MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Session 5
Tides
The cause and nature of tides
The tide is caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun on the oceans of the Earth

While gravity provides the driving force, the rotation of the Earth, the size and shape of the
ocean as well as local factors all affect the size and frequency of the tide at a particular place.

Tides and Water Levels

What Causes Tides?

The relationship between the masses of the Earth, moon and sun and their distances to each
other play critical roles in affecting tides.
Gravity is one major force that creates tides. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton explained that ocean
tides result from the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon on the oceans of the earth
Newton‘s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational attraction between two
bodies is directly proportional to their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the bodies. Therefore, the greater the mass of the objects and the closer they
are to each other, the greater the gravitational attraction between them Tidal forces are based
on the gravitational attractive force. With regard to tidal forces on the Earth, the distance
between two objects usually is more critical than their masses. Tidal generating forces vary
inversely as the cube of the distance from the tide generating object. Gravitational attractive
forces only vary inversely to the square of the distance between the objects . The effect of
distance on tidal forces is seen in the relationship between the sun, the moon, and the Earth‘s
waters.

Our sun is 27 million times larger than our moon. Based on its mass, the sun's gravitational
attraction to the Earth is more than 177 times greater than that of the moon to the Earth. If
tidal forces were based solely on comparative masses, the sun should have a tide-generating
force that is 27 million times greater than that of the moon. However, the sun is 390 times
further from the Earth than is the moon. Thus, its tide-generating force is reduced by 3903, or
about 59 million times less than the moon. Because of these conditions, the sun‘s tide-
generating force is about half that of the moon

The Equilibrium Theory of Tides

This is sometimes called the theory of ―static‖ tides, a theory that emerged for the first time in
Isaac Newton‘s famed Principia. Having identified the tide-producing forces, Newton, and
others who followed him, conceived of a hypothetical global ocean in static equilibrium with
these forces – an equilibrium calling for a prolate spheroid of water covering the earth.
―Prolate‖ means that the sphere in question has been stretched along a line joining two poles;
not the geographic poles in this case but the poles in line with the celestial body (moon or
sun) causing the hypothetical ocean sphere to deform. Taking another look at the graphic
illustrating the tractive forces in the previous module, one can easily imagine water
converging on these poles to produce twin ―tidal bulges‖ – terms that are still very popular in
modern day textbooks.

The reason for the popularity of the equilibrium theory - the tidal bulges concept at least – is
that it‘s easy to explain certain well-known tidal phenomena with pictures. In the one on the
left below, an imaginary observer named Joe rotates with the earth and encounters the static
bulges in the form of high tides. Whenever the moon crosses Joe‘s local meridian, he
witnesses high tide. It‘s high tide again twelve lunar hours later when the moon crosses the
opposite meridian on the other side of the earth. Two highs and two lows occur in one lunar
day lasting 24 hours and 50 minutes in watch (solar) time. In the figure on the right, the moon
has progressed in its orbit around the earth to a position north of the equator (north
declination). The static bulges move to remain in line with the moon and now Joe encounters
a diurnal inequality in the high tides (successive high tides of unequal height). Maximum
lunar declination, north or south of the equator, produces tropic tides; tides occurring when
the moon is on the equator are called equatorial tides. Tropic-equatorial tides recur twice in
an interval of 27 1/3 days – the tropic month covering one complete cycle in lunar
declination. All these observations are consistent with equilibrium theory.
Another phenomenon that‘s easy to demonstrate in this way is the well-known spring-neap
cycle. Solar gravity also produces a pair of tidal bulges in the hypothetical ocean. When the
tractive forces of the sun and moon are in line, spring tides of greater range (higher highs and
lower lows) result as shown in the figure on the left below. As in the previous figures, when
the moon completes another half-cycle in its orbit – this time from full to new moon - spring
tides will occur again.

The figure below on the right illustrates the neap portion of the spring-neap cycle; i.e., when
the moon is in the first quarter (or the third quarter) of that cycle, lunar and solar tractive
forces are completely out-of-line, tending to counteract one another, and neap tides of lesser
range (lower highs and higher lows) result. Two spring-neap cycles (two springs and two
neaps) are completed in 29 ½ days, the same period of time required for the moon to
complete one full orbit of earth with respect to the sun.
Other aspects of the observed tide in accordance with equilibrium theory include the
perigean-apogean cycle. This one stems from the fact that the moon‘s orbit around the earth
describes an ellipse rather than a circle. Perigean tides of greater range occur at lunar perigee,
when the moon is closest to the earth, and apogean tides of lesser range occur at lunar
apogee, when the moon is farthest from the earth in its elliptical orbit. The perigean-apogean
cycle takes about 27 ½ days to complete.

Although the equilibrium theory does an excellent job of explaining cyclical tidal phenomena
and the recurrence periods associated with many of them, it‘s an example of a model of ideal
behavior – something that works for the purpose intended although it may not adhere to the
truth in all instances. We don‘t have far to look for those instances. The earth is only partially
covered by its waters, land masses prevent anything resembling a bulge from traveling
completely around it, and observations of real tides show that they do not respond instantly to
the tide-producing forces of the moon and sun as the theory requires.
Tide Formation—Gravitational Pull
Gravity is the force of attraction between any two objects. Gravity is directly proportional to
the mass of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. This means that an object that has more mass can exert more gravitational force on
another object, and the closer two objects are to one another, the greater the force of
attraction between them. This relationship can be expressed by the following equation:

Fg is the gravitational force, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of two
objects, and r is the distance between the objects‘ centers of mass. Although there are
gravitational forces between all massive objects, the gravitational force between the earth and
objects on its surface is much larger than the gravitational forces between any of those
objects because of the earth‘s massive size. Gravity is the reason why earth has an
atmosphere. Gravity is also the reason why people stay on the surface of the earth, and why
objects fall to the ground when dropped.

Gravitational Pull of the Moon

The moon‘s gravitational force acting upon the ocean causes lunar tides. Tidal bulges in the
ocean are exaggerated in this figure to show the effects of gravitational forces.

Gravity is also the cause of tides. The earth‘s gravity keeps water on the planet‘s surface.
However, the moon is large enough and close enough that its gravitational force has a
noticeable effect on large bodies of water on Earth. Water on Earth in the region directly
beneath the moon is pulled by gravitational force toward the moon (Fig. 6.5), creating a bulge
on the surface of the ocean. There is also a bulge on the opposite side of the earth, caused by
the difference in the moon‘s gravitational force across the earth. The ocean bulges on both the
side of the earth facing the moon and the side opposite the moon are called tidal bulges.
Earth‘s land surface also bulges, as does the moon, although not to the same extent as the
ocean.
Tidal bulges are very small—seemingly insignificantly small—compared to the radius of the
earth. The tidal bulges in figures in this unit are greatly exaggerated. The height of the tidal
bulge in the open-ocean is less than a meter in most areas. However, because the ocean is so
vast, tidal bulges can raise a huge amount of water. The tide resulting from the moon‘s
gravitational pull is called the lunar tide.

Tides at various times of the day as the earth rotates during a full moon (North Pole view). The observer‘s local
time is indicated (note that the person is standing on the equator). (A) High tide at midnight (B) Low tide at 6:13
a.m. (C) High tide at 12:25 p.m. (D) Low tide at 6:38 p.m. (E) High tide at 12:50 a.m.

Because the moon progresses about 12 degrees (˚) in its orbit around the earth during each
24-hour period, and because it rotates in the same direction as Earth rotates, the moon will
not be directly overhead of the observer again until it completes one rotation and is again full.
This explains why, for any given observer on the surface of the earth, the moon appears to
rise about 50 minutes later each day and why the time of the high and low tides is about 50
minutes later each day. This also explains why the fictional person described in the previous
paragraph in Fig. observed high and low tides about six hours and 12.6 minutes apart.
Gravitational Pull of the Sun
The sun also exerts a gravitational force on the earth, producing a solar tide. Just like with
the earth and the moon, water on Earth directly in line with the sun is pulled by gravitational
force toward the sun, creating a bulge of water. There is also a bulge on the side of the earth
opposite the sun. Similar to the lunar tide, as the earth rotates through the bulge of water
produced by the sun, the tide level changes from high to low and back again. Because the
earth rotates every 24 hours, solar tidal changes occur on a 24-hour schedule.

Interactions of the Gravitational Pulls of the Moon and Sun

Even though the mass of the sun is much greater than the mass of the moon, the moon has a
greater influence on the tides than the sun. This is because the sun is much farther away from
the earth, so its tidal force is only about half that of the moon. Gravitational force depends on
both the mass of the objects and the distance between them.

Fig. (A) spring tides (B) neap tides

Because the moon moves a little farther each day in its orbital journey around the earth, the
tides caused by the moon‘s gravity occur 50 minutes later than the tides caused by the sun‘s
gravity. It takes the moon about 29.5 days to complete its orbit around the earth. This period
is called a lunar month. The moon and the sun cause predictable, periodic changes in tidal
range during a lunar month. Therefore a lunar month is also called a tidal month.
When the earth, moon, and the sun are lined up, lunar and solar tides occur at nearly the same
time and produce the largest tidal ranges over the lunar month. They occur during the new
moon, when the moon is between the earth and the sun, or full moon, when the earth is
between the moon and the sun . Extra-high and extra-low tides occur at this time. They are
called spring tides because they ―jump‖ or ―spring‖ up. When the sun and moon are at a
right angle (90˚) to each other, the moon is either in its first quarter or its third quarter. In
this position the solar and lunar tides tend to cancel each other out, and a reduced tide, called
a neap tide, occurs . There are two spring tides and two neap tides in a tidal month.

Gravitational forces & a tidal bulge

Newton's law of universal gravitation tells us that the strength of the gravitational force
between two bodies is a function of their masses and the distance between them. This law
also states that the direction of the gravitational attraction force is along the line joining the
two bodies.

The Earth and Moon are held together by gravitational attraction, which is balanced at the
common centre of gravity by an equal and opposite centrifugal force. Away from the centre
of gravity the strength of the gravitational force changes as the distance to the Moon varies.
The centrifugal force, however, remains constant everywhere on Earth. Therefore, except at
the centre of gravity, the gravitational and centrifugal forces are not the same and this
inequality creates a residual force. These three forces are depicted in the following diagram.

If the Earth were completely covered by a very deep ocean this residual force would act on
the water and produce two bulges, one on the side facing the Moon and one on the opposite
side of the Earth.

The following diagram shows the Earth and Moon as viewed from above the North Pole. An
observer under the water on the Earth at position 1 is beneath one of the water bulges and
would be experiencing a high tide. A quarter of a revolution later, at position 2 where the
original water level has been depressed, a low tide would be seen. The high tide, low tide
sequence repeats as the observer moves around through points 3 and 4.
The Earth-Sun system is also subject to similar gravitational and centrifugal forces but due to
the Sun's greater distance they have less than half the strength of the lunar-related forces. As
a consequence, the solar-related residual forces and resulting bulges are correspondingly
smaller.

What about the planets? Venus exerts the greatest gravitational pull on the Earth of all the
planets but, at just 0.0054% of the effect of the Moon, makes no real impression. Despite
being the largest planet, Jupiter's greater distance means that its influence is ten times smaller
than Venus. So the Moon and Sun are the only celestial bodies that have any significant
gravitational impact on the Earth.

More tidal bulges

The orbital motions of the Moon and Earth cause the directions to the Moon and Sun to
change over the course of a month and a year respectively. The tilt of the Earth's axis also
causes the directions of the Moon and Sun above and below the Earth's equatorial plane to
vary over half of their associated orbital periods. Furthermore, because their orbits are
elliptical, the distances to the Moon and Sun also vary throughout their respective month and
year long cycles.

The gravitational effect of each of these astronomical cycles can be defined and it is useful to
imagine every gravitational variation creating its own unique tidal bulge.

The period of each bulge is identical to that of the gravitational force that created it. These
periods therefore, by definition, do not vary and are the same everywhere on Earth. The size,
or amplitude, of these bulges is small - the largest having a height of just a few tenths of a
metre.

These tidal bulges are known as constituent tides.

Tidal bulges on the move

Since gravitational force acts in a direct line it follows that as the Moon and Sun move
relative to Earth, so each of the direction-related tidal bulges must turn to maintain alignment
with the appropriate body.

While the Earth rotates on its axis the Moon moves in the same direction around its orbit,
turning the lunar tidal bulge as it goes. The following diagram shows the Earth/Moon system
as viewed from above the North Pole. Initially an observer at position A sees the tidal bulge
pointed in the direction of the Moon. Twenty-four hours later the observer returns to point A,
but during the intervening day the Moon has moved along its orbit and rotated the tidal bulge
so the observer must wait until reaching point B before catching up with the lunar bulge
again.

The elapsed time to catch up to the tidal bulge that is directed towards the Moon is, on
average, 24hr 50min. The time between passes under each tidal bulge (successive high
waters) is, therefore, approximately 12hr 25 min. The actual interval can vary by up to 30
minutes.

The tidal bulge caused by and pointing in the direction of the Sun is encountered by the
rotating Earth after each complete revolution about its axis. Therefore, the interval between
successive high waters caused by the solar tide-generating force is 12 hours.

These lunar and solar tide cycles each last half a day and are known as semi-diurnal tides.
Since the lunar semi-diurnal tide is dominant over the solar tide, the time of the tide generally
advances by nearly one hour each day in accordance with the motion of the Moon.

The bulges revolve around the Earth once every 27.32 days in the case of the lunar tidal bulge
and 365.24 days for the Sun's tidal bulge.

Because the Earth is titled on its axis by approximately 23°, the Moon's orbital plane is
inclined to the Equator by the same angle. During each orbit the declination of the Moon
changes from 23° on one side of the plane of the Earth's equator to the other over a period of
13.66 days. The lunar tidal bulge follows this motion so we have the situation shown in the
following diagram (please note - for convenience the Earth's axis is shown in the upright
position).

The observer at point A is under a tidal bulge and sees a high tide with height H1. Twelve
hours later the observer is at point B and, once again, sees another high tide, this one has
height H2. Now H2 is greater that H1 because the declination of the Moon has rotated the
tidal bulge. This difference between the heights of successive high tides is known as the
diurnal inequality. As the Moon approaches the plane of the Equator, H1 and H2 become
equal and the diurnal inequality disappears.
The tidal bulge due to the Sun is similarly affected by the Earth's tilt except that the solar
cycle lasts 6 months.

The Moon's declination also has a secondary oscillation that is a little more than 5°. This
additional motion changes very slowly and takes 18.61 years before being repeated.

We have now considered the motion of a number of direction-dependent tidal bulges.

Tidal bulges changing size

As the orbits of the Moon about the Earth and the Earth around the Sun are not circular, the
distance to each of these bodies varies. Since the strength of gravitational attraction is
determined, in part, by the distance between the objects, as the distances change so too does
the strength of the tide-raising forces.

The lunar distance changes during a period of 27.56 days, which is very close to, but not
exactly the same as, the Moon's orbital period. As a further complication, the point of the
lunar orbit that is closest to the Earth does not stay in the same place. Instead, it moves slowly
around the Moon's orbit, a journey that takes 8.85 years.

The distance related solar tide-generating force changes over a period of 365.26 days. As is
the case with the Moon and the Earth, the point where the Earth is closest to the Sun also
moves around the Earth's orbit, but this is very slow as it takes 20,930 years to complete the
circuit.

Combining tidal bulges

Let us now consider what happens when two tidal bulges interact with one another. Since the
period of each bulge is different, the rate of change that takes place as they interact will
depend on the difference between their periods. When the peaks of both bulges are aligned
the height of the resulting bulge will equal the sum of the heights of the individual bulges.
When the peak of one bulge is aligned with the trough of the other, then the heights will tend
to cancel one another. Bulges with similar amplitudes will have a far greater effect on one
another compared to the effect that a small bulge will have on a larger one. The two bulges
will create a new tidal bulge whose size (amplitude) and period are predetermined by the
original bulges.

The diagram below illustrates how two simple curves merge together to form a new more
complex curve.

The height of curve 1 at point A combines with the height of curve 2 at point B to produce a
greater height at point C on the combined curve.

The height of curve 1 at point X is reduced by the negative height of curve 2 at point Y to
produce a small negative height on the combined curve at Z.

Spring/Neap cycle: This is the most widely known phenomenon resulting from the
combination of two tidal bulges. Twice each month the Earth, Moon and Sun more or less
line up and we have what are known as the new and full phases of the Moon. At these times
the tide generating forces of the Moon and Sun are aligned. As a result, the major lunar and
solar tidal bulges combine together to create spring tide conditions when the difference
between the heights of high and low water is greater than average.

The Moon continues on its way around its orbit and a week later it is at a right angle to the
direction of the Sun and the tidal bulges have a cancelling effect on each other. At these times
(around first and last quarter Moon) the high water is not so high and the low water is not so
low - these are known as neap tides.

The tide, as it is observed, is the end result of the combination of many tidal bulges
(constituent tides) each of which is linked to a particular set of Earth-Moon-Sun
circumstances.

Fiction versus fact

The foregoing explanation describes what is known as the equilibrium tidal theory that is
based on a fictitious water-covered Earth where the tidal bulges remain pointed directly
towards and away from the Moon and Sun. This simplified theory ignores the effects that
the continents, varying water depth, rotation and inertia have on the propagation of the
tidal bulges.
Many of the tidal phenomena observed around the world are not explained by the equilibrium
theory. For example, the semidiurnal tide is not universal - some locations experience just
one tide a day (a diurnal tidal regime), others have a mixed regime where times of semi-
diurnal tides alternate with periods of diurnal tides. Examples of diurnal tides (Fremantle) and
mixed tides (San Diego) are shown below together with Auckland's semi-diurnal regime for
comparison.

Tide ranges many times greater than predicted by the equilibrium theory are not exceptional.
In some places the range can exceed 10 metres (for example Broome and Derby, Western
Australia and the Bay of Fundy, Canada) while elsewhere such as the Mediterranean, Baltic
and Caribbean Seas the tide is almost non-existent. The spring/neap cycle is a dominant
feature of the tides in some regions; in others this twice-monthly rhythm is either not so
apparent or reduced to a single cycle per month.

Despite these shortcomings, the equilibrium theory does provide some understanding of the
nature of the connection between the tides and the Moon and Sun and it forms the basis of the
concepts underlying the constituent tides.

The effect of the real world on the tidal bulges

The arrangement of the continents has created the world's three major water basins - the
Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. On the scale of these oceans, the passages of connecting
water are relatively small and so, broadly speaking, the movement of the tide is constrained
within individual ocean basins. The tidal bulge, as developed by the equilibrium theory, must
now be considered as a very long wave trapped within each basin.

Each body of water has a natural period of oscillation which will influence its response to the
tide raising forces. In general, the oscillation period for the Pacific Ocean is 25 hours and so
many of the tides in the Pacific are diurnal. In the Atlantic Ocean the natural oscillation
period is about 12½ hours so the tides in the Atlantic are predominantly semi-diurnal. There
are, of course, many places where the tidal regime is governed by the local configuration of
the land and water depth rather than large scale oceanic forces.
If you take a container of water and move it from side to side, the water level at each end will
rise and fall; while across the centre of the container the water level will not change. This
over-simplified model describes the nature of the tides in enclosed waters such as the Persian
Gulf, Red and Mediterranean Seas.

Now move the container about in a circular fashion. The water level will rise and fall around
the edge of the container and the location where the water level does not change is reduced to
a point in the centre of the container. This pattern of wave behaviour is similar to what
happens within the ocean basins as the Earth rotates. In the northern hemisphere the long tide
wave travels in an anti-clockwise direction, whilst the wave in the southern hemisphere goes
clockwise. The centre of these Coriolis rotations is known as an amphidrome; a point where
there is no tide.

The speed at which a wave travels is controlled by water depth. Those parts of the wave
passing over continental shelf regions and shallower coastal areas will slow down and this, in
turn, means that the wave front no longer remains straight. The slowing of the wave also
causes the wave height to increase. According to the equilibrium tide theory, the height of the
tide wave is less than half a metre; slowing the wave in shallow water produces observed tide
heights that are many times this value.

Meteorological effects on tides

Unusually high or low barometric pressure, or prolonged periods of strong winds can result in
variations between actual sea level and the predicted heights.

Differences between predicted and actual times of high and low water are caused mainly by
the wind.

Barometric pressure: Tide predictions are computed for a standard barometric pressure of
1013 hectopascals (hPa) or millibars. A difference from the average of 1 hPa can cause a
difference in height of 1 centimetre. A low barometer will allow the sea level to rise and a
high barometer will tend to depress it. This phenomenon is often described as the inverted
barometer effect. The water level does not, however, adjust itself immediately to a change of
pressure; it responds to the average change over a considerable area. Changes in sea level due
to barometric pressure alone seldom exceed 30 centimetres but, as such circumstances are
usually associated with adverse weather conditions, the actual change in sea level is often
much greater.

Wind: The effect of the wind on sea level, and therefore on tidal heights and times, is
variable and depends largely on the topography of the area. In general it can be said that the
wind will raise the level of the sea in the direction towards which it is blowing. This effect is
often called wind setup. A strong wind blowing onshore will pile up the water and cause the
sea level to be higher than predicted, while winds blowing off the land will have the reverse
effect.

Storm surges: The combination of wind setup and the inverted barometer effect associated
with storms can create a pronounced increase in sea level. This is often called a storm surge.
A long surface wave travelling with the storm depression can further exaggerate this sea level
increase. A negative storm surge is the opposite effect, generally associated with high
pressure systems and offshore winds, and can create unusually shallow water. This effect is
of great importance to very large vessels which may be navigating with small under-keel
clearances.
Assignment:

What effect has declination upon Lunar or Solar tide generating

forces.

Explain with appropriate diagram how declination causes the

following inequalities:

i. Diurnal inequalities in times and heights of High and Low

water at different places in the same latitude.

ii. Inequalities in duration in successive cycles.

iii. Inequalities in the magnitude of tide generating forces in

successive cycles.

Write notes on:

Equilibrium theory of tides

Dynamic theory of tides

Transfer of an established datum to a neighbouring port

Transfer of an established datum to a neighbouring port

Transfer of Datum for Hydrographic Surveys

Sounding Datum and Chart Datum: Definitions

Sounding Datum is the plane to which soundings are reduced during a hydrographic survey.
It is the datum used when compiling a survey ―fairsheet‖ and should be connected to chart
datum via a landborne benchmark (BM). Chart Datum is the datum plane adopted for the
published chart and is the level above which charted depths, tidal predictions and tidal levels
are given in the Australian National Tide Tables (ANTT), AusTides and on the published
chart. Ideally, sounding datum for a survey should be the same as the chart datum.

Sounding Datum and Chart Datum: Definitions

Chart Datum: Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)

Chart Datum should be: So low that the water level will seldom fall below it; Not so low as to
cause the charted depths to be unrealistically shallow; That it should vary only gradually from
area to area and from chart to adjoining chart, to avoid significant discontinuities. In
accordance to a resolution of the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO), Australia
adopts Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) as the Chart Datum.

Establish, Recover or Transfer of a Datum?

Establish: Today, most surveys are undertaken in areas close to where an established datum
already exists. Recover: Where areas have been previously surveyed, the original datum
should be used utilising existing Benchmark records and levelling. Transfer: Where no
datum exists in the survey area, but datum values exists nearby, the datum values can be
transferred. Tidal datum should be transferred at intervals along the coast and distances
between tidal stations will vary with different tidal conditions. Where tidal conditions change
gradually, along an open coast, the maximum distance between tidal stations is 16 km. Where
tidal conditions change rapidly, stations should be 1.6km or less apart.

Issues with Datum Transfer

Always investigate the known ranges of tide at places on either side of the survey before
deciding whether a transfer is necessary or not. Serious errors in the reduction can be
introduced by using tidal observations at a port which is too far way from the survey and has
a different tidal range.

Established Datum Transfer – Methods

The primary methods of datum transfer will depend upon the character of the tide: Semi-
diurnal Diurnal Direct comparison of low water heights Ratio of rises

Semi-diurnal Transfer Method

Where: R = the observed range at the established gauge r = the observed range at the new
gauge M' = the height of observed mean level above CD/SD at the established gauge m' = the
height of observed mean level above the zero of the new gauge M = the height of the true
Spring mean level above chart datum at the established gauge d = the height of sounding
datum above the zero of the new gauge

Therefore, from the diagram it can be seen that the height of the sounding datum above the
zero on the new gauge (d): d = m' – (M' – M) – [M x (r/R)] Where the true Spring Mean
Level is not known, this formula reduces to: d = m' – [(M' x r)/R]
Diurnal Transfer Method – AHO-preferred

H = the sum of the heights of the 4 principal constituents at the established gauge h = the sum
of the heights of the same constituents at new gauge Z‗ = the height of MSL above Chart
Datum at the established gauge (Zo from analysis). z‗ = the height of MSL above the zero of
the new gauge (So from analysis) Zoo = the true (average) height of MSL above Chart
Datum at the established gauge (obtained from ANTT) d = the height of sounding datum
above the zero of the new gauge
From the previous fig it can be seen that: d = z' + (Zoo – Z') – [Zoo x (h/H)] Where the True
Mean Sea Level (Zoo) is not known, this formula reduces to: d = z' – [Z' x (h/H)]

Diurnal Transfer Method Example

H = 0.79 (the sum of the heights of the 4 principal constituents at the established gauge h =
1.25 (the sum of the heights of the same constituents at new gauge) Z‗ = 1.50 (the height of
MSL above Chart Datum at the established gauge (Zo from analysis)) z‗ = 2.60 (the height of
MSL above the zero of the new gauge (So from analysis)) Zoo = 1.15 (the true (average)
height of MSL above Chart Datum at the established gauge (obtained from ANTT)) From the
equation on the previous page: d = z' + (Zoo - Z') – [Zoo x (h/H)] = (1.15 – 1.5) – [1.15 x
(1.25/0.79)] = 2.6 – 0.35 – 1.82 = 0.43m above the zero of the new gauge

Direct Comparison Observed LW heights at the new tidal station are plotted against
predicted, or better still, the observed LW heights at the Standard Port. The point where the
line of ―best fit‖ cuts the axis of the new location is the height datum above (below) the zero
of the new location.

Establishing Datum for ―Sketch‖ surveys

The height of Sounding Datum (d) above the zero of the new gauge is obtained from: d = m –
0.5r where: r = [r/R] x R m = observed Mean Level height at the new gauge r = observed
range at the new station R = predicted range at the Standard Port R‘ = required range at the
Standard Port
 Validation – Ratio of Rises
AHO has the ability from harmonic constants to compare the new location to the standard
port to determine D = Ratio Range*Std Port + MSL Offset Time difference

Establishing an Independent Datum

By reference to the land levelling system where the relationship between Chart Datum and
the Australian Height Datum (AHD) is known at neighbouring places. By harmonic constants
– rarely used these days. By mean sea level – where the tidal range is small.

Establishing Datums in Rivers and Estuaries

There are methods for establishing tidal datums in: A river River entrance and estuary Areas
of impounding

As a tidal wave enters the estuary it is constricted: Causes a gradual increase in range so high
waters begin to rise higher and low waters to fall lower as the wave proceeds up the estuary.
This continues to a point where the topography of the sea bed no longer permits the lowest
low water to continue falling. Another complicating factor in the upper reaches of the river is
the effect of varying quantities of river water coming down stream.

General Principles to keep in mind The sea bed topography River and tidal flow boundary
River entrances with large sand banks Impounding zones

Off-shore Datums: Co-Tidal Charts

Relate to waters some distance from the shoreline but depth of water doesn‘t allow a tide
gauge to be positioned Co-tidal charts are constructed Assumptions Truly accurate near
HW/LW ->errors may occur at other times, particularly near half-tide Changes between the
lines are linear Refer to Admiralty NP122(2) for instructions

Off-shore Datums: Semi-Diurnal Co-Tidal Charts

Solid co-tidal lines: show time corrections based on tide time at A Pecked co-range lines: tide
range ratios on the tide at A At B: high water 30 min before A Tidal range is 0.65x the range
at A