Session 1

1. There are many theories on communicative competence introduced by different experts: state
only one to explain as clearly as possible.
Answer:
Savignon (1972) used the term “communicative competence” to characterize the ability of
classroom language learners to interact with other speakers, to make meaning, as distinct from
their ability to recite dialogs or perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical knowledge.
Savignon (1983) divided communicative competence into:
1) Grammatical competence refers to sentence-level grammatical forms, the ability to
recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and phonological feature of a language and
to make use of these features to interpret and form words and sentences.
2) Discourse competence is concerned not with isolated words or phrases but with the
interconnectedness of a series of utterances, written words, and/or phrases to form a text, a
meaningful whole.
3) Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context in which
language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function
of the interaction.
4) Strategic competence refers to a speaker’s ability to adapt their use of verbal and
nonverbal language to compensate for communication problems caused by the speaker’s
lack of understanding of proper grammar use and/or insufficient knowledge of social
behavioral and communication norms.

Hymes defined communicative competence in term of four dimensions:

1) Systemic potential is knowledge of and ability to use the generative base of language.
2) Appropriateness defined as knowledge of language behavior and its contextual features
and the ability to use language appropriately.
3) Occurrence defined as knowledge of whether and to what extent action is taken with
language to take such action.
4) Feasibility includes knowledge of whether and to what extent something is possible, and
the ability to be practical or feasible. Since its appearance in applied linguistics, others
have attempted to use the concept of communicative competence, and its underlying theory
of language, to construct frameworks for the design of language curricula and test.

Celce Murcia (1995)

1) Discourse competence
Discourse competence as the core of communicative competence. It includes not only
knowledge of and the ability to use linguistic resources to create cohesion and coherence
in both oral and written texts. It includes also knowledge of and the ability to use
conversations for taking turns, holding on to the conversational floor interrupting and

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 providing listener feedback cues such as ‘umm’ and ‘uh huh’. They argued that discourse
competence deals with the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures,
and utterances to achieve a unified spoken message. They described several sub-areas of
discourse competence, four of which are most important with regard to current model:
a. Cohesion: conventions regarding use of reference (anaphora/cataphora),
substitution/ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical chains.
b. Deixis: situational grounding achieved through use of personal pronouns, spatial
terms, temporal terms, and textual terms.
c. Coherence: expressing purpose/intent through appropriate content schemata,
managing old and new information, maintaining temporal continuity and other
organizational schemata through conventionally recognized means.
d. Generic structure: formal schemata that allow the user to identify an oral discourse
segment as a conversation, narrative, interview, service encounter, report, lecture,
sermon, etc.

2) Linguistic competence
The first competence that giving shaped to discourse competence is linguistic
competence, which consist of the basic elements of the linguistic system that are used to
interpret and construct grammatically accurate utterances and texts. This also includes
knowledge of and ability to use syntax, involving sentence, patterns, word order,
coordination, and subordination and embedding in addition to morphology, phonology,
vocabulary, and orthography. The term of linguistic competence includes four types of
knowledge:
a. Phonological: includes both segmental (vowels, consonants, syllable types) and
supra-segmental (prominence/stress, intonation, and rhythm).
b. Lexical: knowledge of both content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and
functional words (pronouns, determiners, prepositions, verbal auxiliaries, etc)
c. Morphological: part of speech, grammatical inflections, productive derivational
processes.
d. Syntactic: constituent/phrase structure, word order (both canonical and marked), basic
sentence types, modification, coordination, subordination, embedding
Linguistic competence is the main focus in teaching English as second or foreign
language in most country around the world. Whereas, to maintain communication run
well, one should know aware with whom and from where he talks to, so he can use the
appropriate strategies in communication. Thus, the next competence which linked to

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 discourse competence will provide some component that one should know in
maintaining communication that is sociocultural competence. This comprises the non-
linguistic, contextual knowledge that communicators rely on to understand and
contribute to a given communicative activity. This aspect competence includes
knowledge of, ability to use, the rules, norms and expectations governing the larger
social context of the activity.
3) Sociocultural competence
Sociocultural competence refers to the speaker’s pragmatic knowledge, i.e. how to
express messages appropriately within the overall social and cultural context of
communication. This includes knowledge of language variation with reference to
sociocultural norms of the target language. In fact a social or cultural blunder can be far
more serious than a linguistic error when one is engaged in oral communication (Celce-
Murcia et al: 1995.). Celce-Murcia argued that the pedagogical challenge lies in the fact
that second and foreign language teachers typically have far greater awareness and
knowledge of linguistics rules than they do of the sociocultural behaviors and
expectations that accompany use of the target language. Based on her perspective, even
when good cultural descriptions are available, it is hard to get learners to change their
native verbal behavior based on a new set of assumptions.
Further, Celce-Murcia et al (1995: 23-24) described several sociocultural variables, three
of which are most crucial in terms of the current model.
a. Social contextual factors: the participants’ age, gender, status, social distance and their
relations to each other.
b. Stylistic appropriateness: politeness strategies, a sense of genres and registers.
c. Cultural factors: background knowledge of the target language group, major
dialects/regional differences, and cross-cultural awareness
She added that the above competencies can be acquired in part through some knowledge
of the life and traditions as well as knowledge of the history and literature of the target
language community. An extended living experience among members of the target
language group is probably the best experience for language acquisition if the learner has
adequate basic preparation in both linguistic and sociocultural competence coupled with
good powers of observation.
Both linguistic competence and sociocultural competence are the way we know which
strategy that may proper to communicate and how to form words into sentences, so we
can convey our intention to the hearer appropriately. Even so, we cannot make a good
communication and may cause the communication fail if we do not know how to convey
it well. Thus, the next component of communicative competence is added by Celce-

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 Murcia et al. in 1995 that is actional competence. Based on Celce-Murcia et al (1995)
actional competence refers to the ability to comprehend and produce all significant
speech acts and speech act sets.
4) Actional competence
Also linked to discourse competence is actional or rhetorical competence. Celce-Murcia
et al. defined this component as the knowledge of and ability to match actional intent
with linguistic form based on the knowledge of an inventory of verbal schemata that
carry illocutionary force. Entailed here, therefore, knowing how to use language to do
something, to perform certain functions, such as making promise, giving orders,
complaining and so on. It also involves knowing how to combine individual acts into
larger, meaningful sets of actions to create an appropriate communicative activity such as
making a purchase, setting up an appointment, recounting a story and so on. When
discussing written text, Celce-Murcia et al. prefer the parallel term of rhetorical
competence. This aspect includes knowledge of the speech acts and speech act sets
conventionally associated with particular written grammar.
Celce-Murcia et al, (1995) added that nonverbal or paralinguistic aspects of oral
interactions are also crucial made are rarely treated in the language classroom. These
conventions can overlap with those for conversational turn-taking; for example an
English speaker’s body movements, in breaths, and eye contact can result in a
conversational turn for the person displaying such non-verbal signals. Hence, all of the
differences in communication should be solved in order to participate in discourse, which
is the main goal in communication. Thus, the final component of Celce-Murcia et al.’s
model is strategic competence. It includes the knowledge, skills and ability to resolve
communicative difficulties and enhance communicative effectiveness.
5) Strategic competence
According to Oxford (2001:362) as cited by Celce-Murcia et al., strategies for language
learning and use are “specific behaviors or thought processes that students use to
enhance their own L2.” Such behaviors are either (1) learning strategies or (2)
communication strategies). We know that the learners who can make effective use of
strategies (i.e. who have strategic competence) tend to learn languages better and faster
than those who are strategically inept. There are some terms that should be realized in
strategic competence, there are:
a. Cognitive: that is strategy in making use of logic and analysis to help
oneself learn a new language through outlining, summarizing, note taking, organizing
and reviewing material, etc.

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 b. Metacognitive: this strategy involves planning one’s learning by
making time for homework or for preparation, and engaging in self evaluations of
one’s success on s given task or on one’s overall progress. This is achieved in part by
monitoring and nothing one’s errors, learning from teacher and peer feedback, etc.
Compansationing for missing or partial knowledge by guessing the meanings of
words from context or the grammatical function of words from formal clues are also
aspect of metacognitions.
c. Memory-related: that is strategy that helps learners recall or retrieve
words through the use of acronyms, images, sounds (rhymes), or other clues.
The other crucial strategies, which are highlighted on Celce-Murcia et al. (1995: 26-29),
are communication strategies; they include the following:
a. Achievement: strategies of approximation,
circumlocution, code switching, miming, etc.
b. Stalling for time gaining: using phrases like
‘Where was I?' ‘Could you repeat that?’
c. Self-monitoring: using phrases that allow for
self repair i.e. I mean...
d. Interacting: this is strategy that includes appeals
for help/clarification, that involve meaning negotiation, or that involve
comprehension and confirmations checks, etc.
e. Social: these strategies involve seeking out
native speakers to practice with, actively looking for opportunities to use the target
language.

2. When a language is used to communicate, there are two contexts which encircle it, context of
culture and context of situation. As a teacher of English, what should you do in connection
with this theory?
Answer:
Context of culture and context of situation are inseparable parts of teaching languages. Both of
them play important part on how a language is used. As language teacher I should make sure
that students not only recognize the words, pronounce them correctly, but also to fully
comprehend the language. For example when I teach a certain expression to my students, I
have to make sure that they understand, what word to use, when to use, to whom they speak,
and what form of communication (spoken or written). To do that, I will let the students to
deduce the context themselves and discuss it afterward.

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3. Describe comprehensively each of these following: interpersonal negotiation, formulaic
expressions, speech functions, adjacency pairs, and chuncks.
Answer:
1) Interpersonal negotiation
It is the way in engaging sustained dialogue that we can establish and develop the social
roles we are playing with other people. Being able take part in dialogue means that we are
able to negotiate the exchange interpersonal meanings.
2) Formulaic expressions are some expressions to express greetings, farewell, thanks, or
apologies. These may consist of a single word or of several words acting as a unit. Here are some
examples:

bye
excuse me
goodbye
thanks
thank you
hello
thanks a lot
farewell

sorry
hi
pardon
so long
3) A speech function is the way people exchanging information or goods or services from
one to others. It is divided into four primaries such as offer/command, statement/questions.
To answer speech functions there are 8 speech function classes which can be used in a
conversation involving two or three people such as acceptance/rejection,
compliance/refusal, acknowledgement/contradiction, and answer/disclaimer.
4) Adjacency pair is a type of turn-taking. It is the smallest unit of conversational exchange.
5) Chunks are groups of words that can be found together in language. They can be words
that always go together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain
grammatical structures that follow rules. A listener or reader uses their knowledge of
chunks to help them predict meaning and therefore be able to process language in real
time. Chunks include lexical phrases, set phrases, and fixed phrases. In studies of language
acquisition, several words that are customarily used together in a fixed expression, such as
"in my opinion," "to make a long story short," "How are you?" or "Know what I mean?"

4. Is teaching pronunciation to the students important? Explain your answer why so/not so
provide examples when necessary.
Answer:
According to Goodwin, the goals of teaching pronunciation are to enable learners to
understand and be understood, to build their confidence in entering communicative situation,

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 and to enable learners to monitor their speech based on the input from the environment. It is
clearly stated that pronunciation is an essential component not only of learning a language but
also of using that language. For that reason pronunciation is something that is very important
to learners especially beginner learners. In learning foreign language, students sometimes need
to feel free to make mistakes and practice their pronunciation in order to increase their
accuracy, but there are also times when pronunciation must be quickly corrected so that it does
not impede the students' ability to understand and be understood. In a classroom context,
pronunciation may not be a major factor that influences students’ comprehension but it will be
when the learners use the foreign language in society/community. For example when someone
mispronounce the words ‘sheep’ to ‘ship’, the listener definitely will get wrong meaning of the
utterances. In other words, we can say that the speaker will be misunderstood.
For that reasons, the value of teaching pronunciation cannot be underestimated. Besides the
difficulty of changing a `bad habit´, early pronunciation instruction helps students understand
how to form sounds that are not found in their mother tongue. In conclusion, I say that
teaching pronunciation is important to the students.

Yes, it is, because pronunciation is important aspect in learning and using a language. When
the students learning in classroom context, isn’t usually a major factor that influences
comprehension however, it may be when the students use it in spoken language.
Mispronunciation can make the conversation awkward and make it misinterpretation. The
hearer will not understand what the speaker says. For example, how can we recognize the
word sheet, seed, sit, sight, shed, even shit or with, white, wait without teaching the students
the proper pronunciation? Although in our English classroom, the spoken language is rarely
used, but I think it’s a must for us, the teacher to teach pronunciation considering its
importance in communication to avoid misinterpretation.

5. What do you learn about grammatical resources for making ideational, interpersonal and
textual meaning?
Answer:
1) Ideational meanings are meanings about phenomena, about things (living and non-living,
abstract and concrete, about goings on (what the things are or do) and the circumstances
surrounding this happenings and doings.
2) Interpersonal meaning is meaning about roles and relationship, this involves looking at
what kinds of role relations are established through talk, what attitudes interact ants
express to and about each other, what kinds of things they find funny, and how they
negotiate to take turns, etc.

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3) Textual meaning expresses the relation of language to its environment, including both the
verbal environment- what has been said or written before, and the non-verbal, situational
environment (context).
Ideational (experiential and logical) meanings construing Field are realized
lexicogrammatically by the system of Transitivity. This system interprets and represents our
experience of phenomena in the world and in our consciousness by modeling experiential
meanings in terms of participants, processes and circumstances. Resources for chaining
clauses into clause complexes, and for serializing time by means of tense, address logical
meanings.
Interpersonal meanings are realized lexicogrammatically by systems of Mood and Modality
and by the selection of attitudinal lexis. The Mood system is the central resource establishing
and maintaining an ongoing exchange between interactants by assuming and assigning speech
roles such as giving or demanding goods and services or information.
Textual meaning the relation of language to its environment, including both the verbal
environment- what has been said or written before, and the non-verbal, situational environment
(context).

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Session 2
1. What is the use of control group in experimental research and in what way must a control
group be similar with and different from the experimental?
Answer:
The use of control group is two compare the result of experimental group it has the normal
result. After the experiment we can tell if and what has changed from the control group result.
a. The similar way with experimental group is in doing the pre test and pos test
b. The similar way with experimental group is in doing the treatment

The use of control group in experimental research is to compare between experimental group.
So in doing the research, the experimental group will get the program or intervention, but for
control group just run like usual.

2. What is meant by comprehensible input in language learning and explain what a teacher
should do to provide it in teaching?
Answer:
The Input Hypothesis claims that humans acquire language in only one way – by
understanding messages, or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’. We progress along the
natural order by understanding input that contains structures at our next ‘stage’ – structures
that are a bit beyond our current level of competence. (We move from i, our current level, to i
+ l).
A critical concept for second-language development for students with and without learning
difficulties is comprehensible input. Comprehensible input means that students should be
able to understand the essence of what is being said or presented to them.
How is it significant in language learning?
It is significant in language learning since it argues that students learn a new language best
when they receive input that is just a bit more difficult than they can easily understand. In
other words, students may understand most, but not all, words the teacher is using.
What should a teacher do to comply with it in his/her teaching practices?
Making teacher talk comprehensible to students goes beyond the choice of vocabulary and
involves presentation of background and context, explanation and rewording of unclear
content, and the use of effective techniques such as graphic organizers. By using context or
visual cues, or by asking for clarification, students enhance their knowledge of English.
When input is comprehensible, students understand most aspects of what is required for
learning, and the learning experience pushes them to greater understanding.
One way teachers can ensure that material is sufficiently comprehensible is to provide
relevant background knowledge and content. Teachers should try to explain ideas or
concepts several times using slight variations in terminology and examples.

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Comprehensible input is related to more than just language development and curriculum
content. Appropriate context is crucial. One way for teachers to be sensitive to the language
and cultural backgrounds of their English-language learners with learning difficulties is to
provide instruction that draws on the experiences of their students. This does not mean
that teachers have to be experts in their students' cultures, but they do have to understand how
effective it can be to connect students' learning to their past experiences. Such understanding
can often be gained by listening carefully and attentively to students.
Many other techniques can be used to increase the likelihood that students will understand
what is being said to them, such as the use of consistent language, frequent use of visuals,
and providing frequent opportunities for students to express their ideas. Comprehensible
instruction requires that teachers carefully control their vocabulary and use graphic organizers,
concrete objects, and gestures when possible to enhance understanding. It is important to limit
the length and number of lecture-type presentations.
During instructional dialogs, the focus should be primarily on accuracy of content, not rigid
requirements associated with correct language use. Spending time defining, discussing, and
clarifying vocabulary words unlikely to be familiar to the students prior to reading a passage
has demonstrated consistently positive effects on reading fluency, accuracy, and
comprehension for students with learning, speech, and language disabilities.
To continually modulate and clarify the language of instruction, teaching must also be highly
interactive. Teachers must constantly involve students, ask many questions, and
encourage students to express their ideas and thoughts in the new language. One strategy
for motivating students is to give them opportunities to share their language, culture, country,
and experiences. Opportunities to use language orally create, in turn, opportunities to increase
receptive language skills.
Students need to be given more opportunities in the classroom to use oral language and to
engage in cognitively challenging tasks. Cooperative learning and peer tutoring strategies
have the potential to effectively and rapidly increase English-language development,
particularly when working with highly decontextualized and cognitively challenged language
concepts.
For older students, expressing ideas orally can be risky in some classrooms. The use of dialog
journals, even computer journals, with feedback from the teacher, can become a more
comfortable vehicle for English language development.
In conclusion, it is important to realize that comprehensible input is as much an ideal as it
is an achievable reality. In teaching English-language learners with learning difficulties, we
can attempt to reach this ideal level of support and challenge, but in the context of complex

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 and fast-paced classroom interactions, it may rarely be achieved as much as we would like.
Nonetheless, this is a critical principle as you develop an instructional program for each
English-language learner.
Excerpted from Teaching English-Language Learners with Learning Difficulties

3. What is the difference between “comprehension check” and “confirmation check” in

negotiated interaction? Provide examples!
Answer:
1) “comprehension check” is the speaker’s query of the interlocutors to see if they have
understood what was said.
examples: ‘Do you understand?’ or ‘Do you get what I’m saying?’
2) “confirmation check” is the speaker’s query as to whether or not the speaker’s
(expressed) understanding of the interlocutor’s meaning is correct.
example: ‘Oh, so you are saying you lived in London?’
3) “Confirmation check” is a request for further information or help in understanding
something the interlocutor has previously said.
example: ‘I don’t understand exactly. What do you mean?’

4. In classroom interaction turns to talk may be gained or distributed through general solicit,
personal solicit, or students’ self- initiative. Explain each with a clear example!
Answer:
1) General solicit means the teacher give the questions for general students without selecting
any student. For example “Have you done your homework?”
2) Personal solicit means the teacher select a student to answer the question given. For
example “Alex, did you study last night?”
3) Students’ self initiative means the students initiate to ask give comment about the
teacher’s talk. Example “Sir, may I ask something?”

5. Ethnographic research is strictly qualitative. Give reasons why you agree or disagree with this
statement.
Answer:
Ethnographic research is one of qualitative research, but it is not strictly qualitative. Because in
techniques of collecting data, it is also possible use quantitative techniques.

6. What is your understanding of validity and reliability in qualitative research? Are they or are
they not important, and how are they measured?
Answer:
According to Paton (2001), validity and reliability are two factors which any qualitative
researcher should be concerned about while designing a study, analyzing results and judging
the quality of the study. Validity and reliability are not important for qualitative research, while
Credibility, Neutrality or Confirmability, Consistency or Dependability and Applicability or
Transferability are to be the essential criteria for quality (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). And to
measure validity and reliability in qualitative research by using triangulation.

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 In this sense the validity in quantitative research is very specific to the test to which it is
applied – where triangulation methods are used in qualitative research. Triangulation is
typically a strategy (test) for improving the validity and reliability of research or evaluation of
findings. Mathison (1988) elaborates this by saying:
Triangulation has risen an important methodological issue in naturalistic and qualitative
approaches to evaluation [in order to] control bias and establishing valid propositions because
traditional scientific techniques are incompatible with this alternate epistemology. (p. 13)

Patton (2001) advocates the use of triangulation by stating “triangulation strengthens a study
by combining methods. This can mean using several kinds of methods or data, including using
both quantitative and qualitative approaches” (p. 247). However, the idea of combining
methods has been challenged by Barbour (1998). She argues while mixing paradigms can be
possible but mixing methods within one paradigm, such as qualitative research, is problematic
since each method within the qualitative paradigm has its own assumption in “terms of
theoretical frameworks we bring to bear on our research” (p. 353). Even though triangulation
is used in quantitative paradigm for confirmation and generalization of a research, Barbour
(1998) does not disregard the notion of triangulation in qualitative paradigm and she states the
need to define triangulation from a qualitative research’s perspective in each paradigm. For
example, in using triangulation of several data sources in quantitative research, any exception
may lead to a disconfirmation of the hypothesis where exceptions in qualitative research are
dealt to modify the theories and are fruitful.

7. Action research is divided into cycles. What activities are there in each cycle and how does
one cycle relate with another?
Answer:
Action research focused on a repeated cycle of planning, action, observation, and
reflection (Burns, 1999; Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988).

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8. Random sampling is said to be the best technique to be used in drawing a sample or a
population because it gives an equal chance to each subject to be selected. State whether you
agree or disagree with the above statement and give your reason!
Answer:
In my opinion, Random sampling is best technique to draw a sample population. Because it
gives an equal chance to each subject. But this reason for the condition that researcher knews
little about the population. If the researcher knew more, so she/ he can use different sampling
technique like stratified random sampling, which helps to account for the differences between
the population (age, race, gender, etc)
9. A researcher will usually have to try out the tests or other research instruments before s/he can
use them to collect data. Discuss why it is necessary, how should the researcher conduct the
try-out and what should s/he do with the try out result?
Answer:
Trying out the tests or other research instrument is necessary to get appropriate instrument and
to know which instrument that is too complicated. It also can be categorized as a pilot study.
The procedures:
- Administered the instrument as same as the study
- Ask the subjects for feedbacks and difficult questions
- Record the time taken
- Discard all unnecessary or ambiguity of the instruments
- Assess whether each questions give adequate response
- Check all questions
- Revise, if possible

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Session 3
1. Zone proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978) is the gray area between the things the
learner can do alone and the things the learner can with help from a more knowledgeable
person or peer group. This gray area encompasses the functions in a child that have not
matured yet, but are in the process of maturing and developing. By examining a child’s ZPD,
we have a window into the child’s immediate future and his overall state of dynamic
development. The larger the ZPD, the more a child will learn. Explain the practical application
of this theory to teaching and learning?
Answer:
Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes on the importance of interaction with peers as an effective way
of developing skills and strategies. In this case, he suggest that teachers use cooperative
learning in order to help the less competent students develop with the assistance of more
skillful peers. Vygotsky believed that when a student is provided the appropriate assistance
will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task. Besides that, Vygotsky also
suggested teachers to use scaffolding. Once the student, with the benefit of scaffolding,
masters the task, the scaffolding can then be removed and the student will then be able to
complete the task again on his own.
For example, a teacher initially provides scaffolding for students by coaching them step-by-
step in constructing narrative text. Next, teacher can slowly remove the scaffolding by only
providing outlines or brief descriptions of how to proceed. Finally, students would be expected
to develop and construct their narrative text independently.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as "the distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p86).
Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and
strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent
children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal
development.
Vygotsky believed that when a student is at the ZPD for a particular task, providing the
appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task.
The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However, it is
important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing, and it was introduced by
Wood et al. (1976). Once the student, with the benefit of scaffolding, masters the task, the
scaffolding can then be removed and the student will then be able to complete the task again
on his own.

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Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only instruction and
activities that fall within the zone promote development. For example, if a child cannot
identify the sounds in a word even after many prompts, the child may not benefit immediately
from instruction in this skill. Practice of previously known skills and introduction of concepts
that are too difficult and complex have little positive impact. Teachers can use information
about both levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in organizing classroom
activities in the following ways:
Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development for
individual children or for groups of children. For example, hints and prompts that helped
children during the assessment could form the basis of instructional activities.
Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who
can help each other learn.
Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in his or her zone of
proximal development in which the adult provides hints and prompts at different levels. In
scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but the role of the learner is simplified
“through the graduated intervention of the teacher” (Greenfield, 1984, p. 119).
First example: A child might be shown pennies to represent each sound in a word (e.g., three
pennies for the three sounds in “man”). To master this word, the child might be asked to place
a penny on the table to show each sound in a word, and finally the child might identify the
sounds without the pennies. When the adult provides the child with pennies, the adult provides
a scaffold to help the child move from assisted to unassisted success at the task (Spector,
1992). In a high school laboratory science class, a teacher might provide scaffolding by first
giving students detailed guides to carrying out experiments, then giving them brief outlines
that they might use to structure experiments, and finally asking them to set up experiments
entirely on their own.
Second example: Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory
tennis course. Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot. Weeks go
by and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand. During the week of learning the
forehand, the instructor notices that Maria is very frustrated because she keeps hitting her
forehand shots either into the net or far past the baseline.
She examines her preparation and swing. He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares
early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.
However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand,
so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand,
stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet. He models a good

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 forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little practice, Maria's
forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!
In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a forehand
shot. She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding
from a "More Knowledgeable Other" to help her succeed in this task. When that assistance
was given, she became able to achieve her goal. Provided with appropriate support at the right
moments, the students in our classrooms will be able to achieve tasks that would otherwise be
too difficult for them.

2. Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning
taxonomy in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the two most prominent
one being 1) changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and 2) slightly
rearranging them. This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more
accurate, as below.
ORIGINAL DOMAIN NEW DOMAIN
Evaluation Creative
Synthesis Evaluating
Analysis Analyzing
Application Applying
Comprehension Understanding
Knowledge Remembering

Explain the difference between Bloom’s original domain and the revised one. How do you
apply the new domain in your classroom teaching and learning process?
Answer:
Revised Bloom's Taxonomy (RBT)
During the 1990's, a former student of Bloom's, Lorin Anderson, led a new assembly which
met for the purpose of updating the taxonomy, hoping to add relevance for 21st century
students and teachers. Published in 2001, the revision includes several seemingly minor, yet
actually quite significant changes.

Several excellent sources are available which detail the revisions and reasons for the changes.
A more concise summary appears here. The changes occur in three broad categories:
terminology, structure, and emphasis.

Terminology Changes
Clearly, Bloom's Taxonomy has stood the test of time. Due to its long history and popularity,
it has been condensed, expanded, and reinterpreted in a variety of ways. Research findings

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have led to the discovery of a veritable wide variety of interpretations and applications, falling
on a continuum ranging from tight overviews to expanded explanations. Nonetheless, one
recent revision (designed by one of the co-editors of the original taxonomy along with a
former Bloom student) merits particular attention.

Changes in terminology between the two versions are perhaps the most obvious differences
and can also cause the most confusion. Basically, Bloom's six major categories were changed
from noun to verb forms. Additionally, the lowest level of the original, knowledge was
renamed and became remembering. Finally, comprehension and synthesis were re-titled to
understanding and creating.

Structural Changes
Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy was a one-dimensional form. With the addition of products, the
Revised Bloom's Taxonomy takes the form of a two-dimensional table. One of the dimensions
identifies The Knowledge Dimension (or the kind of knowledge to be learned) while the second
identifies The Cognitive Process Dimension (or the process used to learn).

Table1. Bloom's Taxonomy

The Knowledge The Cognitive Process Dimension
Dimension Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual
List Summarize Classify Order Rank Combine
Knowledge
Conceptual
Describe Interpret Experiment Explain Assess Plan
Knowledge
Procedural
Tabulate Predict Calculate Differentiate Conclude Compose
Knowledge
Meta-Cognitive
Appropriate Use Execute Construct Achieve Action Actualize
Knowledge

Changes in Emphasis
Bloom himself recognized that the taxonomy was being "unexpectedly" used by countless
groups never considered an audience for the original publication. The revised version of the
taxonomy is intended for a much broader audience. Emphasis is placed upon its use as a "more
authentic tool for curriculum planning, instructional delivery and assessment."

Summary
As history has shown, this well known, widely applied scheme filled a void and provided
educators with one of the first systematic classifications of the processes of thinking and
learning. The cumulative hierarchical framework consisting of six categories each requiring
achievement of the prior skill or ability before the next, more complex, one, remains easy to

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 understand. Out of necessity, teachers must measure their students' ability. Accurately doing so
requires a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom's
Taxonomy provided the measurement tool for thinking.

With the dramatic changes in society over the last five decades, the Revised Bloom's
Taxonomy provides an even more powerful tool to fit today's teachers' needs. The structure of
the Revised Taxonomy Table matrix provides a clear, concise visual representation of the
alignment between standards and educational goals, objectives, products, and activities.

3. Character education is the development of knowledge, skills, and abilities that enable the
learner to make informed and responsible choices. It encourages students to think critically and
the act responsibly. Character development provides a foundation upon which we can build
respect for human dignity and create twenty –first-century schools that will empower students
to achieve excellence. In Indonesia, the 2013 curriculum is claimed to be characterized by the
introduction of character education. What factors that support the implementation of character
education in Indonesia? What problems and what solutions can you propose for the successful
implementation of character education in Indonesia?
Answer:
Education Character
Problem: there is still few of role models for the students. Role model plays important role in
education character. The role model can come not only from the teacher or school community
but also from the very basic environment such as the family and also they can come from our
public figures. Sometimes the character education in syllabus doesn’t match with the subject
material.

It deals with teaching students to develop the ability to decide how to behave in an appropriate
manner in various social situations with the purpose of developing individuals who are capable
of understanding moral values and who choose to do the right thing.
Right now many students don’t have character, tolerance for others, and empathy for others.”
The need for augmentation was in response to concerns that students were becoming
overwhelmed with the workload, and that instances of student violence were increasing as a
consequence. Government officials asserted that students needed to learn how to become
better citizens and that it could only be achieved by instilling character and a greater sense of
morality.

4. Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition device (LAD) hypothesizes that humans are born
with a special biological brain mechanism. This theory supposes that the ability to learn

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language is inborn, that nature is more important than nurture and the experience using
language is only necessary in order to activate the LAD. Analyze the strength and weaknesses
of this theory.
Answer:
LAD deals with something happen in the brain. Chomsky believes that abilities are embedded in
people’s mind which is why people don’t have to learn languages separately. The ability to learn
languages is natural because people have had it inside their brains. As they are forced to use the
language by communicating and exchanging meanings, people use it unconsciously.

The strength The weaknesses

A learner cannot memorize all the possible It demands the existence of the Language
different language and grammar combinations Acquisition Device (LAD), its existence is
that he learns through the environment. The difficult to prove and is immeasurable. This
LAD helps the learner to generalize rules and theory also doesn’t take into account
make his own creative use of the language. A different kinds of learners, just ideal learners
child will resist using an irregular form with ideal grammar. The environment plays a
because of over-generalizing, and he will minor role in this theory, so it doesn’t take
create his own form of a word according to into account the social aspect of the learner.
the rules that he has internalized. And these
rules don’t necessarily conform to adult
grammar rules which include many
exceptions. By applying these internalized
and generalized rules, a child is able to
acquire a language at a fast pace.

The Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. The
LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and
accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they
learn. Second language learning theory proposes that acquisition is possible in second and
subsequent languages, and that learning programs have to create the conditions for it.

His theory that children use an innate "language acquisition device" to select a grammar from a
limited range of options has come under fire. Chomsky's idea of a "generative grammar"
presupposes the brain operates in a binary fashion, like a computer. Critics say these conflicts
with evolutionary anthropology that views language acquisition as a gradual adaptation of the
brain and vocal chords -- not a spectrum of binary choices.

The notion of the availability of the innate LAD (currently comprises to UG) or mental
structure in the human brain which can, according to Chomsky, make small children able to
communicate with others is as the strength of the ideas. This idea of UG can attack the frontier
in school of linguistics and it is believed that by the concept of UG, linguists can analyze the
inner process of first language acquisition of a new born child. It is meant that what happens in

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 children’s mind when acquiring the first language indicate that there are psychological
processes in their mind which cannot be identified superficially and it can take place to any
children and language without limiting to one particular language.

Chomsky (1968) suggested that infants are predisposed to listen to and respond to language and
that everyone has an innate mental structure called a Language Acquisition Device. This device
contains information about universal grammar that is present in all languages and adapts to the
language the child hears to enable them to understand the language and use it in the
grammatically correct way (Keenan, 2002).

There is some evidence to support this theory in that there are universal features found in every
language, such as nouns and verbs. The ability of children to acquire language rapidly, most
being competent with creating complex sentences by the age of five or six, is one of the
strongest supports for the theory. However, there are many other factors that influence language
acquisition, such as feedback from others and environmental influences.

Language Acquisition Device has many weaknesses and cannot fully explain how children
develop into competent language users (Keenan, 2002). Studies into the support that adults
give to children’s language development in the forms of preverbal games, child-directed
speech, feedback and putting words into context, have shown that these can help a child to
acquire language.

5. Constructivism is based on experimental learning through real life experience to construct and
conditionalize knowledge. The purpose in education is to become creative and innovative
through analysis, conceptualizations, and synthesis of prior experience to create new
knowledge. The educator’s role is to mentor the learner during heuristic problem solving of ill-
defined problems by enabling quested learning. The learning goal is the highest order of
learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity and originality that
may modify existing knowledge and allow for creation of new knowledge. Explain the
practical application of this theory to English language teaching and learning!
Answer:
Groups of students are discussing a problem in physics. Though the teacher knows the
"answer" to the problem, she focuses on helping students restate their questions in useful ways.
She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his or her current knowledge. When one of
the students comes up with the relevant concept, the teacher seizes upon it, and indicates to the
group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore. They design and perform

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 relevant experiments. Afterward, the students and teacher talk about what they have learned,
and how their observations and experiments helped (or did not help) them to better understand
the concept.

The practical application in English Language teaching and learning:

A teacher has an English class about vocabulary link with food as the theme. Vocabulary is the
lead-in to the topic on food. With the offered information and pictures in the book, teacher
guides the students to recognize what is in each picture and asks the students to tell the class its
characteristics with English adjectives. Then, students use the adjectives to describe each food.
When the students learn how to describe each individual food, the teacher introduces more
foods and more adjectives, which are close to the students’ lives. Then, they can use the
information to do pair work or group work to practice how to describe the food they like and
why they like it. The last step is to ask some volunteers to present what they like to eat.

6. Consider the following views on language:

 Language is seen as an arbitrary, vocal symbol, which permit all people in a given culture,
or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact
(Finocchiaro, 1964).
 Systemic Functional (SF) theory vies language as a social semiotic a resource people use to
accomplish their purpose by expressing meaning in context (Halliday, 2004).
Compare these two views and what are their implications for the English language teaching?
Answer:
Language, according to Finocchiaro, is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all
people in given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to
communicate or to interact. From the definitions above, we can draw a broad agreement that
language should possess the following characteristics, that is, arbitrariness, duality,
displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, and interchangeability. In other words, these
are the “design features” of human language. And of which cultural transmission is what we
will discuss. If we put it into another way, that is, just like the traditional habits, language is
part of human genetic endowment; language can mirror the culture of people who speak it. So,
when we study a certain language, we should also cast some lights on the culture it carries.

Systemic Functional (SF) theory views language as a social semiotic a resource people use to
accomplish their purposes by expressing meanings in context (Halliday). Language is a
systematic resource for expressing meaning in context and linguistics, according to Halliday, is
the study of how people exchange meanings through the use of language. This view of
language as a system for meaning potential implies that language is not a well defined system

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not a "the set of all grammatical sentences." It also implies that language exists and therefore
must be studied in contexts such as professional settings, classrooms, and language tests. In
short, SF theory states that particular aspects of a given context (such as the topics discussed,
the language users and the medium of communication) define the meanings likely to be
expressed and the language likely to be used to express those meanings.
Because language is defined as a systematic resource, the organizing principle in linguistic
description is system (rather than structure). Since language is viewed as semiotic potential,
the description of language is a description of choice. Systemic linguists chart their analyses
by diagramming the choices language users can make in a given setting to realize a particular
linguistic product. The available choices depend on aspects of the context in which the
language is being used. Choices can be charted on different levels, or strata, of language.

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