Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Abstract
In the last 30 years, there has been a rapid increase of Filipino parents leaving the
country and their families for better job opportunities abroad. Existing literature
points out the impact of migration on the families and on the well-being, academic
performance, and school behaviours, family and peer relationships of the children left
behind, and the need for interventions to address these concerns. A review of the
literature and a survey on the current practices in schools reveals a lack of structured
and programmatic interventions in school, which mental health professionals in schools
recognize to be essential to help OFW children adjust better. Considering the gaps in
the current practice, we recommend that more purposive school-based and family-
focused psychological services are implemented to help the children and families left
behind by OFW parents.
Keywords
Children of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs), Philippines, psychological services,
school psychologists, well-being of OFW children
Many Filipino social scientists have looked into the impact of international migra-
tion on Filipino families and children, especially those who are left behind by
parents who have decided to work abroad (e.g., Battistella & Conaco, 1998;
Carandang, Sison, & Carandang, 2007; Melgar & Borromeo, 2002). There are,
Corresponding author:
Maria Caridad H. Tarroja, Psychology Department, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines.
Email: maria.caridad.tarroja@dlsu.edu.ph
however, very few reports on the services and interventions that address the con-
cerns and issues of Filipino families brought about by the separation of children
from their parents. Further, the role of mental health professionals, specifically
school psychologists, in addressing the concerns of the Overseas Filipino
Workers (OFW) children has not yet been studied . Through a review of the litera-
ture on the issues faced by the families and children of OFWs and a survey of the
psychological services provided in schools to address the concerns and reported
problems of children of OFW parents, we aim to identify the gaps between what
the OFW’s children need and what psychological services have been offering them
in school settings. We highlight some of the challenges for providing appropriate
psychological services and recommend responses to these challenges from the point
of view of the school counsellors and psychologists.
School psychologists are ‘professionals who are recognized as specialists in the
provision of psychological services to children and youth within the contexts of
schools, families, and other settings that impact their growth and development’
(International School Psychology Association, http://www.ispaweb.org/). In the
Philippines, school psychology is not yet included in the Psychological
Association of the Philippines’ (PAP) list of the field of specializations (currently,
assessment, counselling, clinical, developmental, educational, industrial-organiza-
tion, and social; PAP, http://www.pap.org.ph). In the Philippines, mental health
professionals in school settings are not usually called school psychologists but
rather they are referred to as counsellors or guidance counsellors. Their educational
background is either psychology or guidance counselling. Nonetheless, the func-
tions of school psychologists as described by Watkins, Crosby, and Pearson (2001)
and Farrell, Jimerson, and Kalambouka (2005)—that is, psychoeducational assess-
ment, counselling, working with teachers to assist in developing programmes for
students with special needs, crisis intervention, behaviour management, consult-
ation with school personnel and parents in formulating intervention plans, educat-
ing and training parents and staff—are similar to the roles of counsellors in
Philippine schools.
of a loved one (Melgar & Borromeo, 2002), and witnessing the struggles of their
other family members in keeping themselves and their families intact and afloat
(Carandang et al., 2007).
Impact on school performance. Children of OFWs are reported to perform less well
in school compared to peers who live with their parents (Huang et al., 2003).
Grades and class rank of left behind children, either with one or both parents
abroad were below those children with both parents present. In school activ-
ities, children of migrant mothers tend to score lower and to have poorer
performance (Battistella & Conaco, 1998). The absence of mothers is consis-
tently identified as having a more pervasive influence on the lives of their
children (Battistella & Conaco, 1998; Carandang et al., 2007; Huang et al.,
2003; Parreñas, 2006; Valdez, 2011). When the mother leaves, some children
feel burdened by filling in the responsibility of nurturing and caring for the
family (Asis, 2006). This duty affects the children’s performance in school
(Parreñas, 2006) since they tend to devote less time to studying and allot
time attending to their family’s needs. In addition, some children left behind
by their migrant parents tend to prioritize schooling less, and give lesser value
to studying so that they end up failing, dropping out, or not finishing their
grades (Edillon, 2008; Yeo & Choi, 2011). In schools, some children of
migrant parents also have trouble relating with peers. Reyes (2008) noted
that they are more vulnerable to being abused and intimidated by their
peers in school. This exacerbates the feeling of being abandoned since their
parents are not with them to protect or defend them (Deb & Walsh, 2012;
Pillay, 2011; Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004; Theron & Donald, 2012;
Toland & Carrigan, 2011; Woods, Bond, Tyldesley, Farrell, & Humphrey,
2011).
Family interventions. In most cases, relatives take over and become more involved in
care giving to compensate for parental absence (Battistella & Conaco, 1998). Close
relationship established with their parents before they migrated, support from the
extended family, regular communication with their migrant parents, and a sense of
hope that their family will be together again, are some of the factors that promote
resilience among left behind children (Llangco, 2002 cited in Añonuevo & Sopeña,
2002). Regular and frequent communication with migrant parents helps the chil-
dren cope with loneliness and sadness (Asis, 2006; Parreñas, 2006; Woods et al.,
2011). Modern technologies that allow quick and cheap communication, and
migrant parents’ success in negotiating care-giving from a distance, are important
factors for the children of migrant workers. Modern technology helps in providing
easy, fast and low-cost communication between members of transnational families
(Bryant, 2005; Huang et al., 2003). The most common means of maintaining close
family ties is the cellular phone, followed by the landline telephone (Edillon, 2008),
as well as emails and video calls (Valdez, 2011; Yeoh & Lam, 2011).
Method
Respondents for this study included 34 mental health practitioners who work in
different private and public schools in the Philippines and who have dealt with
children of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs). The respondents comprised 31
guidance counsellors, one assessment personnel, and one school psychologist.
Twenty-three out of the 34 respondents worked in private schools, and the rest
worked in public schools. The respondents came from different colleges/universi-
ties, high schools, and in primary schools in Metro Manila. A questionnaire was
used to collect data for this study. It contained six open-ended questions, which
asked about the different concerns of children of OFWs, the school services which
different universities/colleges, high schools, and primary schools offered to address
these concerns, and their recommended programmes and interventions for pro-
blems that these children experienced.
Academic and mental health professionals were contacted and invited to answer
the questionnaire. Prior to participating, the researchers assured the respondents of
confidentiality. Questionnaires were then sent out to each consenting school psy-
chologists and guidance counsellors via e-mail and through a Web-based form.
The researchers analysed the data using content analysis. To unearth themes, the
researchers repeatedly read the responses, separately coded, and evaluated the
accuracy of the coding units. The researchers continued collecting and analysing
data until no new themes were emerging from the obtained responses. Afterwards,
the researchers came together to resolve ambiguities, and to establish agreement on
identified themes.
2003). For example, individual and family counselling, and group guidance pre-
ventive programme for students deemed high-risk due to developmental and socio-
economic reasons were found most effective. These guidance programmes could
also be utilized in developing activities specific to the issues and needs of children of
OFW families. An eco-systemic approach to interventions addressing children’s
emotional and behavioural problems in school was encouraged by many school
psychologists (Cooper & Upton, 1991). This approach looked into the dysfunctions
in the general environment, including the school and the family, and how these
units could be tapped to bring about positive change. Partnership models, such as
between schools and family, in implementing interventions could also lead to posi-
tive outcomes (Spoth, Guyll, Lillehoj, & Redmond, 2007; Woods et al., 2011).
classrooms, helping students with personal problems and career plans, consulting
with parents and school personnel, providing counselling services, making referrals
as needed, and communicating with the community about the initiatives of their
guidance programme (Petroski, 2003). The School-Based Family Counselling is
one approach that weaves principles of traditional school psychology and family
counselling. It gained acceptance among families since counselling is embedded
within the system and not seen as a separate, intermediary process (Gerrard, 2008).
Conclusion
In sum, studies and reports on the experiences families and children left behind by
Overseas Filipino Workers demonstrate a need for structured and systematic ways
to help them understand and cope better with the situation. Whereas some govern-
ment and non-government organizations have made some efforts to this direction,
very few schools provide specific programmes for the left-behind children and
families. The challenge for school psychologists and other mental health profes-
sionals working in schools is to devise a structured and systemic school programme
to help address the psychosocial issues faced by children when their parents leave
them behind to work abroad. Our extensive review of current literature and the
findings of our study showed a lack of such programmes in most school settings in
the Philippines.
References
Añonuevo, A. T., & Sopeña, J. C. (2002). Paglaki ko Mag-aabroad Ako!: Aspirations of
children of migrant workers. In E. Añonuevo, & A. Añonuevo (Eds.), Coming home:
Women, migration and reintegration (pp. 115–124). Manila: Balikbayani Foundation,
Inc., and Atikha Overseas Workers & Communities Initiatives, Inc.
Asis, M. M. B. (2006). Living with migration: Experiences of left-behind children in the
Philippines. Asian Population Studies, 2, 45–67.
Battistella, G., & Conaco, M. C. G. (1998). The impact of labour migration on the children
left behind: A study of elementary school children in the Philippines. Sojourn, 13,
220–241.
Bryant, J. (2005). Children of international migrants in Indonesia, Thailand and the
Philippines: A review of evidence and policies. Innocenti Working Paper 2005–05:
UNICEF.
Carandang, M. L. A., Sison, B. A., & Carandang, C. (2007). Nawala ang Ilaw ng Tahanan:
Case studies of families left behind by OFW Mothers. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing.
Carter, M. J. (2011). The School-based family counselling symposium: A happy union and
the 7-year itch. International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling, 3. Retrieved 12
February, 2012, from http://www.schoolbasedfamilycounseling.com/journal.html
Cooper, P., & Upton, G. (1991). Controlling the urge to control: An ecosystemic approach
to problem behaviours in school. Support for Learning, 6, 22–26.
Deb, S., & Walsh, K. (2012). Impact of physical, psychological, and sexual violence on social
adjustment of school children in India. School Psychology International, 33(4), 391–415.
doi: 10.1177/0143034311425225.
Deslandes, R., & Cloutier, R. (2002). Adolescents’ perception of parental involvement in
schooling. School Psychology International, 23, 220–232. doi:10.1177/
0143034302023002919
Devasahayam, T. (2011). Implications of migration on family structures in Southeast Asia.
Retrieved 24 January, 2011, from http://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/cps/rde/xbcr/
Edillon, R. G. (2008). The effects of parent’s migration on the rights of children left behind.
Asia Pacific Policy Centre: UNICEF.
Ehrhardt-Padgett, G., Hatzichristou, C., Kitson, J., & Meyers, J. (2003). Awakening to a
new dawn: Perspectives of the future of school psychology. School Psychology Quarterly,
18, 483–496.
Farrell, P., Jimerson, S., & Kalambouka, A. (2005). Teachers’ perceptions of school psych-
ologists in different countries. School Psychology International, 26, 525–544. doi: 10.1177/
0143034305060787
Gavriliuc, C. (2007). The situation of children left behind by migrating parents. In S. Sẅard,
& L. Bruun (Eds.), Conference report: Focus on children in migration–– From a European
Research and Method Perspective. Warsaw, Poland.
Gerrard, B. (2008). School-based family counseling: Overview, trends and recommendations
for future research. International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling, 1, 1–30.
Retrieved 12 February, 2012, from http://www.schoolbasedfamilycounseling.com/
journalhtml
Harris, K. (2005). An after-school counselling program for high-risk middle school students.
Retrieved 28 March, 2011, from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/
Huang, S., Yeoh, B. S. A., & Asis, M. M. B. (2003). Filipino domestic workers in Singapore:
Impacts on family well-being and gender relations. Paper presented at the Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Ad Hoc Expert Group Meeting on Migration
and Development, Bangkok, Thailand. Retrieved 24 January 2011, from http://www.u-
nescap.org/esid/psis/meetings/migrationaug2003/Phil.pdf
International School Psychology Association (2011, December 11). Re: A definition of
school psychology [Online document]. Retrieved from http://www.ispaweb.org/
Documents/definition_fulldoc.html
James, R. K., Logan, L., & Davis, S. A. (2011). Including School Resource Officers in
school-based crisis intervention: Strengthening student support. School Psychology
International, 32, 210–224. doi: 10.1177/0143034311400828
Lambie, G. W. (2005). Family engagement: A collaborative, systemic approach for middle
school counsellors. Retrieved 21 March, 2011, from: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/
Lee, K., & Lee, J. (2012). Self-esteem and delinquency in South Korean adolescents: Latent
growth modeling. School Psychology International, 33, 54–68. doi: 10.1177/
0143034311409856
Loop, P. G. (1997). Case studies of exemplary elementary school guidance programs in
Southwest Virginia. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Virginia. Retrieved 20 March 2011, from http://scholar.lib.v-
t.edu/theses/available/etd-111897-16729/unrestricted/LOOPDI_2.PDF
Low, S. K., Kok, J. K., & Lee, M. N. (2013). A holistic approach to school-based counsel-
ling and guidance services in Malaysia. School Psychology International, 34(2), 190–201.
doi: 10.1177/0143034312453398.
Melgar, G. A., & Borromeo, R. (2002). The plight of children of OFWs. In E. Añonuevo, &
A. Añonuevo (Eds.), Coming home: Women, migration and reintegration (pp. 106–114).
Balikbayani Foundation, Inc. and Atikha Overseas Workers & Communities Initiatives,
Inc.
Parreñas, R. S. (2006). Children of global migration: Transnational families and gendered
woes. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University.
Petroski, G. F. (2003). Helping seventh graders be safe and successful: A statewide study of
the impact of comprehensive guidance and counselling programs. Retrieved 21 March
2011, from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/
Pillay, J. (2011). Experiences of learners from child-headed households in a vulnerable
school that makes a difference: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology
International, 33(1), 3–21. doi: 10.1177/0143034311409994
Philippine Overseas Employment Agency (2009). Overseas employment statistics. Retrieved
15 February 2011, from http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/2008_stats.pdf
Psychological Association of the Philippines (2011, December 26). Re: Specialty divisions
[Online document]. Retrieved from http://www.pap.org.ph/
Reyes, M. M. (2008). Migration and Filipino children left behind: A literature review, Miriam
college-women and gender institute. UNICEF. Retrieved 20 January 2011, from http://
www.unicef.org/philippines/Synthesis_StudyJuly12008.pdf
Scalabrini Migration Center (2004). Hearts apart: Migration in the eyes of Filipino children.
A joint research undertaken by the Episcopal Commission for the Pastoral Care of
Migrants and Itinerant People-CBCP/Apostleship of the Sea-Manila, Scalabrini
Migration Center and Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (ECMI-CBCP/AOS-
Manila, SMC & OWWA), Quezon City: SMC.
Spoth, R., Randall, G. K., & Shin, C. (2008). Increasing school success through partnership-
based competency training: Experimental study of long-term outcomes. School
Psychology Quarterly, 23, 70–89. doi: 10.1037/1045-3830.23.1.70
Spoth, R., Guyll, M., Lillehoj, C., & Redmond, C. (2007). Prosper study of evidence-based
intervention implementation quality by community-university partnerships. Journal of
Community Psychology, 35, 981–999. doi: 10.1002/jcop.20207
Theron, L., & Donald, D. (2012). Educational psychology and resilience in developing
contexts: A rejoinder to Toland and Carrigan (2011). School Psychology International,
34(1), 51–66. doi:10.1177/0143034311425579
Toland, J., & Carrigan, D. (2011). Educational psychology and resilience: New concept, new
opportunities. School Psychology International, 32(1), 95–106.
UGAT Foundation (2011, June 15). Re: UGAT Foundation Panatag Programme [Online
presentation]. Retrieved from http://www.ugatpanatag.com/
Valdez, E. B. (2011). Resiliency on parental absence of children of overseas Filipino workers
in the Divine Word College of Vigan. AERA Research Journal, 2, 35–44.
Van Schalkwyk, G. J. (2010). Mapping Chinese family systems and parental involvement in
educational settings in Macao. International Journal of School-based Family Counseling,
2, 1–20. Retrieved from http://www.schoolbasedfamilycounseling.com/journal.html
Van Schalkwyk, G. J. (2011). Saving face: Hierarchical positioning in family-school rela-
tionships in Macao. International Journal of School-based Family Counselling, 3, 1–12.
Retrieved from http://www.schoolbasedfamilycounseling.com/journal.html
Watkins, M., Crosby, E., & Pearson, J. (2001). The role of school psychologists. School
Psychology International, 22, 64–73.
Woods, K., Bond, C., Tyldesley, K., Farrell, P., & Humphrey, N. (2011). The role of school
psychologists in child protection and safeguarding. School Psychology International, 32,
361–376. doi: 10.1177/0143034311406812
Yeo, L. S., & Choi, P. M. (2011). Cognitive-behavioural therapy for children with behav-
ioural difficulties in the Singapore mainstream school setting. School Psychology
International, 32, 616–631. doi: 10.1177/0143034311406820
Yeoh B. S. A., & Lam, T. (2011, February 8.). The costs of Im(mobility): Children left behind
and children who migrate with a parent. Retrieved from http://www.unescap.org/esid/gad/
Events/RegSem22-24Nov06/Papers/BrendaYeoh.pdf
Author biographies
Maria Caridad H. Tarroja, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Psychology
Department at the De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines. Her research inter-
ests include types of Filipino families, clinical assessment, and children with special
conditions including learning disability, anxiety and mood disorders. Address: De
La Salle University-Manila, 2401 Taft Avenue, 1004 Manila, Philippines. Email:
maria.caridad.tarroja@dlsu.edu.ph