reducing
the number of conductors needed in the transmission network. The windings of the
generator are normally connected to form a “star” connection and the outputs to the
transmission lines taken from the other ends of the windings as shown in Figure 6.

One end of each winding is brought out as a “line” (A, B, & C) whilst the other ends
remain inside the generator and are connected together to form a “star point”. If the
generator is to drive an unbalanced load (more on this later) then a neutral connection
will be provided. The neutral cable is not normally provided at the generation or
transmission level and so the power is delivered from the power station to cities via
high voltage pylons which carry a 3-phase, 3-wire system. We have seen that the
phase voltages in Figure 4 exist across each of the phase windings and so in the star
connected generator the phase voltages exist between each line and the neutral point
and we can indicate this using subscripts to identify each voltage:
Voltage across phase A = VAN , often abbreviated to VA, especially when no neutral is
present. We use a similar notation for phases B and C.

The cables used for the lines in a 3-phase system are often coloured red, yellow, and
blue and hence you will also find the phase voltages referred to as VR, VY, & VB for
phases Red, Yellow, and Blue respectively.

5
The sum of any balanced 3-phase sinusoidal or cosinusoidal waveforms at any point in time is always
zero, this can be seen on the waveforms of Figure 4. For those who prefer to see this mathematically
the trig identities can be used to combine the cos as follows:
⎛ ⎛ 12π ⎞ ⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎞
(
cos(2ωt ) + cos 2ωt − 4π )3 + cos(2ωt − 8π 3 ) = cos(2ωt ) + ⎜⎜⎜ 2 cos⎜⎜⎜ 4ωt −2 3 ⎟ × cos⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎟
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎠
= cos(2ωt ) − cos(2ωt − 2π ) = 0

and similarly the sinusoidal functions of time sum to zero.

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 Figure 6

A
A
VA
Neutral cable
neutral point only provided at
A’ distribution level
N
C’ B’
B
C
C
VC B
VB

There now exists two sets of voltages; those across each phase winding, called the
phase voltages (VA VB VC), and those across the line terminals, called the line
voltages (VAB VBC VCA).

If the system is balanced then the magnitudes of each phase voltage will be equal.
Taking VA as a reference phasor, we can write down expressions for each of the
voltages.

Phase voltages

VA = VA ∠ 0° VB = VA ∠ − 120° VC = VA ∠ − 240°

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Line Voltages

VAB = VA - VB = VA − VA ( − 1 2 − j 3
2 ) = VA ( 3 2 + j 3
2 )
VAB = 3 VA ( 3
2 + j 1 2) = 3 VA ∠30°
and in general Vline = 3V phase ∠30° Equation 4
1/2
The line voltage is 3 times bigger than the phase voltage and leads it by an angle of
30°. This is illustrated by the phasor diagram of Figure. 7.

Figure 7

The single-phase domestic supply

used in households of the UK is one
VA
VAB
phase (line and neutral) of a three-
VCA phase supply. The line voltage is
120 120 400V, therefore the phase voltage
120
(line-neutral) is:
VC VB
Vline 400
VAB VBC Vphase = = ≈ 230 V
30deg
3 3

VBC
The direction of increasing angle on
a phasor diagram is considered to be
anticlockwise and so if we let
(arbitrarily) phase A be our reference
phasor we can say that phase B lags
VCA phase A by 120 degrees and phase C
lags phase A by 240 degrees. The
phase sequence is thus A,B,C. This
phase sequence is important when
you connect a 3-phase induction
motor to the supply as it determines
the direction of rotation of the motor.
Reversal of any 2 phases to the motor
will reverse the direction of rotation.
We will now examine the various
methods of connection of loads to the
3-phase supply.

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Connection Of Loads To The Three-Phase System

We will only consider in detail the connection of balanced three-phase loads. There
are two methods of connecting three-phase loads, as discussed below.

Star connection (also known as the WYE connection)

Each phase of the three phase load is connected with one end terminating in a
common star point, and the other end to one of the line terminals of the supply, as
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Star-connected load

A
The current
flowing through
each phase
impedance is
equal to that
C flowing in the
VA ZA VAB lines (verify this
using Kirchoff’s
VCA current law)
star point
ZC For a star-
ZB connected load:

VC VB Equation 5
I line = I phase
VBC
Vline = 3 Vphase

Equation 6
B

We have seen already that the total power is three times the power per phase:

Ptotal = 3Pphase = 3Vphase I phase cos φ

(Equation 3)
where cos φ is the power factor of the load.

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Delta connection (also known as the mesh connection)

Each phase of the load is connected across two lines of the three-phase supply, as in
Figure 9.

Figure 9 Delta connected load

A Iline

VC =VCA Iphase

C VA =VAB

ZC ZA

ZB

VB =VBC

B
In this case the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage and it can be shown that the
line current is 31/2 times greater than the phase current.

Vline = Vphase Equation 7

I line = 3 I phase
Equation 8

The total power is given again by Equation 3.

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General Equation For Power In The Three Phase Load

The total power in the three phase load is always equal to three times the phase power
(for a balanced system), regardless of whether the load is connected in star or delta.

For a star-connected load

P = 3 Vphase I phase cos φ
Vline
but Vphase = and I phase = I line
3
V I cos φ
∴ P = 3 line line = 3Vline I line cos φ
3 Equation 9

For a delta-connected load

P = 3 Vphase I phase cos φ
I line
but Vphase = Vline and I phase =
3
Vline I line cos φ
∴ P=3 = 3Vline I line cos φ
3

We have the same result for both loads, 3-phase power being given by Equation 9.

Although the same equation for power is used for star or delta connected loads it is
important to note that the power consumed, for a given load impedance, is greater
when the load is connected in the delta configuration. Consider a load with a
magnitude of phase impedance, Z:

For star connection

Vphase Vline
I phase = = = I line
Z phase 3Z phase
3Vline Vline cos φ cos φ
2
V
∴P = = line
3Z phase Z phase
For delta connection
Vphase Vline I 3Vline
I phase = = = line so I line =
Z phase Z phase 3 Z phase
3Vline 3Vline cos φ 3 Vline cos φ
2

∴P = =
Z phase Z phase

Hence the power consumed and the line current drawn is 3 times greater when the
load is connected in delta than when connected in star.

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The Two Wattmeter Method Of Measuring Total 3-Phase Power

It is useful to be able to measure the average power of 3-phase equipment by

measurements made on the input lines. In this case we do not have access to the phase
quantities and the method commonly used to measure the power is called the Two
Wattmeter Method. Consider the load connected to the 3-phase system in Figure 10.
Complete the diagram
Figure 10

Wattmeter 1 Load terminals

A

Wattmeter 2
B

Two wattmeters are shown connected in the circuit in lines A and B. The Wattmeter
consists of a voltage coil and a current coil which together measure the instantaneous
volt amp product applied to the meter. Internal circuitry then obtains the average
value of this which is equal to real power. The total instantaneous power of the load
is given by:

p = v A i A + v B i B + v C iC
Kirchoff's Current Law also tells us that i A + i B + iC = 0 which means that it is only
necessary to measure two of the line currents in order to know the third. Substituting
for iC gives:
iC = −i A − i B
∴ p = v A i A + v B i B + vC (− i A − i B )
p = i A (v A − vC ) + i B (v B − vC ) = p1 + p 2
This shows that in order to measure the total power we only need to use 2 wattmeters.
A voltage reference line is chosen (in this case C) and line voltages measured from
this reference to the other 2 lines. The currents are also measured in the other 2 lines
and the wattmeters compute the average values of p1 and p2. These readings are
made and the total average 3-phase power of the load is given by the sum of these 2
readings:
P = P1 + P2 = 3Vline I line cos φ
This is true irrespective of whether the load is star or delta connected and is equally
valid for balanced and unbalanced systems.

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Analysis Of 3-Phase Systems

The RMS magnitude of voltage and current do not differ between phases and the total
3-phase power (real, imaginary and apparent) is simply 3 times the phase value for a
balanced system. For this reason it is only necessary to perform the analysis for one
phase of the system.

Example 1

Wattmeter 1 Load terminals

A A
Zphase
V Wattmeter 2 8+j6Ω
B A

Vline=400V V
C

You may assume, unless stated otherwise, that the frequency of the ac supply is
always 50Hz which is now the standard across Europe. The analysis is performed on
a per-phase basis and so the circuit diagram reduces to the per-phase equivalent
circuit: This will be covered in the lecture and you should make your own notes of
the solution.

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Power Factor Correction
You are already aware that in alternating current systems the current drawn by the
load is often out of phase with the voltage applied to it by an angle, φ, the cosine of
which is called the load power factor. Although reactive power does no real work
industrial users will be charged for poor power factor loads (e.g. loads with a power
factor lower than one) because the electricity distributor must install cables rated to
carry the total current (which develops the apparent power of the load) and not just
the real current. Although the power factor of a given load depends on the electrical
nature of the load it is possible to install power factor correction components which
aim to correct the power factor seen by the supply to a value of one, or unity. An
inductive load results in a lagging power factor (the current lags the voltage ) whilst a
capacitive load has a leading power factor (the current leads the voltage). This
difference in power factor can be exploited by using a leading power factor
component to correct for a lagging power factor load (and, although not so common, a
lagging power factor component to correct a leading power factor load).

Parallel Connection Of Power Factor Correction Equipment

In industry the dominant load connected to the grid system is the electrical motor, the
vast majority of which are induction motors. This type of motor operates with a
lagging power factor (caused by the inductive nature of the motor windings) and if a
large number are in use in, say a factory, the total reactive power required could be
large. In order to reduce the current drawn by the factory it is common to install
power factor correcting capacitors which are placed across the incoming three-phase
lines. The convention adopted (arbitrarily) 6 is to consider an inductive load to draw a
positive reactive power and a capacitive load to take a negative reactive power. In
power factor correction the aim is to draw equal amounts of positive and negative
reactive power, thereby presenting a unity power factor load to the supply. Consider
the phasor diagram of Figure 11, for a lagging power factor motor load.

6
The sign of the reactive power component is calculated automatically when using Equation 2 and it
agrees with the arbitrary convention referred to above.

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 Vsupply=Vmotor
real axis

VX

Imotor= Isupply
active current

imaginary axis
φ
reactive current

Figure 11 Phasor diagram of lagging power factor load

If power factor correcting capacitors are connected in parallel with the motor the
current drawn from the supply can be corrected to be in phase with the supply voltage
and is therefore only active current.

How much current must the capacitor draw to correct the power factor to unity?

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