ICWSE 2019 Proceedings PDF

OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
“WOOD SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM”
12th edition
“Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

07-09 November 2019
EDITORS
Lidia GURAU - Mihaela CAMPEAN - Mihai ISPAS
Publication supported by the PRO LIGNO Foundation

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ISSN 1843-2689
II
in collaboration with:
wish you a warm welcome to the

12th edition of the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ICWSE 2019
Brasov, Romania
III
The 12th edition of the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “WOOD SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM” ICWSE
2019
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Honorary Chairman Prof.Dr. Ioan ABRUDAN, Transilvania University of Brasov

Chairman Prof.Dr. Mihai ISPAS, Transilvania University of Brasov
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Lidia GURAU, Transilvania University of Brasov
Conference Coordinators
Prof.Dr. Mihaela CAMPEAN, Transilvania University of Brasov
Advisory Coordinator Prof.Dr. Marius Catalin BARBU, Transilvania University of Brasov
Web-Page Administrator Assoc.Prof.Dr. Luminita BRENCI, Transilvania University of Brasov
Lect.Dr. Bogdan BEDELEAN, Transilvania University of Brasov
Technical Support
Lect.Dr. Cosmin SPIRCHEZ, Transilvania University of Brasov
Editing and Secretariate Eng. Nicoleta GERE, Transilvania University of Brasov
Graphics Eng. Ligiu HRITCU, Transilvania University of Brasov
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (in alphabetic order)

Prof.Dr. Ioannis BARBOUTIS (Greece)
Prof.Dr. Marius Catalin BARBU (Romania)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Luminita BRENCI (Romania)
Prof.Dr. Mihaela CAMPEAN (Romania)
Prof.Dr. Levente DENES (Hungary)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Dan RIDLEY-ELLIS (UK)
Dr. Cosmin FILIPESCU (Canada)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Lidia GURAU (Romania)
Dr. Mark IRLE (France)
Prof.Dr. Mihai ISPAS (Romania)
Dr. Nicola MACCHIONI (Italy)
Prof.Emm.Dr. Peter NIEMZ (Switzerland)
Prof.Dr. Marko PETRIC (Slovenia)
Dr. Peter RADEMACHER (Hungary)
Prof.Dr. Regina RAYCHEVA (Bulgaria)
Dr. Gervais SAWYER (UK)
Prof.Dr. Maria Cristina TIMAR (Romania)
Prof.Dr. Erkki VERKASALO (Finland)
Prof.Dr. Timothy M. YOUNG (USA)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Octavia ZELENIUC (Romania)
IV
IS SPONSORED BY:
V
VI
FOREWORD
The autumn in Brasov brings to our attention, every two years, the conference which
has become a tradition for the Faculty of Wood Engineering: The International Conference
“Wood Science and Engineering in the Third Millennium” - ICWSE. This year, it
coincides with the anniversary of 60 years of existence for the Faculty of Wood Engineering,
faculty with a strong tradition, unique within the wood engineering profile in Romania.
ICWSE 2019 unfolds its 12th edition under the aegis of three prestigious groups: The
International Union of Forest Research Organizations, The Forest Products Society, The
Society of Wood Science and Technology and of four partner institutions: The University of
Tennessee Knoxville, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences (FHS), Stellenbosch
University and Shizuoka University.
As in previous years, this conference sets its target of bringing together scientists and
researchers from all over the world. This year, ICWSE is open to 100 participants from 4
continents and 24 countries. The conference proceedings comprise 85 papers, among which
75 oral presentations and 10 posters, impressing by their scientific novelty, their potential for
industrial applicability or by bringing out elaborated syntheses of some high impact subjects.
The conference papers are grouped in 10 sections meant to cover a diverse range of
subjects of interest for the wood domain, such as: “Wood structure and properties”, “Wood
drying and heat treatments”, “Wood-based materials”, “Mechanical wood processing and
surface quality”, “Wood preservation, chemical wood modification, wood gluing and coating”,
“Conservation-restoration of furniture and wooden objects”, “Furniture design”, “Wood
constructions”, “Renewable energy from wooden biomass” and “Economics in wood
industry”.
The keynote papers will be delivered through the invited speeches of four top
researchers: Dr. Mark Irle - Ecole Superieure du Bois (France), Dr. Peter Rademacher –
Mendel University Brno (Czech Republic), Dr. Timothy Young - University of Tennessee
(USA) and Dr. Marius Catalin Barbu -Transilvania University of Brasov (Romania).
As in previous years, the conference benefited from the support of the sponsors,
which we are pleased to acknowledge: KASTAMONU ROMANIA Reghin, GLIGA
INSTRUMENTS Reghin, KRONOSPAN Brasov, JF FURNIR Brasov, HOLZINDUSTRIE
SCHWEIGHOFER Romania, EGGER Radauti and the PRO LIGNO Foundation.
For two days, science will carry us on its wings, in a journey of various topics
gathering researchers, university staff, PhD and master students, specialists from industry,
intending to be a perfect match of spirits and minds.
To conclude, because the subject of our meeting is science, we looked for a
suggestive definition. We found it as follows: “Science is the process that takes us from
confusion to understanding in a manner that's precise, predictive and reliable - a
transformation, for those lucky enough to experience it, that is empowering and emotional”
(Brian Greene).
Hope you will enjoy this ICWSE 2019 power and emotion!
The Editors
VII
VIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Volume 1)
Page
KEYNOTE ADDRESSES:
Mark IRLE (France)
A REVIEW OF METHODS TO INCREASE THE FLEXIBILITY OF WOOD 3
Peter RADEMACHER (Czech Republic)

AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF LESSER USED WOOD SPECIES
UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE. APPLICATIONS OF NATIVE AND
IMPROVED MODIFIED WOOD 11
Timothy YOUNG (USA)

DATA SCIENCE REVOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOMATERIALS
ACADEMIC PROGRAMS – A FOCUS ON DATA QUALITY 21
Thomas SCHNABEL, Marius Catalin BARBU, Hermann HUBER, Alexander

PETUTSCHNIGG, Alexander JAGER (Austria, Romania)
ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT PRE-TREATED PLANT MATERIALS FOR
THEIR USABILITY AS INSULATION MATERIALS AND DIFFERENT
APPLICATIONS 33
SECTION 1. WOOD STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

Dan RIDLEY-ELLIS (UK)
THE MECHANICAL AND RESONANCE ASSESSMENT OF LARGE
CLEAR SAMPLES OF UK-GROWN BEECH WOOD 43
Amir GHAVIDELESFAHLAN, Ion SANDU, Viorica VASILACHE (Romania)

EVALUATION OF COLOUR CHANGING OF SATURATED WOOD
SURFACE WITH NANOSILVER 52
Amir GHAVIDELESFAHLAN, Ion SANDU, Viorica VASILACHE (Romania)

EVALUATION OF SOME CHEMOMETRICS CHARACTERISTICS WITH
ARCHAEOMETRIC VALUE FROM THE VARIATION OF WATER
BALANCE FOR WOOD 57
Vasile Gh. GLIGA, Mariana Domnica STANCIU, Silviu-Marian NASTAC,

Florin DINULICA, Mihaela CAMPEAN (Romania)
STUDY CONCERNING THE NATURAL FREQUENCY AND DAMPING
FACTOR OF THE TOP AND BACK PLATE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF
VIOLINS 64
IX
Alma STRKONJIC, Harald SALL, Jimmy JOHANSSON (Sweden)
SPIRAL GRAIN IN EUROPEAN ASPEN (POPULUS TREMULA L.):
VARIATIONS WITHIN AND BETWEEN THE TREES 73
Carmen-Mihaela POPESCU, Nanami ZENIYA, Kaoru ENDO, Takuma
GENKAWA, Eiichi OBATAYA (Romania, Japan)
MODIFICATIONS IN SPRUCE WOOD STRUCTURE FOLLOWING HYDRO-
THERMAL TREATMENT EVALUATED BY NIR SPECTROSCOPY 81
Dimitrios KOUTSIANITIS, Andromachi MITANI, George NTALOS,
Konstantinos NINIKAS (Greece)
HYGROSCOPIC PROPERTIES AFTER WEATHERING OF SOME
VARNISH COATED WOOD SPECIES 89
Lawrence Olanipekun AGUDA, Babatunde AJAYI, Babatola OLUFEMI,
Adeshola Olatunde ADEPOJU (Nigeria)
PHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LONCHOCARPUS SERICEUS
(POIR). A LESSER UTILIZED SPECIES IN NIGERIA 95
Ginevra MANZO (Czech Republic)
ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF TROPICAL WOODS USED IN MARIMBA
BARS 107
Constantin Stefan IONESCU, Aurel LUNGULEASA, Cosmin SPIRCHEZ,

Anamaria AVRAM (Romania)
DETERMINATION OF A WOOD DAMAGE ASSESSMENT SYSTEM BY
MATHEMATICAL METHODS AND MINIMALLY INVASIVE MECHANICAL
TESTS 113
Olimpia-Minerva TURCAS, Adriana FOTIN, Camelia COSEREANU

(Romania)
FLOORING STRUCTURES DESIGNED FOR SPORTS-HALLS AND
INVESTIGATED FOR THE BALL REBOUND TEST 120
Abdulrazzak ALSULAIMAN, Shahin ALJALABY, Sabah YOUSIF (Iraq)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF QUERCUS AEGILOPS L. TENSION WOOD
TREES 128
SECTION 2. WOOD DRYING AND HEAT TREATMENTS
Bogdan BEDELEAN, Daniela SOVA (Romania)

A NOVEL METHOD FOR ASSEMBLING A WOOD DRYING SCHEDULE
BASED ON DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 141
Olena PINCHEVSKA, Oleksandra HORBACHOVA, Andriy SPIROCHKIN,

Olha BARANOVA (Ukraine)
CHANGING THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THERMO-MODIFIED
HORNBEAM AND ASH WOOD DEPENDING ON PROCESSING
SCHEDULES 149
X
Michalis SKARVELIS, Dimitrios KOUTSIANITIS, Andromachi MITANI,
George NTALOS (Greece)
DRYING CHESTNUT SAWN TIMBER IN CENTRAL GREECE 155
Asghar TARMIAN, Emil Engelund THYBRING (Iran, Switzerland)
CONTRIBUTION OF THERMAL DEGRADATION PRODUCTS TO THE

HYDROXYL ACCESSIBLITY AND HYGROSCOPICITY OF THERMALLY
MODIFIED WOOD 161
SECTION 3. CONSERVATION-RESTORATION OF WOODEN

OBJECTS
Susan M. Millis (UK)

SURFACE COATING PYROGRAPHY: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
WITH UV ADDITIVES 169
Mihaela LIU, Houyi HUNAG, Zhihui WU, Xinyou LIU (China)

A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON KANG AND KANG FURNITURE IN NORTH
EAST OF CHINA 181
Mihaela LIU, Ting GAO, Zhihui WU, Xinyou LIU, Jingwei AO (China)
A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON MAT-LEVEL FURNITURE IN SHANG AND 187
ZHOU DYNASTIES
Maria Cristina TIMAR, Emanuela Carmen BELDEAN , Ion Valeriu OLARU,

Anca Maria VARODI, Dana Mihaela POP (Romania)
CHALLENGES IN THE CONSERVATION OF AN EARLY 19th CENTURY 191
HOLY DOOR - THE FIRST STEPS
Nicola MACCHIONI, Simona LAZZERI, Lorena SOZZI, Nicola PUCCINI
(Italy)
WOOD IDENTIFICATION OF THE WOODEN COMPONENTS OF
201
A 19TH CENTURY PIPE ORGAN
Mirela COMAN, Bogdan CIORUTA, Alexandru-Leonard POP (Romania)
REFLECTIONS OF WOOD PROCESSING IN THE ROMANIAN
PHILATELY. Part 1: IMOBIL HERITAGE & TRADITIONAL
ARCHITECTURE 208
Mirela COMAN, Alexandru-Leonard POP, Bogdan CIORUTA (Romania)

REFLECTIONS OF WOOD PROCESSING IN THE ROMANIAN
PHILATELY. Part 2: MOBIL HERITAGE & TRADITIONAL WOODEN-
CRAFTS 221
XI
SECTION 4. MECHANICAL WOOD PROCESSING & SURFACE
QUALITY
Ioannis BARBOUTIS, Panagiotis KOUTIS, Vasiliki KAMPERIDOU, Stella

CHRYSSOULAKI (Greece)
KNOWLEDGE AND QUALITY OF WOODWORKING IN ANCIENT GREECE
REVEALED FROM A SIMPLE FINDING 233
Chang ZHANG, Wencheng TANG, Na YU (China)

OPTIMIZATION OF MANUAL HANDLING OPERATION DURING
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING 241
Erkki VERKASALO, Jarkko LEPPALA, Timo MUHONEN, Risto KORPINEN,

Veikko MOTTONEN, Sirpa KURPPA (Finland)
NOVEL INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS AND VALUE CHAINS TO UTILIZE
SIDE- STREAMS OF WOOD PRODUCT INDUSTRIES – FINNISH
APPROACH 246
Victor GRUBII, Jimmy JOHANSSON (Sweden)

PERFORMANCE OF MULTI-LAYERED WOOD FLOORING ELEMENTS
PRODUCED WITH SLICED AND SAWN LAMELLAS 255
Andromachi MITANI, Georgios NTALOS, Dimitros KOUTSIANITIS,

Konstantinos NINIKAS (Greece)
AGING EFFECT OF SOME VARNISH COATED WOOD SPECIES ON
COLOR DIFFERENCE AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS 263
Zeki CANDAN, Oner UNSAL, Hızır Volkan GORGUN, Oktay GONULTAS

(Turkey)
ROUGHNESS AND COLOUR PROPERTIES OF THERMALLY
COMPRESSED POPLAR WOOD MATERIALS 269
XII
International Conference “Wood Science and Engineering in the Third Millennium” - ICWSE 2019
KEYNOTE
ADDRESSES
A REVIEW OF METHODS TO INCREASE THE FLEXIBILITY OF WOOD

Mark IRLE
LIMBHA, Ecole Supérieure du Bois, rue Christian Pauc, 44306 Nantes, France
Tel: +33 240 18 12 12 Email: mark.irle@ecoledubois.fr
Abstract
This paper provides a short review of techniques that can be used to make flexible wood-
based products. It also describes preliminary experiments on the potential of radial compression of
French grown Poplar (Populus spp.) for the manufacture of highly flexible products. A 50% uniaxial
compression strain was applied to wood blocks with an average moisture content of 15.5%. The
blocks were then glued together to make larger panels from which small beams (nominally 10 x 10 x
3
150mm ) were cut. After conditioning, the bending properties were measured. None of the flexibilised
beams broke during testing and their stiffness was found to be less than 10% of the control beams.
INTRODUCTION
Compared to many materials, wood is already flexible, but inevitably, the markets and man’s
imagination want even more flexibility. Enhanced flexibility is most often required in order to make
moulded products, which once made, are normally required to hold their shape, i.e. the flexibility
becomes less important or even becomes an inconvenience. Examples include moulded chairs,
stairway handrails, trays and so on. Other, less common situations require the wood to remain flexible
in use such as wood curtains, eye-glasses and some examples of packaging. These two different
situations will be termed pre-use and in-use flexibility in this paper.
A degree of flexibility can be measured in various ways. A very common measure is the
bending stiffness (modulus of elasticity – MOE). One would expect that the lower the stiffness the
greater the observed flexibility, but, this is only true if the low stiffness is due to high deflections
(strains) during the measurement. Low stiffness materials generate lower stresses during bending,
but, the material must still have sufficient strength to resist the induced stresses. In this paper, a
flexible material is one that deforms readily, does not break easily and returns to its non-stressed
shape (even if eventually).
Flexible materials are often used to make curved objects as it is much more efficient to make a
curve from a single piece than combining several components. Bending a material induces tensile
stress on the outside (convex) of the curve and compression stress on the inside (concave). If either
the tensile or compressive stresses reach the ultimate strength of the material then the object will
break. Consequently, even a flexible material will still break if bent excessively. A bending ratio based
on the thickness of the material divided by the radius of the inner bend can be calculated and used as
an indicator of flexibility. Alternatively, the minimum bending radius can be expressed in terms of the
material thickness see Table 1.
The flexibility of wood can be improved by chemical modification, mechanical alteration and/or
machining. Kutnar et al. (2015) provide a good overview of a range of techniques used to create wood
shapes by the application of external forces, i.e. not machined into a shape.
Chemical modification
Steam bending
The steam bending of wood has been used for well over a century to obtain curved solid wood
elements that are not possible at room temperatures and moisture contents. The objective of steaming
is to change the mechanical properties of wood rather than its chemistry, but, it is inevitable that the
chemistry changes, even if it is only the evaporation of some extractives, and so it is included in the
chemical modification section.
Traditionally, steaming is done at near atmospheric pressure, i.e. 100°C. The wood is heated
until its moisture content is around 15-17%. It is then placed in a mould and bent with a metallic
support strap on the convex face. The wood is left to cool and dry for a number of hours. The
mechano-sorption processes that take place relax the stresses present in the wood so that when the
mould is opened the wood exhibits little spring-back. This technique has been used to make furniture
like that shown in Figure 1 for many years.
3
Table 1
Example minimum bending radii expressed as a thickness of the material
Minimum Minimum
Material bend Material bend
radius radius
Aluminium 0-6t High Pressure Laminate (cold) 300t
A
Solid wood (parallel to grain) 50t High Pressure Laminate (warm) 16t
Beech veneer (perpendicular to Norway spruce veneer (perpendicular
B 35t B 47.5t
grain) to grain)
C B
Bendywood 10t Oak veneer (perpendicular to grain) 46t
Birch plywood (parallel to face Softwood plywood (parallel to face
D 115t D 180t
grain) grain)
Birch plywood (perpendicular to Softwood plywood (perpendicular to
D 108t D 130t
face grain) face grain)
Brass 0.1-2t Stainless steel 0.5-1t
E
Copper 3-4t Steamed hardwood 1-5t
E
Glass >1000t Steamed softwood 14-30t
A B C D
Kollmann & Coté (1968), Lunguleasa et al. (2013), Anon. (2019), Veistinen
E
& Pennala (1999), Stevens & Turner (1948)
Generally it is the thickness of the section of wood to be bent that determines the steaming
time. Approximately 3 minutes per millimetre of thickness are required to soften hardwood sufficiently
to permit safe bending with minimal breakages (Wright et al. 2013) and 1 minute per mm for
softwoods (Lemoine & Koch 1971). Excessive heating can lead to an increase in the number of
compression and tension failures because the mechanical properties of the wood are also reduced.
Fig. 1.
An example of steam bent wood used in traditional furniture made by Ercol.
Once steamed wood has cooled and dried it has the same rigidity of normal wood. Sometimes
its mechanical properties are seen to improve in the bend area due to densification of the wood.
Steaming does not, therefore, make flexible products, rather, it facilitates 2 and 3 dimensional
deformation for a short period, i.e. this is an example of pre-use flexibility.
LIQUID AND GASEOUS AMMONIA

Wood can be plasticised using anhydrous ammonia gas (Šprdlík et al. 2016), anhydrous liquid
ammonia (Bach 1973) or ammonia solution (Suleman 2015). Ammonia causes more swelling in wood
than water. Bach (1973) found the volumetric swelling of beech (Fagus sylvatica) to be about 120% of
that caused by water. This leads to enhanced creep and reduced stiffness. Consequently, ammonia
treated wood is much more flexible and can be contorted into a range of weird and wonderful shapes.
The ammonia soon evaporates from the wood, which regains its original stiffness but remains
deformed. A darkening of the wood if often observed too, see Figure 2.
Ammonia is not a pleasant compound, having a very pungent odour. Many more precautions
are needed when using ammonia rather than steam to bend wood. Although more extreme bends are
possible with ammonia, in most cases, steam bending is sufficient.
4
Fig. 2.
Examples of bent wood artefacts made by plasticising wood with ammonia solution.
Machining
Stresses are induced in a piece of wood when it is bent by an external force. Tensile stresses
are generated in the convex (outside) face and compression stresses in the concave (inside) face.
Logically there is a neutral plane in the centre where the tensile and compressive stresses balance
each other out. The piece will break if either the tensile or compressive stresses exceed that of the
wood. The force required to bend an object is directly linked to its thickness, i.e. thicker pieces are
more difficult to bend. This is clearly shown by the equation used to calculate the stiffness of an object
in 3-point bending as the MOE increases with the cube of the thickness:
where: E = bending stiffness

L = span
F = force applied
w = width
t = thickness
d = deflection
The equation can be re-arranged so that the force required to achieve a specific deflection in a
given situation can be calculated:
This equation shows very clearly that the force needed to bend a particular material changes
with the cube of its thickness. So if the effective thickness of a material in a given situation is halved,
3
then the force needed to achieve the same deflection is reduced to 12.5%, i.e. 0.5 , of what it was
before. This is the principal behind using machine cuts to make flexible products. The incisions also
provide empty space that allows the concave face to displace without creating additional stresses
(Figure 3).
5
Fig. 3.
Reducing the effective thickness of material significantly reduces the force needed to
bend it.
Dukta manufacture a range of products including art objects, light fittings and acoustic panels
that are based on the concept of making precise incisions in solid wood and composite products (see
https://dukta.com/). The cuts are cleverly designed to enhance the “look” of the product and give an
astonishing degree of suppleness (Figure 4).
The availability of relatively inexpensive computer controlled laser cutting and engraving
machines has generated a plethora of flexible wood products. Many of which have a very pleasing
look created by the complex and varied patterns used to achieve the flexibility.
Fig. 4.
Examples of the Dukta product (source dukta.com)
Mechanical alteration
The product called Bendywood® is manufactured by Candidus Prugger in Italy. The process is
based on a patent originally published in 1917. In summary, the wood is heated with saturated steam
so that it has the correct moisture content and temperature to give uniform cell wall rupture when the
piece is compressed longitudinally. The piece must be clamped, along its length, to avoid any buckling
and bending stress. After pressing the product is dried. The mechanical damage caused during the
pressing phase creates creases in the fibres that are rather like the pleats in a bendable plastic straw.
Consequently, the wood is more flexible; perhaps 5 times more flexible as indicated in Table 1.
Bader (2017) studied the longitudinal compression method for flexibilising wood and presented
his results in the previous meeting of ICWSE. The process requires that the wood is wet, preferably at
the fibre saturation point and hot, so steam heating is used. His data shows that the bending stiffness
is more affected than the bending strength and this permits more extreme bending than is possible for
solid wood.
Hirano et al. (2016) demonstrated an alternative approach to achieving flexible wood through
inducing compression damage. The main difference is the compression strain is applied radially to the
wood. This implies that only short pieces of wood can be compressed and these then have to be glued
together. The process is long and somewhat complicated, but, very flexible wood products are
possible.
Wehsener et al. (2014) also used transverse compression and gluing to make panels with high
degrees of flexibility, but, they added different types of textile to provide reinforcement.
The aim of the experiments presented below was to conduct an initial investigation into the
potential use of French grown Poplar for the manufacture of flexible wood products.
6
MATERIALS & METHODS

Blocks of Poplar (Populus spp) nominally 62mm long, 27mm wide (tangential direction) and
27mm thick (radial direction) were cut and conditioned to give a moisture content of 15.5%. The
thickness of the blocks was reduced by 50% at room temperature using the compression plates of a
universal testing machine as shown in Figure 5. The faces of the blocks were then sanded lightly to
improve gluing. Next, 9 blocks were selected at random to create a panel, which was glued together
using a D3 grade PVAc emulsion. One face and one edge of ends of the subsequent panel were
sanded smooth and flat. The panel was then cut in half to provide 2 pieces approximately 60mm wide
(parallel to grain), 10mm thick (tangential direction) and 165mm long (radial direction). After sanding
these were then cut into small beams nominally 10mm wide, 10mm thick and 165mm long.
Control beams were manufactured in the same way but with blocks of Poplar that had not
been compressed. Since their thickness had not been changed, only 6 blocks were needed to give
beams of a similar length.
The beams were conditioned for 1 week before testing in 3-point bending with a span of
100mm and a test speed of 10mm/min for the flexible beams and 2mm/min for the control beams. The
average moisture content of the beams at the time of test was 13.3% OD basis.
Cutting to shape
Surface sanding
Gluing
Fig. 5.
Outline of the manufacturing method.
The beams were tested in two modes such that the wood grain was either vertical (parallel) or
horizontal (perpendicular) (see Figure 6). The beams were tested in sequence so that each
neighbouring specimen in the original panel was tested in the other sense.
Some of the beams were examined with a Quanta 250 Environmental Scanning Electron
Microscope (ESEM) made by FEI. Pieces of beam were placed in a micro-mechanical testing machine
installed within the vacuum chamber of the ESEM and stretched to different strains in order to observe
the deformation of individual cells.
7
Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain

Fig. 6.
Compression stress was applied in the middle of beams so that the stress was either
parallel to the grain (left) or perpendicular to the grain (right). Note that the arrows
indicate the grain direction during test.
RESULTS
The peak stress required to compress the wood blocks to half their thickness was consistently
around 7.0MPa. The springback of the blocks approximately 2 minutes after pressing was found to be
approximately 33% ± 2% of the pressed thickness (13.65mm). The average density of the blocks
3 3
increased from 367kg/m to 529kg/m after pressing and initial springback.
The flexibility of the wood became apparent once cut into small beams as it was very easy to
flex them both parallel and perpendicular to the grain. The data from the 3-point bending tests, shown
in Table 2, provide a quantitative indication of the changes in flexural properties brought about by
compressing wood radially. None of the flexibilised beams broke during bending. The MOR is,
therefore, calculated using the peak force observed during the test.
Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain

Fig. 7.
Compression stress was applied in the middle of beams so that the stress was either
parallel to the grain (left) or perpendicular to the grain (right). Note that the arrows
indicate the grain direction during test.
8
Table 2
The bending characteristics observed from small beams made from laminated Poplar
Perpendicular Parallel
Flexibilised wood
Mean MOE (MPa) 67.7 72.6
Standard deviation of MOE (MPa) 3.6 9.8
MOR at peak force (MPa) 2.9 3.2
Standard deviation of MOR (MPa) 0.2 0.2
Number of tests 8 8
Control
Mean MOE (MPa) 798.6 856.4
Standard deviation of MOE (MPa) 67.3 75.2
MOR (MPa) 10.9 9.6
Standard deviation of MOR (MPa) 0.3 0.8
Number of tests 3 4
From Table 2 it is clear that the mechanical properties of the beams are significantly lower
when made from compressed wood blocks. Interestingly, the stiffness, in both test modes, was
reduced by about 91%, whereas the bending strength was reduced in the range of 69 to 73%. The
ideal would be to reduce the stiffness with minimal impact on the bending strength; a series of
optimisation experiments are needed to find the optimum. A Students t-test indicates that the MOR of
the flexibilised beams is stronger in the parallel direction compared to the perpendicular (98%
confidence), however, there is no statistical difference between the MOE values obtained from each
direction.
Data estimated from a graph of results presented by Hirano et al. (2016) of flexibilised Sugi
(Cryptomeria japonica) indicate that they observed a similar MOR of around 2.9MPa, but, a lower
MOE of approximately 35MPa, which are quite similar to the data presented here. According to the
3
Tropix database, Sugi typically has a density of 380kg/m , which is a little lower than that for Populus
3
species (450kg/m ), and this difference may explain their findings.
Microscopic examination of the flexibilised wood beams revealed the presence of rupture
zones created during the compression phase of the manufacturing process. The cell walls in these
zones are severely damaged, see Figure 8. It is observed that the most obvious deformations occur in
these failure zones on the application of tensile strain. The broken cell walls provide the mechanism
for the flexibility observed as relatively large strains can be applied without generating high stresses in
the cell wall material, thus avoiding fracture.
CONCLUSIONS
Radial compressive strain of 50% applied to solid Poplar wood blocks creates failure zones
within the wood. These zones also increase the quantity of tensile strain that can be applied to the
wood before failure occurs. Gluing together several compressed blocks permits the fabrication of long
and very flexible beams.
Further studies are required to optimise the flexibility whilst minimising the impact on ultimate
mechanical properties.
9
Fig. 8.
Electron micrographs of flexibilised Poplar. Left: No strain applied, Right: 1.2 mm of
tensile deformation applied (approximately 10% strain). White ellipse marks main zone of
change.
REFERENCES
ANONYMOUS (2019) Bendywood Technical Data. http://www.bendywood.com/en/bendywood-
en/technicaldata.html accessed 5/6/19.
BACH L (1974) Rheological Properties of Beech Wood in the Ammonia-Plasticized State. Materials
Science and Engineering 15(1974):211-220.
BÁDER M (2017) Mechanical characterisation of accordionisated wood, effect of relaxation conditions.
Proceedings of International Conference “Wood Science and Engineering in the Third Millennium”,
November, 2017, Brasov, Romania.
HIRANO A, OBATAYA E, ADACHI K (2016) Potential of moderately compressed wood as an elastic
component of wooden composites. Eur. J. Wood Prod. (2016) 74:685–691
KOLLMANN FFP, CÔTÉ Jr.WA (1968) Principles of Wood Science and Technology; Solid Wood.
Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.
KUTNAR A, SANDBERG D, HALLER P (2015) Compressed and moulded wood from processing to
products. Holzforschung 69(7):885-897
LEMOINE TJ, KOCH P (1971) Steam bending properties of Southern Pine. Forest Products Journal
21(4):34-42.
LUNGULEASA A, COSESEANU C, BUDAU G, LICA D, MATEI MG (2013) Contributions to the
curvature radius and bending capacity of veneers. Wood Research 59(5):843-850.
ŠPRDLÍK V, BRABEC M, MIHAILOVIĆ S, RADEMACHER P (2016) Plasticity increase of beech
veneer by steaming and gaseous ammonia treatment. Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología 18(1):91-98.
STEVENS WC, TURNER N (1948) Solid and laminated wood bending. Dep. Sci. & Ind. Res., 71 pp.
London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office. Cited by: KOCH, P. (1972). Utilization if the Southern Pines.
Volume II: Processing. Agriculture Handbook No. 420, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service.
VEISTINEN J, PENNALA E (1999) Finnforest Plywood Handbook. Finnforest Oy. ISBN 951-97765-1-
6.
WEHSENER J, WESER T, HALLER P, DIESTEL O, CHERIF C (2014) Textile reinforcement of
multidimensional formable wood. Eur. J. Wood Prod. (2014) 72:463–475.
WRIGHT RS, BOND BH, CHEN Z (2013) Steam Bending of Wood; Embellishments to an Ancient
Technique. BioResources 8(4):4793-4796.
SULEMAN YH (2015) Softening and Bending of Black Poplar (Populus nigra L.) Wood with
Chemicals. Journal Tikrit Univ. For Agri. Sci. Vol. (15) No.(4). ISSN-1813-1646
10
AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF LESSER USED WOOD SPECIES UNDER

CLIMATE CHANGE. APPLICATIONS OF NATIVE AND IMPROVED MODIFIED
WOOD
Peter RADEMACHER
Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology
Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno (CZ), Czech Republic
Tel: +420-545-13-4519, Mobile: +49-171-4893433, E-mail: peter.rademacher@mendelu.cz
Abstract
This paper presents the results of literature sources of the site conditions and availability of
lesser used wood species (luWS) in various Central and Southeast European countries under climate
change influences, partly flanked by own experiences and additional investigations. Compared to the
fostered and omnipresent dominating spruce, pine beech and oak species in Europe these long time
sylvicultural suppressed luWS are often better adapted to the expected future climate-change
scenarios, characterized mainly by warmer and in the growing season drier weather conditions. For
ten selected luWS wood property data from literature and own investigations were collected to show
the additional property and application range, widening not only the biodiversity in the forest, but also
the material diversity of renewable bio-based materials.
In case of obtaining wood assortments and qualities from these luWS, not obtaining the
required wood performances, a set of wood modification processes, like densification or impregnation
of wood with traditional and renewable components are shown, able to improve important properties
like durability, dimensional stability, behaviour under humidity or mechanical strength.
Key words: climate change; change in forest site conditions and tree composition; bio- and material-
diversity; lesser used wood species (luWS); wood property improvement.
INTRODUCTION
Since several decades, regionally also centuries, European forests are influenced or changed
by both, sylvicultural management activities of foresters as well as environmental, chemical and
climate change processes of individual - or industry-processes.
These influences resulted in a change of forest site conditions and structures as well as tree
species composition with strong impact on the grown wood assortments and produced materials. Due
to intensive forest management activities the productivity of European forests is high and of economic
importance, with a similar quantity of wood production like in Asia or North America, and higher than
South America or Africa.
In Europe, this wood production is focused on few tree species only, often concentrated on
spruce, pine, beech and oak. In many European countries the sum of only these 4 species covers 70-
85% of the national wood production. This resulted in high productivity and optimization in the forest
and wood industry, but the bio- and material- diversity in both sectors was dramatically decreasing
during the last century/ies). For many wood applications, these main species are not or not sufficiently
suitable for higher value or exterior use, resulting in an increasing amount of imported assortments
from outside Europe or a treatment and improvement of lesser suitable species with oils, biocides or
wood modification processes. Not all of them are suitable for high value materials or environmental
friendly, sustainable processes, leading to an increasing critic and exclusion of wood products,
including also the exchange of bio-based materials and products by competitive, non-renewable
materials like plastic, aluminum, concrete etc. with a much lower sustainability index compared to bio-
based materials.
Nevertheless a lot of additional tree species exist in European forests, often better adapted to
changing climate conditions, like drought, higher temperature, or storm. A lot of industrially non-wished
tree species had been depressed or eliminated by forest management and sylviculture, leading to low
stable and less resilient forest structures. Especially the man-made monoculture forests are strongly
suffering under the influences of these changing climate parameters, leading to a decreasing
productivity and an increasing exposure to diseases, calamities or forest fires and endangering the
sustainability of high-productive, stable forest systems in many regions. A lot of lesser used wood
species (luWS) show an environmental optimum, which is, partly already now or in future, much better
adapted to the expected climatic and site condition scenarios, possibly appearing subsequently under
the climate change processes. Kölling (2014) and Thurm et al. (2018) showed for special model
11
regions in Germany the potential correspondence of the ecological spread of selected tree species
(Fig. 1, yellow area) and their possible overlap with the actual site conditions (red- and blue-rimmed
areas) as well as their running or future change under climate change conditions (expected scenario
+2.3°C, decreasing precipitation during growing season [red arrow]). Their investigations also include
the search and determination of European regions with an actual climate, already reaching today the
values of the climate scenarios in the German model regions after 50 years. The additional and
supported enclosure of these up to now lesser-used or too-less used wood species, better adapted to
the future climate, for example alder, hornbeam, ash, poplar, mountain ash or other Sorbus-species,
or also species with an origin outside the local distribution of our native forests, like robinia, Eur.
chestnut, walnut, platanus, or further cherry or oak species, can help to stabilize the forest
environment and the bio-based sector, enabling an ongoing CO2-fixation, leading to a decrease of the
global warming.
Fig. 1.
Climate-Similarity of actual (blue and red circles) and future climate (+2.3°C, red arrow)
and compare of their ecological optimum (yellow area) for a Test-Area in Germany for local and
non-local tree species. Kölling 2014 (modified).
In this paper examples of additional lesser-used tree and wood species, their ecological site
optimum and their possible prosperity and availability are investigated, also including the widened
property range and new applications on the bio-based market.
MATERIAL, METHOD, EQUIPMENT

Site conditions, ecological optimum, climate change scenarios: The presented examples and
results base on the investigations of Kölling (2014) and Thurm et al. (2018).
Availability of wood and share of wood species in European Pilot-Studies: The presented data
are published in several European and national Forest-Reports, commissioned or prepared e.g. by the
European Commission (2018) or national institutions, dealing for example with State Forests in Poland
(2018), BWI (2012) Dritte Bundeswaldinventur, Pro-Holz Webpages for Hungary or Croatia (2019) or
Czech (Ministry of the Czech Republic [2018]) and Slovakian forests (Ministry of Agriculture of the
Slovak Republic [1997]) or authors compiling data about Romanian (Ionascu 1999), Austrian
(Teischinger 2019) or Slovenian forests (Poljanec 2019).
Properties of selected native wood species: Basic data for general wood properties delivered
Wagenführ (2006) in his compendium. Own investigations about chemical, physical and mechanical
wood properties were executed following the EN standards. Details are published in Pařil et al. (2014).
Property improvement by wood densification/ modification and their adaption for new
applications: The wood plasticisation to enable the later densification without wood-damages was
carried out by using steam or alternativ ammonia gas. For subsequent wood densification a press was
used, partly followed by a temperature step of about 110°C, for heat treatment or curing processes the
temperature was raised up to 160-230°C. Extraction and impregnation steps were carried out with hot
water or a methanol-water 1:1 mix; extracts like Robinetin-derivates of different composition or
DMDHEU-water-solutions were impregnated into the wood by using vacuum-pressure cycles; leaching
tests were carried out by exposure of the impregnated samples to water. Chemical analysis were done
by using HPLC, GC or Spectrophotometer. Details are described in Rademacher et al. (2007),
Bollmus et al. (2010), Pařil et al. (2014), Horníček et al. (2015), Sablík et al. (2016) and Rademacher
et al. (2017).
12
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Availability of Wood in Europe
The productivity of European forests is traditionally high compared with other worldwide
important centers of wood production. Each with about 19-20% USA and EU28 are leading the
3
ranking list of totally 1.8 Bio m of actual (5-year average global production 2010-14) yearly produced
industrial round wood (energy wood not included), followed by total South America, Russia, China and
Canada with about 13% down to 8% of the worldwide production (Fig. 2, European Commission
2018).
Accordingly forests and wood play an important role in the European economy, but also in the
landscape characteristic or the ecological, health and tourism sector, like cleaning and filtering
functions of drinking water and air, or human welfare.
Fig. 2.
Worldwide production of industrial round wood per year (European Commission 2018).
Share of Wood Species in European Pilot-Studies

The share of tree species and the added up percentage of coniferous and broadleaf species
in Europe are, partly due to their site conditions, but highly due to man-made forestry management
interventions, extremely different. Following an overview of the ICP-Forest Report (2012), the
broadleaf forest share is ranging from 98% in Moldavia down to less than 5% in Sweden, with a focus
of South-East European countries with >>50% broadleaf species and of Scandinavien and Alpine
countries with <<50% broadleaf species (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Percentage of Broadleaved trees in European Forests (%). Data Source: ICP Forests (2012).
Forest Condition in Europe. 2012 Technical Report of ICP Forests.
In eight selected countries, focussing on E-, Central- and SE- Europe, the forest share of single
tree species or spec. groups were chosen to show the range in different forest species compositions.
13
Fig. 4.
Percentage of single broadleaved and coniferous trees in Polish (PL), Czech (CZ), Austrian (AT),
German (DE), Slovenian (SI), Slovakian (SK), Romanian (RO) and Croatian (HR) forests (%). Data
sources in text.
Selected countries with a higher share of coniferous trees (>70% Con.) were: Poland,
dominated by Pine (State Forests in Poland 2018) as well as Czech Republic (Ministry of the Czech
Republic 2018a) and Austria (Teischinger 2019), both dominated by >50% spruces with partly very
14
low oak + beech share (sum ca. 10-15%) and a very low share of non-oak or -beech species (Fig. 4).
In case of Slovenia (Poljanec 2019) and Germany (BMEL 2014) the share of both groups was quite
balanced (DE [2012] 55% Con. and 45% Bl [broadleaved], SI [2018] 45% Con. and 55% Bl). In
Slovakia [1997] with 42% con. and 58% Bl the Bl-share was already higher (Min. of Agriculture of the
Slovak Republic 1997). In these last mentioned three Central-European countries the share of non-
oak and non-beech broadleaved species reached already 13-18%. For Slovakian forests information
about a higher share of individual luWS are available, showing already a much higher biodiversity in
the SK-forests: Beside the omnipresent dominating spruce, pine, fir, beech and oak with a sum of
approx. 83% 7 lesser used broadleaved species (hornbeam, maple, ash, robinia, birch, alder, poplar)
showed a share between 1-5%, several spec. (elm, tilia, willow, other Bl) between 0.1-0.3% (Fig. 5).
In case of Romania (69% [1998]; Ionascu 1999) and Croatia (86%; Pro-Holz 2019) the
broadleaved species were dominating the forests, the share of non-oak or -beech reaches 20-26%.
Especially hornbeam or robinia showed appreciable amounts of each up to 6-8% in these selected
South-East European forests. Locally, outside these selected countries, the share of single lesser
used wood species was even higher (e.g. Hungary: 22% robinia, 10% poplar, 10% additional Bl,
flanked by 32% oak and 12% beech [Pro-Holz 2019]).
Fig. 5.
Percentage of single tree species in Czech Republic for the actual and potential
situation in forests (%; Forest Inventory 2017, Czech Republic [left]) and of single tree species
in Slovakia (Ministry of Agriculture of the Slovak Republic, Forestry Section, 1997 [right]).
In case of Czech Republic the national Inventory (Ministry of the Czech Republic 2018b)
delivers a compare between the actual share of single tree species and the former potential native
share, showing in case of spruce, pine and larch an extreme 5 to 7-fold surplus in the actual forests,
whereas in case of fir, oak and beech the actual forest composition is 3 to 15-fold lower than in the
potential forest community (Fig. 5). For further, also lesser used wood species, the share between
actual and native situation is approximately balanced, sometimes little bit lower, sometimes higher.
For Germany the third national forest inventory (BWI 2012) separated about 50 different tree
species in the German forests (Fig. 6). Here only spruce and pine already showed a share of more
than 50% of the forest area, including beech and oak this share was already >80%. Additional 6 tree
species, already much lower in the share (birch, black alder, Douglas and white fir, Eur. larch and ash)
already exceeded the 90% area line. Additional 20 species, reaching from sycamore to elm, already
covered 99.5%, and additional further 20 species, reaching from Eur. chestnut to sorb tree are sharing
the remaining 0.5% of the forest area in Germany.
From the viewpoint of their potential existence these additional, lesser used tree species could
enrich the biodiversity in forests and stabilize impacted forests due to the wide range of their
environmental optimum or amplitude, in many cases better adapted to warmer and during the growing
season drier climate periods. Also their contribution to additional material properties, urgently required
for new innovative applications and products, could help to improve the market position of locally
produced, renewable bio-based goods. However, due to decades or centuries of depressing luWS and
preferring faster growing, easily processable species, often from the coniferous sector, the actual
potential of luWS in many European regions is low and needs rethinking and technical diversion of all
stakeholders, foresters, wood industry, landscape architects and end consumers.
15
Fig. 6.
Percentage of single tree species in German forests ([%] Source: BWI 2012, Germany. Data
compilation Dr. T. Mette, LWF Freising) and applications with Mt. Ash furniture and Castanea.
Properties of selected native Wood Species

Like already mentioned, broadleaved or hardwood species can play an important role in the
future forest biodiversity and the applied wood material diversity. Whereas broadleaf species in
general cover a wide range of the potential wood species properties (for example: density, mechanical
strength, dimensional stability, thermal or acoustic insulation, durability), the dominating broadleaved
species oak and beech are located in the median-high to higher density range, connected with higher
strength, but also lower dimensional stability or thermal insulation potential (Fig. 7; all values from
-3
Wagenführ 2006). Oak and beech show a density average of about 650-680 kg m and a strength of
-2 -2
approx. 90-120 N mm in case of bending strength and 60 N mm in case of compression strength.
Their related relatively low dimensional stability is shown for example in a volume swelling percentage
of 14% in oak and even 18% in beech (Fig. 8; all values from Wagenführ 2006).
In order to widen this narrow field of wood properties of oak and beech, a selected set of
additional 10, mainly central European tree species with up to now only minor (value) utilization was
chosen to examine their potential applications. On the lower density range willow or poplar are
-3
delivering density values of about 330-420 kg m , related with a bending strength of only 40-60 N
-2
mm and a better volume swelling of about 10-12%. The median to median-high range is covering
-3
the 500-650 kg m density range, with black alder and castanea in the median and birch, ash and oak
-2
in the median-high range, connected with a bending strength of already about 80-120 N mm and a
volume swelling of approx. 13-14%. In the highest density range the selected species beech, sorb
-3
tree, mountain ash, robinia and hornbeam cover a density range of about 680 till more than 800 kg m ,
-2
related with a bending strength of 110-160 N mm and a volume swelling of up to 19%.
Concerning any divergences of the normally quite narrow density <-> swelling relationship we
can differ 3 groups along the XY-diagram distribution in the graph (Fig. 8): one group of mainly lighter
and uniform-structured wood species, like willow, poplar, black alder or birch, more or less directly
located on the regression line (blue) and two groups with more heavy and heterogeneous structured
wood: the first group contains mainly heartwood-components free wood species like beech, sorb tree,
mountain ash and hornbeam in a higher swelling range (red), the second group exist of more heavy
species, but mainly containing heartwood components in a higher amount in the wood, like castanea,
oak or robinia, all in a lower swelling range (green), reduced due to this structure-stabilizing effect.
The additional inclusion of tree species outside Europe from tropical or sub-tropical locations
is strongly widening this observed density <-> strength and <-> swelling relationship, showing the
potential range of natural solid wood: very low dense species like balsa show very low strength and
swelling properties, extreme high dense species (here: Azobé, Greenheart, Guaiac, African Ebony
-3 -3
and Macassar Ebony) with densities of 1000 kg m and more (max ca. 1150 kg m ) reach bending
-2
strength properties of 250 N mm , but also show a volume swelling behavior of 20% and more. The
lower density <-> strength relationship of some very heavy tropical heartwood species (esp. Ebony
and Guaiac), shown by much lower strength properties related to their density, can be attributed to the
high amount of heartwood components, which contribute to the mass or density with partly 20% or
more; these components are well suitable to improve the dimensional stability and deliver mainly the
durability of these wood species by bonded phenolic compounds, but due to their missing fibril-
structure they are not able to improve the strength, especially not the bending or tensile strength.
16
Fig. 7.
Bending strength <-> Density relationship of 12 Central European species (Willow [Wil],
black Poplar [bPo], black Alder [bAl], Castanea [Cas], Birch [Bi], Ash, Oak [Oa], Beech [Be],
sorb Tree [sTr], Robinia [Rob], Mountain Ash [MAs], and Hornbeam [Hbe; blue rhombs]) as well
as (right) Balsa (red circle) and 5 tropical heartwood species (Azobé [Azo], Greenheart [GHt],
Guaiac [Gua], African Ebony [AEb]) and Macassar Ebony [MEb; red squares]). Wagenführ 2006.
Fig. 8.
Volume-Swelling <-> Density relationship of 12 Central European species (Willow [Wil],
black Poplar [bPo], black Alder [bAl], Castanea [Cas], Birch [Bi], Ash, Oak [Oa], Beech [Be],
sorb Tree [sTr], Robinia [Rob], Mountain Ash [MAs], and Hornbeam [Hbe; blue rhombs]).
Properties distribution within the same native wood species

Property variations among the same wood species, depending on site conditions, climate,
sylviculture management, age, and location in trees, are well known. This delivers, like shown in Fig. 9
for robinia and hornbeam, selected applications of single wood assortments, e.g. the use of robinia
wood material from the stem basis for median density and strength requirements, via the median and
higher stem till the tops and branches of the tree with highest density and strength values (Fig. 9). The
opposite trend happens in hornbeam: lowest density in branches, but equal MOR (Fig. 9.).
Fig. 9.
Property relationship Density <-> MOR in different stem-heights of 90 yrs. Robinia (Ro) and 80
yrs. Hornbeam ([Hb] yellow, brown, green, red markers) and branches (brown squares).
17
Property Improvement by Wood Densification and their Adaption for new Applications
Light-weight wood materials can play an important role in applications of bio-based materials:
compared to iron, steel, aluminum or concrete wood has an excellent weight – strength relationship,
delivering materials with low weight for special demands, like flexible building constructions or
automotive and other kinds of traffic, for example in case of e-mobility with heavy batteries.
But also the opposite can be of interest, resulting in a demand to use more heavy natural
wood assortments for higher strength requirements or to densify lighter wood with several technics.
Lighter wood species often grow much faster than heavy ones due to savings of
carbohydrates for thinner cell wall materials, often combined with a wider tolerance for poorer or dryer
sites. Thus wood densification, even in case of volume loss, can play an interesting role in wood
utilization, especially in case of additional combined upgrading processes, like thermal or chemical
treatments.
The following example show the density and MOE values after the densification of fast
growing poplar (clone F4) from plantations of short rotation coppice (SRC) management systems in
the Czech Rep. Using humidity, temperature and pressure, this VTC process (Viscoelastic Thermal
Compression) delivers engineered wood assortments of different density and strength classes (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10.
Density and MOE properties of native SRC-Poplar (CTRL) and after VTC-plasticization and
densification treatment (VTC1: densification factor ca. 2, VTC2 ca. 3 [Horníček et al. 2015]).
Property Improvement by chemical Wood Modification and their Adaption for new Applications
LIGNAMON: Another wood modification technic, the Czech patent ‚LIGNAMON’, is using
physical, thermal and chemical modification technics by combining steaming, ammonification and
heating steps with the wood densification treatment, delivering a material which has compared to the
-3
former raw material (native beech) a 1.6-fold higher density (1075 kg m ), a 2-fold higher hardness
(35 MPa), and a 30% reduced equilibrium moisture content (21% emc). Compared to only densified
beech after H2O-steaming (50% Volume Swelling VSw), the VSw of LIGNAMON was 2-fold reduced
and showed additionally a better durability during outdoor exposure (Pařil et al. 2014).
DMDHEU: This wood modification technic, using 1,3-dimethylol-4,5-dihydroxyethylenurea as a
non-biocide agent for cross-linking of the hydroxyl groups inside the cell walls, delivered a lot of
exterior applications for treated beech wood, normally not suitable for outdoor use (Rademacher et al.
2007). DMDHEU is an example of several modification technics, like Furfurylation, Esterification or
Silicium treatment, which interact chemically with the wooden cell wall. Other technics, like oil or wax
treatments only fill the cell lumen, or heat treatment, using temperatures between 160-240°C, changes
the cell wall structure and their binding sites.
The process was developed at the Göttingen University together with industry partners (BASF
AG, Heinrich Fahlenkamp GmbH & Co KG, Becker KG, Variotec GmbH & Co KG) to enhance the
utilization for beech wood, which was in the last decades more and more occurring on the Central
European wood market, but not or not sufficiently used for higher value applications.
DMDHEU can improve the durability class of beech wood from 5 to 2 (partly 1-2) and the
volume swelling, depending on the process (Fig. 11: treatment beech medium or high), from 17% to 6-
12%, making outdoor applications possible (Bollmus et al. 2010).
18
Fig. 11.
Examples of exterior use of DMDHEU-treated beech wood products and improvement of the
dimensional stability by reducing the volume swelling of beech & pine by medium or high
treatment.
Wood-impregnation with native agents: The utilization and application of bio-based materials
from renewable origin is a plausible indication of sustainability and in case of wood an important
advantage compared to non-renewable materials. But this principle should include also the entire
process chain from forest to end consumer, requiring also in the wood modification and treatment
steps solutions and agents from renewable, native origin (Rademacher et al. 2017).
The following example (Fig. 12) shows an impregnation process of poplar wood with extracts
gained from residues of heartwood species, for example robinia wood. The methanol-water extract of
sawmill or forest harvest residues was impregnated with vacuum-pressure cycles in an autoclave into
poplar wood samples in order to increase their durability and dimensional stability, demonstrated to be
improved by several investigations (Sablík et al. 2016; Rademacher et al. 2017).
Fig. 12.
UV-light induced shining in poplar wood: left: Reference, no impregnation ( no green, but
blue shining); mid: after robinia extract impregnation (intensive green shining); right: after
leaching (lower, but still green coloured shining, indicating remaining amounts of robinetin-
derivates in poplar wood).
CONCLUSIONS
The results demonstrated that the increase of the forestry cultivation and the wood-industry
application of lesser used wood species (luWS) can improve the bio- and material diversity to a great
extent. In frame of the climate change influences on forests and the produced wood locally
dramatically damages of the forest health and the wood growth occurred, visible in bark beetle
calamities, reduced growth conditions, or forest fires after drought or forest dieback. Additional luWS
can help to reduce or replace the dominant species and diminishing the observed negative influences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Support from the European Social Fund and the state budget of the Czech Republic, project
"The Establishment of an International Research Team for the Development of New Wood-based
Materials" reg. no. CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0269, the Czech Republic International Development Program
“MOBILITY” (CZ.02.2.69/0.0/0.0/16_027/0007953), the German Federal Ministry for Education and
Research (“Danube Network”, Grand-No. 01DS17011) and the BMBF Project “Improving forestry
Biodiversity and material Diversity by adapted Forest-Management and Industry-Application Strategies
19
for Wood from lesser used Species under Climate Change Conditions”, Grand-No. 01DS19043), and
the Hungarian-Danube-Region-Co-financing (EU_KP_16-1-2017-0009) are gratefully acknowledged.
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20
DATA SCIENCE REVOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOMATERIALS ACADEMIC

PROGRAMS – A FOCUS ON DATA QUALITY
Timothy YOUNG
University of Tennessee, Center for Renewable Carbon
2506 Jacob Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996-4542
Tel: +01 865 9461119, Fax: +01 865 9461109, E-mail: tmyoung1@utk.edu
Abstract
The goal of this research effort is to develop a data depository for processing ‘real-time
automated data fusion’ and ‘advanced algorithms for data quality improvement,’ both essential
elements for successful data mining using big data for ‘Cloud Manufacturing.’ Pragmatic data mining
and predictive analytics are the newest initiatives for improved business competitiveness. Predictive
analytics can improve manufacturing processes and lower costs of manufactured product. As a critical
part of this research, a ‘data fusion/quality improvement depository’ was developed for the sustainable
biomaterials allowing companies to submit anonymous databases for data fusion and data quality
improvement. The research advanced Industrie 4.0 by developing advanced algorithms with software
interfaces for these industries.
Key words: data quality; data fusion; data science; Industrie 4.0.
INTRODUCTION
Predictive analytics, data mining, and the use of ‘big data’ are paramount to success in
international business and research communities. Data mining and big data are fundamental to ‘Cloud
Manufacturing’ in the fourth industrial revolution known as ‘Industrie 4.0.’, i.e., “… where computers
and automation come together in a new way, with remote connectivity to computer systems equipped
with machine learning algorithms that are predictive (Zhong et al. 2017).” The sustainable biomaterials
industries and related agricultural industries are defined as companies that manufacture: biofuels,
bioenergy, lignocellulose products, Nano-biomaterials, wood composites (e.g., particleboard, medium
density fiberboard, etc.), engineered wood (e.g., oriented strand board, laminated veneer lumber,
cross laminated lumber, etc.), paper and paper products, processing of agricultural products (e.g., rice
processing, soybean processing, wheat processing, corn processing, etc.) from renewable feedstock
sources. The industries exist in highly competitive markets that are commodity-based, where
competitive advantage is sought by lowering the final costs of manufactured product. These industries
are important to the U.S. economy, but are facing growing competition from imported products and
substitution towards nonrenewable petroleum-derived products, e.g., PVC flooring, plastic moldings,
petroleum fuels, petroleum carbon fibers, etc. These companies can benefit from ‘Cloud
Manufacturing’ and the realization of ‘Industry 4.0’ where predictive analytics and real-time models are
essential to improved decision-making for lowering costs.
Successful data mining is not attainable without digital data integration and data of high
quality, i.e., data of high value. ‘Big data’ is defined relative to its context, i.e., the standard definition is
defined as multiple terabytes or petabytes. Gandomi and Haider (2015) suggest “big data is a
subjective label attached to situations in which human and technical infrastructures are unable to keep
pace with a company’s data needs.” In the context of sustainable biomaterials and related agricultural
industries, ‘big data’ from industrial processes may only be hundreds of gigabytes or less than one
terabyte. However, big data of any size, if it has poor quality, it has little value for business
improvement from applications of data mining and predictive analytics.
The importance of big data, data mining, and AI is emerging quickly in the sustainable
biomaterials industries with the advent of ‘Industry 4.0.’ This is exemplified by the Composite Panel
Association (CPA) annual meeting in March 2018 for its membership with a focus on data mining and
1
AI for manufacturing. LIGNA 2017, the largest international gathering of sustainable biomaterials
2
industries focused on ‘Industry 4.0.’ An important example in the use of big data for these industries
is the application of real-time data mining and predictive analytics that are accurate in predicting
failures which will directly help manufacturers reduce scrap product and rework (e.g., reduce
1
https://www.compositepanel.org/news-events/annual-meetings/2018-spring-meeting.html
2
http://www.ligna.de/en/register-plan/for-journalists/press-infos/press-releases/deutsche-messe-press-
releases/ligna-2017-delivers-big-on-innovations.xhtml
21
remanufacture of off-grade or failing production runs). An estimate from personal conversations with
two wood composite manufacturers is that approximately $1.5 million in losses per mill occur annually
due to scrap and rework from typical manufacturing facilities with annual capacities of approximately
2 3
500 mm ft . These losses do not account for additional energy losses and labor costs due to poor
quality. Predictive analytics may also help manufacturers diagnose unknown sources of variation from
the process (Deming 1986, 1993). Process variation in weight, thickness, solvent applications, drying,
etc., create significant costs for manufacturers in that variation influences operational targets. The
more variation in a process, the higher the required operational targets for the key inputs required to
maintain specification of final manufactured product, which represent additional costs not accounted
for in scrap and rework alone (Taguchi 2005).
There is a plethora of literature on data mining and big data (Blanc et al. 2008, Gelman et al.
2011, Lee et al. 2011, Manyika et al. 2011, Barton and Court 2012, Kim et al. 2012, Rich 2012,
Dumbill 2013, Fosso et al. 2015, Zhong et al. 2016, Deepak and Rani 2018, and many others).
However, a review of the literature suggests some gaps in data science research as related to the
issue of ‘automated data fusion’ which incorporates automated algorithms for ‘data quality assessment
and improvement.’ Liao et al. (2017) did an extensive review of the literature related to ‘Industry 4.0’
and found the majority of published research was insufficient in addressing digital integration of data
and lack of affordable data mining software. Moreover, the analyses by Liao et al. (2017) suggest a
huge gap exists between ‘Industry 4.0’ laboratory experiments (95.1%) and industrial applications
(4.9%). The proposed research effort will reduce this gap by developing algorithms for data fusion and
data quality improvement in a ‘data depository’ for the sustainable biomaterials and agricultural-based
industries. Theorin et al. (2015) called data the “hidden asset in manufacturing,” while Panetto and
Molina (2008) highlighted the lack of utilization of data in manufacturing. Theorin et al. (2016)
perceived that for future manufacturing systems to be competitive, “…they need to make better use of
plant data, ideally utilizing all data from the entire plant. Low-level data should be refined to real-time
information for decision making, to facilitate competitiveness through informed and timely decisions.”
Theorin et al. (2015) estimated that 85% of all manufacturing data are unstructured and not useful for
rapid decision making in high throughput production facilities.
Most sustainable biomaterials and related agricultural processing companies gather real-time
digital data from process sensors across programmable logic controller (PLC) networks that are stored
in real-time data warehouses. Such data are retrieved by operational personnel to monitor and assess
the stability of the process. A parallel information stream is also typically maintained by destructive
testing or quality control (QC) laboratories where critical product quality data are gathered periodically
throughout the production cycle e.g., tensile strength, modulus, water absorption, protein content,
starch content, etc. Due to the time required for destructive testing or QC assessments, the time gap
in data retrieval from the laboratories to operations personnel may be several hours. In the sustainable
biomaterials industries, large quantities of product are produced on high throughput presses during
this time gap. Predicting real-time quality attributes between the time gaps from periodic laboratory
samples may be invaluable to operations personnel in avoiding the manufacture of defective product,
or off-grade product. Data mining may also help diagnose sources of unknown variation in the
process. Cost savings can be significant if corrective action on sources of variation occurs which leads
to variation reduction of key inputs such as weight. For example, a reduction of 0.5% in operating
2
weight targets for a 500 mm ft capacity wood composite mill may result in cost savings of almost $2
4
million dollars annually. Lowering operating weight is challenging since this reduces board density
which in turn lowers strength (Fig. 1). But through data mining and modeling, other variables in the
process can be identified that positively impact strength resulting in an ability to lower density while
maintaining strength. Lower density saves materials costs because less feedstocks are needed to
manufacture the composite. Less feedstock usage helps for more efficient utilization of natural
resources, while lighter weight saves on transportation costs.
3
Personal telephone conversations were held with two plant managers in August 2018 that managed
a medium density fiberboard and particleboard mill in the southern United States, respectively. The
plant managers wish to remain anonymous, but can be contacted by reviewers or representatives
from USDA to verify the personal communications.
4
Personal telephone conversations with a plant manager of a particleboard mill in the southeast U.S.
in August 2018. The plant manager wishes to remain anonymous, but can be contacted by reviewers
or representatives from USDA to verify this personal communication.
22
Fig. 1.
Composite strength depends on the density or mat weight (Via 2013).
However, the vast majority of manufacturers in the sustainable biomaterials industries and
agricultural processing industries have not integrated the destructive testing and QC laboratories
databases with the real-time process data warehouses. The industries typically have the destructive
testing and QC laboratories databases on protected ‘business networks’ and PLC data warehouses on
separate protected ‘process networks.’ Integrating large amounts of digital data stored in multiple
databases across networks by data fusion and improving data quality is the gateway for discovery
using ‘Cloud Manufacturing’ and advanced data mining to support successful real-time predictive
analytics.
METHODS
Automated Digital Data Integration and Data Fusion
An integrated database that fuses the process data with the QC lab destructive or product
attribute test data was developed for users of the data depository. Users of the system will be required
to upload databases for integration. Most databases in the agricultural industries at the mill-level are
5
commercial where data are not encrypted (e.g., Microsoft SQL, OSIsoft PI, Sytec IPS B.V.). The
databases when uploaded to the depository will be converted for SQL access where SQL scripting
language will be used to accomplish the integration. After integration, the databases will be stored in
SQL or comma separated variable (.csv) files which are easily convertible to almost every commercial
software platform. The author has a breadth of experience with this task from prior published research
(André et al. 2008, Clapp et al. 2008, Kim et al. 2012, Via 2013, André and Young 2013, Young et al.
2014, Young et al. 2015).
Database Integration
In prior research studies (André et al. 2008, André and Young 2013, Young et al. 2014, Young
et al. 2015), destructive QC lab results from several sustainable biomaterials manufacturers were
matched with real-time process data from data warehouses using the ‘date-time’ stamp of the
destructive test sample selected from the production line. In prior studies, data were successfully
combined into SQL tables that appear in a fused database to support additional real-time data mining
and predictive analytical initiatives (Fig. 2).
5
Microsoft SQL. 2018, https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/sql-server/sql-server-2017; OSIsoft PI. 2018,
https://www.osisoft.com/pi-system/; Sytec IPS B.V. 2018, https://nld.bizdirlib.com/node/100715
23
Fig. 2.
Illustration of combination of data warehouse (real time data) with destructive test laboratory
data (event data).
The research in general will follow a similar approach where a Microsoft SQL table (e.g.,
“InSQLPivot”) will be created from the original databases that is a snapshot of the QC lab and process
data. In prior research, an “InSQLPivot_AV” table contained all of the lab or QC data and median
estimates of the last n = 100 records of real-time process data (note, real-time process records
typically are stored at rates of seconds and milliseconds). The sampling record length (n) will be at the
discretion of the user. An exclusive feature of the “InSQLPivot_AV” table was not only the automated
alignment and fusion of real-time process data with lab data, but also the ‘time-lagging’ of real-time
process data which will also be part of the proposed system.
Data Fusion Process

The following methods were used in prior research and will vary depending on the number of
databases and data structures that require fusion. For a two-database example, four tables are
created within a Microsoft SQL database, for example:
 InSQLPivot
 InSQLPivot_AV
 InSQLPivot_temp
 InSQLPivot_temp2.
“InSQLPivot” stores the destructive lab and process data which consists of columns for both
lab and process data. The field names for the lab data are preserved from the table where the lab data
originated. The field names for the process data are identical to the tag names for the respective
process parameters that are stored in these fields. In addition to these columns, a “DateTime” column
that is used to record the time at which the process data were collected is essential. It is anticipated
that sample ‘tagnames’ associated with lab test time will vary by user of the system. The user will
enter this necessary information in the user setup template. “InSQLPivot_AV” will consist of identical
columns as the “InSQLPivot” table. “InSQLPivot_temp” and “InSQLPivot_temp2” are used for
temporary storage of data while stored procedures are executing.
SQL Stored Procedures

In this example, four stored procedures are used to create the integrated database:
 sp_Fill_InSQLPivot_From_Lab_DB
 sp_Fill_ InSQLPivot_AV_From_Lab_DB
 sp_Fill_From_eventsnapshot
 sp_Fill_From_summarydata.
The stored procedure “sp_Fill_InSQLPivot_From_Lab_DB” records a copy of the QC lab data
into the “InSQLPivot” table. The “sp_Fill_ InSQLPivot_AV_From_Lab_DB” stored procedure records a
copy of the QC lab data into the “InSQLPivot_AV” table. The stored procedure
“sp_Fill_From_eventsnapshot” records data from the “v_eventsnapshot” view (process database) into
24
the “InSQLPivot.” A stored procedure “sp_Fill_From_eventsnapshot” records data from the

“v_summarydata” view (generated from process database) into the “InSQLPivot.” A “v_summarydata”
data will match the lab data using a unique number (e.g., idnum).
SQL Data Transformation Services

In the aforementioned example, Data Transformation Services (DTS) are used to output the
“InSQLPivot” and “InSQLPivot_AV” tables into two comma separated variable (.csv) files
(“InSQLPivot.csv” and “InSQLPivot_AV.csv”).
SQL Jobs
Three jobs are used to automate the process of inserting data into the “InSQLPivot” and
“InSQLPivot_AV” tables and generate the final .csv files for the user to retrieve from the depositary, for
example:
 InSQLPivot_Filler
 InSQLPivot_AV_Filler
 Create_CSVs_From_InSQLPivots.
The job “InSQLPivot_Filler” and “InSQLPivot_AV_Filler” are used to execute the stored
procedures. The job “Create_CSVs_From_InSQLPivots” is used to execute the DTS Package
“Create_CSVs_From_InSQLPivots” where the fused .csv files are generated (Fig. 3). The fused data
files then undergo data quality assessment. The users will be notified by e-mail that the fused data
files have been created and are undergoing data quality assessment.
Dynamic Time Lagging

A key and unique feature of the proposed research is dynamic time-lagging of process data. In
all continuous agricultural and sustainable biomaterials processes, material flows past on-line sensors
that measure attributes such as temperature, weight, moisture content, etc. This material passes the
sensors at different times in the process relative to the ‘end time’ at which the final product is
manufactured, i.e., process data from sensors stored in the data warehouse are typically not aligned in
Fig. 3.
Illustration of automated fused data file.
time with material flow.
Users of the depository are given the option to enter time lags for the process sensor data
(e.g., tagnames) stored in the process data warehouse. If the user does not have time lags, the user
will be asked for distances (e.g., inches, centimeters, feet, or meters) from the end point of
manufactured product and the location of the sensor associated with the “tagname.” Distances are
essential for dynamic time-lagging because of changes in the line speed of the process. This data
fusion process may require time and motion, and material flow studies by the users at their project
sites (Reigler et al. 2015). However, studying the time-lagging of sensors in the process relative to
material flow is extremely beneficial for creating a high quality fused databases for data mining and
real-time predictive analytics applications, see illustration in Fig. 4.
25
Fig. 4.
Flow chart illustration of data fusion process with examples of cycle time storage and lagged
record retrieval.
DISCUSSION
The Importance of Data Quality
This research is aligned with the need for improved data quality from integrated databases.
Francisco et al. (2017) and Ardagna et al. (2018) defined data quality (DQ) as an important issue for
modern organizations, mainly for decision-making based on information. Francisco et al. (2017)
indicated “…that in order to obtain quality data, it is necessary to implement methods, processes, and
specific techniques that handle information as a product, with well established, controlled, and
managed production processes, e.g., TQDM – Total Quality Data Management.” Ardagna et al. (2018)
stated “…data can create a real value only if combined with quality: good decisions and actions are
the results of correct, reliable and complete data, i.e., methods and techniques for the data quality
assessment can support the identification of suitable data to process.” Hazen et al. (2014) remarked,
“…for today’s supply chain professionals, there is an impetus for organizations to adopt and perfect
data analytic functions (e.g., data science, predictive analytics, and big data) in order to enhance
supply chain processes and, ultimately, performance. However, management decisions informed by
the use of these data analytic methods are only as good as the data on which they are based.” Cai
and Zhu (2015) further discuss, “high-quality data are the precondition for analyzing and using big
data and for guaranteeing the value of the data,” also see Batini et al. (2012) and Dumbill (2013).
Gupta and Rani (2018) highlight the challenges in terms of “data capture, storage, manipulation,
management, analysis, etc., and the wide gap that exists between big data potential and realization”
given the many data quality shortcomings. Gupta and Rani (2018) indicated the need for research
efforts in academia to assist industry in the understanding of big data and data quality. Liu et al.
(2015) further articulate this point, “big data brings lots of ‘big errors’ in data quality and data
usage….information incompleteness is one of these problems.”
This research addresses the problem of information incompleteness (or information loss) and
the development of automated algorithms to reduce information loss. However, research on ‘data
quality science’ to improve cloud manufacturing for the sustainable biomaterials and agricultural
processing industries has not been well documented. Given this need, we propose to develop a data
depositary and associated software systems for ‘real-time automated data fusion’ and ‘advanced
algorithms for data quality improvement,’ both essential elements for successful data mining and
predictive analytics.
Algorithms for Data Quality Assessment and Improvement

Outlier Assessment and Model Fitting. -- An outlier test will be performed on the datasets using the
Grubbs’ test, and others will be explored during the research. For example, the Grubbs’ test calculates
a test statistic iteratively for the smallest [1] and largest [2] values in the data set:
Smallest value, [1]

Largest value, [2]
where: is the sample mean,
th
is the i smallest value in the sample,
26
s is the standard deviation,

n is the number of observations in the sample.
Probability density functions (pdfs) for the variables in the datasets will be assessed using the
Aikake’s Information Criteria (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) test statistics (Akaike 1974,
Schwarz 1978). The AIC [3] and BIC [4] are given by:
[3]
[4]
where: is the maximized value of the likelihood function of the model,

is the number of parameters estimated by the model,
n is the number of observations in the sample.
AIC and BIC test statistics will be generated for the following probability density functions
(pdfs): Normal, Gamma, Lognormal, Weibull, Logistic, Loglogistic, Largest Extreme Value,
Exponential, and Frechet. A report will be generated for users indicating which data points are outliers
for the variables (tagnames) of the datasets and which pdfs are the best fits for each variable or
tagname. Generating a list of best fit for pdfs may be important for the dependent variables (Y), or
data in the QC lab or destructive test datasets. Many data mining applications of a stochastic nature
have important assumptions for the pdfs of the dependent variables.
Imputation Algorithms for Missing Fields. -- The authors have strong knowledge of data
imputation for process data from manufacturing processes. In the study by Zeng et al. (2016),
maximum-likelihood based imputation using the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm and multiple
imputation (MI) method with Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation were used to reduce
information loss for improved predictive analytics and data mining (Fig. 5). Other methods of
imputation will also be tested. The mean/median substitution method replaces missing fields with the
mean/median of the corresponding variable (Little 1992). The last observation carried forward (LOCF)
method simply replaces missing values with the last known value of the variable in a time-ordered
data set, see Gelman and Hill (2007), and Hamer et al. (2009). The simple random imputation method
(‘hot-deck method’) replaces missing values with a randomly selected value from another observation
of the same variable (Altmayer 2002, Lanning and Berry 2003).
(a) Without Imp

Predicted MOR (kPa)
14000
Predicted IB (kPa)
600 800
10000
400
r=0.91
6000
RMSEP=675.7 r=0.89
200
RMSEP=59.6
6000 8000 10000 14000 200 400 600 800

Actual MOR (kPa) Actual IB (kPa)
Predicted failures (b) Imputation w
Predicted MOR (kPa)
Predicted IB (kPa)
800
12000
600
6000 8000
400
r=0.93
RMSEP=646.4
r=0.92
200
RMSEP=52.6
6000 8000 10000 14000 200 400 600 800

Actual MOR (kPa) Actual IB (kPa)
Fig. 5.
XY scatter plots and correlation coefficients for validation data set predicting MOR and IB
using Bayesian Additive Regression Tree (BART) models for a) top two graphs without
imputation; b) bottom two graphs with imputation (Zeng et al. 2016).
27
In general, the EM algorithm works as follows: 1) fill-in the missing data, Ymis, based on , 2)
re-estimate based on the now complete data, 3) and iterate until convergence. As Dempster et al.
(1997) observed, EM does not directly estimate the missing data, just the functions of missing data
that appear in the likelihood function, which in many cases are much simpler to estimate than the
entire missing dataset (Agarwal 2001). MI imputation methods replace each missing value with a set
of plausible values that represent the uncertainty of the true value. The key steps can be summarized
as follows (Allison 2000): 1) impute missing values using an appropriate model such as regression
model that incorporates random variation; 2) repeat this process N times, producing N complete data
sets; 3) perform the desired analysis on each data set using standard complete-data methods; 4)
average the values of the parameter estimates across the N samples to produce a single point
estimate. A direct approach for MI is MCMC (Schafer 1997). In general, MCMC is a collection of
techniques for obtaining pseudorandom draws from a probability distribution.
In Zeng et al. (2016) the EM and MI algorithms when compared with mean/median
substitution, last-value-carried-forward (LOCF), and ‘hot-deck’ random replacement, provided better
results in prediction for the test data for final quality attributes of manufactured product. In general
Zeng et al. (2016) found that better predictive analytics (and predicting failures in a process) were
achieved from imputed datasets than predictive analytics based on non-imputed datasets. A
substantial achievement lending credibility to this proposal is that the imputed data sets were tested in
an industrial setting where real-time data were collected and the aforementioned algorithms were used
to improve the quality of a manufacturers fused data sets. All of the aforementioned algorithms will be
developed as one system for reducing information loss. Real-time data validation tests will be part of
the system where the best imputation methods will be selected for the use in the final database.
However, the user of the system may ask to have separate imputed databases by method which will
developed for them.
Depositary Database and Software Platform

The key steps in the system are that the participants of the data depositary compete key
information about the data structure and ‘tagnames’ that will link the digital data. A secure VPN portal
will be established and participants will be sent a three-level password to enter the portal. All data will
be encrypted upon entry into the portal and also encrypted upon exit of the portal. After data fusion
and data improvement a report will be generated for all users that identify key attributes of the fused
data and the data quality improvement that occurred, e.g., number of outliers removed by tagname,
records removed, level of data imputation, and probability density function by tagname. The proposed
data depository is illustrated in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6.
Illustration of data depository with data fusion and data quality improvement.
28
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32
ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT PRE-TREATED PLANT MATERIALS FOR THEIR

USABILITY AS INSULATION MATERIALS AND DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS
*
Thomas SCHNABEL
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. Department of forest products technology and timber
constructions. Marktstraße 136a, 5431 Kuchl, Austria
E-mail: thomas.schnabel@fh-salzburg.ac.at
Marius Catalin BARBU

Transilvania” University of Brasov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
Str. Universitatii nr.1, 500068 Brasov, Romania
Hermann HUBER
Alexander PETUTSCHNIGG
BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz-Straße 24, 3430 Tulln,
Austria
Alexander JÄGER
University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Bio &
Environmental Technology, Stelzhamerstr. 23, 4600 Wels, Austria
Abstract
Raw materials of annual plants fibres are not easily usable for industrial production
applications. Pre-treatment of the annual plant fibres is necessary to increase the homogeneity of the
material and to improve the material properties. This study deals with the influence of steam explosion
treatment on the quality of annual plant fibres used as insulating material.
Wheat straw material was selected for production of insulating panels and bulk insulation material. To
clarify the changes within the structure of the plants due to the pre-treatment process material analysis
was carried out using FT-IR spectroscopy and light microscope.
The results showed that the pre-treatment process homogenizes the materials and the
processes could be used for the production of bulk insulation and panels. A comparison of the results
from other studies were done to show the potential of innovative materials and applications.
Key words: thermal-hydro treatment of straw; thermal conductivity; wheat straw insulation.
INTRODUCTION
Crops material used as insulating material has a long tradition. The applications of these
natural raw materials need the considerations of the anisotropic material properties and
microbiological issues as well as contamination from harvesting. Pre-treatments of these plant fibres
have potential to decrease microbiological issues from the raw materials and increase their
homogeneity and to improve the material properties (Nagl et al. 2015 a, b). In this study, the effect of
steam explosion treatment of wheat straw material for insulating material was examined, and also
based on the results an overview of the development of various materials and products for different
applications are discussed.
The steam explosion treatment modifies the chemical composition, the sorption behaviour and
the mechanical properties of wheat straw fibres (Han et al. 2009). A degradation of lignin and
hemicellulose (polyose) was determined (Schnabel et al. 2019). The structural changes due to the
steam explosion treatment were analysed by Han et al. (2010). They concluded that higher steam
*
Corresponding author
33
temperatures and longer retention times results in more homogeneous fibre materials. The analysis of
thermal conductivity of miscanthus and maize straw materials shows that the steam explosion process
has a positive influence. The treated and fractionated material with the same particle size range has
lower thermal conductivity values than the raw materials (Schnabel et al. 2019). Moreover, the
opportunity of glue less fibreboards made from steam exploded Miscanthus sinensis was analysed by
Velásquez et al. (2002). It could be shown that the mechanical properties have increased due to the
treatment process.
This study deals with the results of many different pre-treatment processes (e.g., mechanical,
enzymatic or thermal-mechanical processes) of the raw materials of various plant species (Krenn et al.
2017a,b, Nagl et al. 2015a,b, Schnabel et al. 2019). Here the influence of the different treatment
processes on the chemical, structural and technological changes of the material properties was
analysed. Subsequently, the material was used for the production of insulating materials with natural
adhesive systems on a laboratory scale, used to possible suitability of the treated raw materials for
insulating materials.
Fig. 1.
Research approach for the development of new insulation materials from different plant
materials.
One possible opportunity to save raw materials (e.g., wood) and to substitute oil-based
products is to use straw as thermal insulation materials (Nagl et al. 2015a). In Figure 1 is shown the
research approach for the usage of unused raw straw materials from the agricultural areas. Straw as
stating material is inexpensive, fast growing, locally available and easily manipulative. Normally, if the
soil needs plant nutrient matter, then the straw materials are left/burned in the field. However, there
are some agricultural fields that do not need the supply of additional substances. For this area the
straw can used for other application. On the one hand the straw is also used for bedding of livestock
breeding. On the other hand, this raw material can be used to develop innovative materials. The
harvesting and production of the straw bale in the field is important for the further usability. Currently,
straw bales are used either as load bearing structure or as infill wall (e.g., wood beam structures).
Moreover, the increasing of the market shares of the bio-based insulation materials may yield a
positive effect on long-term CO2 fixation. This study shows potential of possible materials and products
for insulating applications.
EXPERIMENTAL
Straw Materials
Straw of wheat (Triticum L.) was used for the analysis of insulating properties. The air-dried
materials were mulched/chopped with agricultural equipment.
34
Steam Explosion Process

The straw was treated under steam explosion conditions using a pilot plant of the Upper
Austria University of Applied Sciences. The pilot plant was detailed described by Eisenhuber et al.
(2013). Steam temperature was 180°C and the retention time was 10 minutes. Each batch of about
900g of straw was put inside the steam chamber. The treated straw was dried to a moisture content
between 6 and 12%.
Determination of the particle size distribution

The particle size distribution was analysed according to the DIN CEN/TS 15149-2 (2010). The
vibratory sieve shaker AS 200 digit from Retsch was applied. For all materials the time for vibration
was 15min with an amplitude of 50. The weight for each sieve was used to calculate the percentage of
the different particle sizes.
FT-IR Spectroscopy
For the FT-IR measurements each raw material was milled with a cutting mill (Retsch) to pass
a mesh of 500µm and the fractions between 250 and 63µm were separated with a sieving apparatus
-1
(Retsch). The spectra of the milled materials were recorded between 4000 and 600cm with 32 scans
-1
at a resolution of 4cm using a Frontier FT-IR spectrometer (PerkinElmer) equipped with a Miracle
diamond ATR accessory with a 1.8mm round crystal surface. The average of three spectra was
baseline-corrected and used for the further analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Steam explosion process is widely used for the pre-treatment of plant biomass (Schnabel et
al. 2019). The performance of steam explosion process depends on temperature, retention time and
particle size of the materials. For this study, the wheat straw biomass particle was put into a small
vessel, pressurized and heated with steam 180°C temperature conditions and 10min processing time.
After that the steam was quickly released and the straw particle exploded at atmospheric pressure into
fibres due to a rupture of the biomass fibres rigid structure. The sudden pressure release of the wet
particles defibrillates the cell complex of the lignocellulosic materials.
Fig. 2.
Raw materials of wheat with different treatments: a) chopped and b) steam pressurised at
macro level, respectively as well as c) 2mm fraction of steam exploded and d) 500µm fraction
of steam exploded material at micro level by analysing with a light microscope at 40x
magnification, respectively.
35
Figure 2 shows the raw material of wheat before and after the steam explosion process at the
macro and micro levels. The structure of the raw material is destroyed and it can be observed that this
process frayed out the cell complex of the lignocellulosic materials. However, after the drying process
some conglomerates of the materials could be seen for the wheat straw materials. The steam
explosion influences on the material on fibre and fibrils levels were shown in Figure 2.
The analysis at the macro level depicted that the particle size distributions between the natural
and treated materials are different. The results from this pilot study showed that the size of the wheat
straw particles tend to be smaller after the treatment than before the treatment (Figure 3). The portion
of material fractions below 250µm were almost 3% for the chopped raw materials. By contrast the
treated materials show an amount of 15%. The high difference about 13% between treated and
untreated materials can be also observed in the next fraction between 250µm and 1mm.
Most of these fractions are dust and cannot be used for the development of insulating
materials as well as this material is lost for the insulation material. However, this dust fraction has a
high impact on the bulk density. The sieve results for the particle fraction larger than 4mm depict that
the relative amount of chopped and steam treated wheat materials have as similar range of 44 to 39%.
Fig. 3.
Particle size distribution regarding the raw wheat and treated wheat materials.
The chemical changes of the different materials due to the stream explosion process were
analysed by using FT-IR spectroscopy (Figure 4). The chemical changes of the plant components due
to the steam explosion occurred mainly in holocelluloses and in lignin (Schnabel et al. 2019). Also, an
incomplete disruption of lignin-carbohydrate-complex happens, whereas the hemicelluloses are easily
soluble and the pulp remains. This was also the first impression of the chemical changes caused by
steamed pressurized treatments. A difference between the IR spectra of treated and untreated wheat
-1
straw samples were observed at the wavenumbers in the area about 2910cm . The peaks obtained at
-1 -1
2930cm and 2890cm are an indication of stretching vibration form CH, CH2 and CH3 (Pretsch et al.
2010). These functional groups are corresponding with the wax on the raw materials. The peak at
-1
around 1730cm is an initiation of carbonyl groups or COOH-groups, which may correspond with the
-1
hemicellulose. At around 1510cm a peak can be observed, which are corresponding to the aromatic
molecules (Pretsch et al. 2010). This peak can be increased due to the treatment based on the
-1
exploration process of the wheat straw materials. The band around 1240cm was confirmed to the
stretching vibration of C=O and COOH groups of aromatic compounds and hemicellulose. Based on
this results, it can be assumed that the material composition was changed due to the steam explosion
process.
36
Besides the chemical modification the material properties are important for the application for
the use as insulating materials. Nagl et al. (2015a,b), Krenn et al. (2017a,b) und Schnabel et al. (2019)
analysed the different material properties of various untreated and treated plant materials (e.g. from
hemp, miscantus, maize). The use of steam pressurised materials has positive effects on the bulk
densities and thermal conductivity by using fractionated materials for the insulation materials. Also,
they stated that boards made out of untreated annual and perennial plants can keep up with
conventional concerning the thermal conductivity.
Fig. 4.
FT-IR spectra of treated and untreated wheat straw materials in the wavenumber range
-1
between 600 to 1800cm .
Although mineral wool, polystyrene, PU and phenolic foam are able to achieve lower thermal
conductivity the aspect of sustainability and the fact of economical and local acquirable recourse are
good reasons for the use of plant materials for insulation materials.
Based on the results from previous studies by Nagl et al. (2015a,b), Krenn et al. (2017a,b) and
Schnabel et al. (2019) different plant materials with various treatments were used to develop
innovative products for insulating materials. This overview based on different treatments is shown in
Figure 5.
As the treatment intensity increases, the digestion of the plant fibres or particles also
increases the application possibilities of the material. For example, the straws with the lowest
mechanical processing in the field cannot be used as fibre raw material for insulation boards or
injection materials without further processing. However, it is also possible to use thermo-mechanically
defibered material (e.g. steam explosion) for the production of fibreboard insulating materials. This
study also showed, however, that the higher the treatment intensity of the material is the higher the
fine fraction (e.g. dust) and the resulting material loss. In most cases, the fine fraction must be
reduced by suitable methods in order to manufacture products or materials.
In general, straw can be used to manufacture a wide range of products and materials for the
use of insulation materials. Current research suggests that straw can be used to insulate buildings.
37
Fig. 5.
Overview of the starting raw materials and the resulting processed materials.
Different material properties can be achieved depending on the raw material (e.g. wheat and
hemp), pre-treatment (e.g. chopped and steam pressurized), adhesive (e.g. tannin and water glass,
...) and bulk density of the boards (Nagl et al. 2015a,b, Krenn et al. 2017a,b, Schnabel et al. 2019).
These influence the product concepts for outdoor or indoor use. Due to the achieved material strength,
the boards can be fastened to the façade with commercially available screws and/or plugs for
insulating materials (cf. Figure 6).
The first injection tests showed very good technological material values of the defibred straw
with regard to density, thermal conductivity and injection behaviour. Therefore, the existing injection
systems and wall structures can be used for the most part for the straw material. The raw density
values achieved in the blow-in tests with the defibred straw showed comparable values as with
cellulose or wood fibre blow-in insulation and should therefore also provide the necessary settlement
safety. However, long-term investigations on the settlement safety of the material still had to be carried
out. The individual material and product developments were evaluated with regard to the technical and
economic areas and examined for industrial feasibility. The collection of the process data for the
individual pre-treatments was carried out on the basis of the available literature.
38
Fig. 6.
Overview of possible materials and products as well as their applications.
Since the pre-treatments in this study were carried out with laboratory equipment, these data
are not representative and cannot be used for an objective consideration. Depending on the material
pre-treatment, different insulating materials (e.g. board material or blow-in insulation) with different
property values can be produced. Furthermore, natural adhesive systems (e.g. tannin, a natural
ingredient from e.g. tree bark) with very good bonding properties were successfully used in the
production of the insulating materials and thus include an important environmental aspect in the
production and disposal of boards.
CONCLUSIONS
Steam explosion treatment were used to defibrillate the straw materials of wheat. These
particles and fibres were analysed for the applicability as insulating material. Furthermore, based on
this study and previous studies possible innovative products from the treated and untreated plant
materials were outlined. Within the limitation of these results, the main conclusion can be drawn as
follows:
o Boards made out of untreated annual and perennial plants can keep up with conventional
concerning the thermal conductivity.
o The chemical composition of treated material is changing.
o The particle size of the steam pressurised samples decreases compared to the reference
samples due to destroying of natural fibre composite.
o Lower material moisture contents were measured for the treated samples.
o The use of steam pressurised materials has positive effects on the bulk densities and thermal
conductivity by using fractionated materials.
According to these results the possible application of natural and steam pressurised materials
as bulk insulating material and insulating boards are shown. These findings provide a basis for help in
transfer from laboratory to industrial conditions for consumer applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge for the support of the Austrian Research Promotion
Agency (FFG) under grant no. 836991.
39
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organischer Verbindungen. Springer-Verlag. Berlin Heidelberg
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explosion technology for their usability as insulating materials. Agronomy Research 17:1191-1198.
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40
SECTION 1.
WOOD
STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES
THE MECHANICAL AND RESONANCE ASSESSMENT OF LARGE CLEAR

SAMPLES OF UK-GROWN BEECH WOOD
Dan RIDLEY-ELLIS
Centre for Wood Science & Technology, Edinburgh Napier University
Unit 1, 37 Bankhead Crossway South, Edinburgh EH11 4EP, United Kingdom
Tel: 0044 131 4552449, E-mail: d.ridleyellis@napier.ac.uk
Abstract
The paper presents the results of non-destructive longitudinal resonance (impulse excitation
technique), and mechanical flexural testing, of a batch of European beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.),
grown in the United Kingdom. The material was largely free from visible defects and straight grained,
having been visually appearance graded by the sawmill. The dynamic modulus of elasticity of original
length boards is compared to density and global modulus of elasticity results from short lengths cut
from a subset of those boards, tested in four-point bending about the minor axis. A method of
weighting, based on the first mode wavelength, is shown to improve the correlation, partly accounting
for variation within the boards, and the relative contribution to the resonance behaviour. The results
are used to estimate the structural grading of the full batch and shown to be similar to results from
previous small clear testing of UK-grown beech (within 5-10%). The relatively small number of boards
from a single batch, from a single location means that the results are only an indication of potential
quality, but they give confidence that further research should be done into the potential of UK-grown
beech, especially for glued-laminated construction products, as has been done in Europe.
Key words: beech; non-destructive testing; acoustic methods; strength grading.
INTRODUCTION
European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is one of the most abundant and widespread hardwood
species in Europe (Houston Durrant, de Rigo & Caudullo 2016). The wood has many historical uses,
but it is relatively underutilised in the modern wood products industry. Under the European
harmonised standard for structural timber, EN 14081-1 (CEN 2016a) there are assignments for visual
strength grading in EN 1912 (CEN 2012a), for beech grown in Germany, to EN 338 hardwood classes
D40 and D35 (CEN 2016c). There are approved assignments to be incorporated into a revision of
EN 1912 for beech from France and Belgium to also be assigned to D40 or D35, with the addition of
D24 or D18 in combination. There are, at present, no approved settings for machine controlled grading
of beech, although there has been work for glulam production (e.g. Frese and Blaß 2007).
In the United Kingdom there is only a very small hardwood industry, despite half of the
woodland area being broadleaf, of which beech represents about 7% (Forest Research 2018). In 2017
the removals of roundwood were 0.7 million green tonnes of hardwood, compared to 10.9 million
green tonnes for softwood (Forest Research 2018). The majority of the hardwood removals (~80%)
were used for woodfuel, with about 10% going to sawmills (Forest Research 2018). Despite these
current low levels, the public perceptions of broadleaf forests, and especially native species like
beech, are much better than for commercial conifers so it is worth looking at potential future markets.
The warming climate may see greater productivity for beech in northern UK (Forest Research 2019).
OBJECTIVES
The objective of the work covered by this paper was to undertake an indicative
characterisation of the bending strength, bending stiffness and density of the beech, relevant to
strength grading. The secondary objective was to examine the variation of those properties within
boards, and to assess how this influences non-destructive assessment by longitudinal resonance,
even when the boards are clear and uniform.
METHOD, MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

As part of a construction innovation project, a batch of 181 UK-grown sawn, planed and dried,
beech boards was obtained from East Brothers sawmill (Wiltshire, South West England). The timber
had been visually graded at the sawmill according to appearance grading rules, with specification for
F-D1R or F-D2 in accordance with EN 975-1:2009 (CEN 2009). The mass and first mode resonant
43
longitudinal frequency was measured for all boards with a Brookhuis MTG960 grading machine.
Three boards were removed from the set for failing to get reliable frequency values, leaving 178 for
the analysis. These boards were further appearance graded at Edinburgh Napier University to select
10 nearly clear, straight grained timbers (similar to F-DAR, allowing small knots) without fissures for
bending testing, and also which represent the range of dynamic stiffnesses measured (see below).
While these appearance grading rules are not visual strength grading, they do have influence on the
mechanical properties by limiting knots, which are strength reducing defects. This, combined with the
relatively small number of boards from a single batch, from a single location means that the results
presented below should not be taken as generally applicable to UK grown beech, but are instead an
indication of potential quality only.
Non-destructive data for the whole sample of 178 beech boards

The batch of 178 beech boards (of planed rectangular cross-section) were all 30mm thickness
and had widths of 100, 105, 125 and 140mm. Lengths varied from 1.6m to 3.5m, with about half the
boards being 2.1m (Table 1). The actual dimensions of each board were measured manually, and
used in subsequent calculations.
Table 1
Nominal dimensions and numbers of beech boards
Nominal Nominal width [mm] (Nominal thickness = 30 mm) Total n
length [mm] 100 105 125 140
1600 2 (1) 0 1 (1) 0 3
1900 0 1 0 0 1
2000 1 0 1 1 3
2100 43 8 29 (2) 4 84
2200 1 0 0 0 1
2300 7 0 1 1 9
2400 4 0 1 (1) 0 5
2500 1 1 0 0 2
2600 3 (1) 1 0 1 5
2700 12 (1) 0 1 3 16
2800 14 1 1 8 24
3100 1 2 8 (1) 0 11
3500 2 3 (1) 9 (1) 0 14
Total 91 17 52 18 178
Note: Number of boards selected for destructive testing is given in brackets
The mass of each board was measured using the balance of a Brookhuis MTG960 grading
machine at the same time as the longitudinal first mode resonant frequency. The MTG960 software
was operating in “frequency mode” allowing the measured basic values to be used directly. This
avoids the adjustments for moisture content and modelled static modulus of elasticity within the
software, allowing them to be done separately as outlined below.
The moisture content of the whole batch was assumed to be 10% at time of measurement,
based on gravimetric measurement on the subsample of boards later tested destructively. At this time,
the air temperature in the laboratory where the samples were stored was about 13°C and the relative
humidity was about 45%. The theoretical equilibrium moisture content (Simpson's method after the
Hailwood-Horrobin equation) for the preceding month varied between about 8% and 11%.
The whole board density (ρu%) was calculated (equation (1)) using the measured mass (Mu%)
and dimensions (thickness Tu%, width Wu% and length Lu%) and adjusted to 12% reference moisture
content (ρ12%) using the equations in EN 384 (CEN 2018) (equation (2)). The dynamic modulus of
elasticity (Edyn,u%) was calculated according to equation (3) where Vu% is the acoustic velocity and fu% is
the measured resonant frequency. This was also adjusted to 12% reference moisture content (Edyn,12%)
using the equations for modulus of elasticity in EN 384 (equation (4)).
Although it is now a common method of grading timber in sawmills, there is no European
standard for determining dynamic modulus of elasticity of timber. However, it is similar to the
instantaneous excitation mode procedure in EN 14146 for natural stone (CEN 2004). In this case, the
internal measurement quality algorithms of the MTG960 decided if the measurement is good, and the
first good measurement was used for the calculations. Previous studies with this machine, including
44
development of grading settings for British grown spruce, larch and Douglas-fir (e.g. Ridley-Ellis
2017a, 2017b, Ridley-Ellis & Gil-Moreno 2018), have shown that the measurement is very repeatable,
and the same as measured by other similar devices, so long as the machine reports the correct
frequency peak (i.e. the fundamental rather than a harmonic). Since some of the boards were
relatively short compared to the cross-section width (ratios as low as 13:1), the correction factor in
EN 14146 for dynamic modulus of elasticity was applied, assuming a Poisson’s ratio of 0.4. This,
however, makes very little difference to the results as the maximum correction factor is less than 1.001
(equation (5)).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Selecting 10 boards for destructive testing, and bending test results

Ten boards were selected from the batch covering the range of dynamic modulus of elasticity
and density, and with almost clear, straight grained wood. These boards were cross-cut into bending
test specimens (n = 37) with density samples (n = 27) between. These bending test specimens were
tested in four-point bending about the minor axis to obtain bending strength and global modulus of
elasticity in accordance with EN 408 (CEN 2012b), with the exception of the conditioning environment
which was as described above. The standard test span of 18 times nominal depth was used. Density
and moisture content determined in accordance with EN 13183-1 (CEN 2002). The global modulus of
elasticity was adjusted to 12% reference moisture content using the equations in EN 384 (same basis
as equation (4)) using the average of moisture content of the density samples from the same original
board. The bending strength reported here are not adjusted for cross-section depth (kh would be 1.3,
i.e. reducing bending strength by 30%). In specimens that contain defects, the minor axis bending
strength would be expected to be, overall, lower than the major axis bending strength (hence the
procedure for establishing grading is normally based on major axis bending (Ridley-Ellis, Stapel and
Baño 2016), but since these specimens are clear wood it is expected that the two would be similar.
Table 2
Summary of non-destructive testing, adjusted to 12% moisture content
Group Dynamic modulus of elasticity Whole board density
2 3
[kN/mm ] [kg/m ]
Whole batch (n = 178) 14.7 (11%) 741 (6%)
Subsample (n = 10) 14.8 (11%) 748 (6%)
Note: Coefficient of variation is given in brackets

The non-destructive results are summarised in Table 2 and Fig. 1i. The dynamic modulus of
2 2
elasticity ranged from 9.8 to 17.7kN/mm with mean 14.7kN/mm and coefficient of variation of 11%.
3 3
The whole board density ranged from 666 to 862kg/m with mean 741kg/m and coefficient of variation
2
of 6%. Density and dynamic modulus of elasticity were correlated with R = 0.34. The density and
stiffness did not vary by cross-section width or length. These dynamic modulus of elasticity values are
similar to the highest visual grade (German-grown) beech reported by Frese and Blaß (2007).
The results of the bending tests are summarised in Tables 3 and 4 and Fig. 1ii. Table 3 shows
the values for the board subsamples, in which the lowest strength, stiffness and density in each of the
10 boards is highlighted in bold. These limiting board values are summarised in Table 4. The
2
correlation between all board strength and global stiffness values (n = 37) was good (R = 0.64) and
2
for the limiting strength and stiffness values of the boards (n = 10) was similar (R = 0.72).
45
Table 3 part 1
Summary of destructive testing, adjusted to 12% moisture content
Specimen Bending Bending Density Moisture Ring width

3
strength stiffness [kg/m ] content [mm]
2 2
[N/mm ] [kN/mm ] [%]
a 114 11.7
ab 718 9.9% 4.6
b 112 11.8
B7 bc 695 9.9% 4.5
c 72.7 * 10.9 *
cd 689 9.9% 5.1
d 106 11.3
a 110 ** 11.9 **
B23 ab 759 10.3% 7.3
b 114 12.5
a 115 12.5
ab 665 10.0% 4.6
b 116 13.0
B41 bc 665 10.0% 4.0
c 122 13.6
cd 678 9.9% 4.0
d 115 13.2
a 102 11.6
ab 734 10.0% 5.8
b 105 12.0
bc 745 10.2% 4.3
B72 c 111 12.9
cd 710 10.1% 6.6
d 96.6 11.0
de 708 10.2% 4.3
e 109 11.1
a 98.9 ** 11.7 **
ab 721 10.1% 3.3
B96 b 117 14.3
bc 742 10.3% 3.6
c 109 13.0
a 135 14.9
B99 ab 808 10.8% 4.4
b 134 14.7
a 134 16.4
ab 797 10.8% 4.4
b 131 16.0
B101
bc 801 10.8% 5.0
c 122 15.1
cd 793 10.4% 6.0
46
d 125 14.6
a 117 12.2
ab 742 10.0% 5.2
B111 b 114 11.9
bc 727 10.0% 5.6
c 109 11.7
Note 1: * B7c had a 20 mm knot in the shear span and failed there. ** B23a & B96a had inclined grain.
Note 2: Longest specimens had 5 parts (a-e) & shortest specimens had 2 parts (a-b) …continued
Table 3 part 2
Summary of destructive testing, adjusted to 12% moisture content
Specimen Bending Bending Density Moisture Ring width
3
strength stiffness [kg/m ] content [mm]
2 2
[N/mm ] [kN/mm ] [%]
a 108 ** 12.6 **
ab 756 10.0% 6.6
b 118 14.1
bc 769 10.2% 8.2
B114 c 119 13.9
cd 768 10.2% 6.8
d 114 14.5
de 769 10.4% 6.4
e 123 13.8
a 115 13.6
ab 722 10.5% 4.0
b 117 13.3
bc 722 10.5% 4.4
B176 c 109 13.6
cd 711 10.4% 4.6
d 117 13.5
de 699 10.4% 4.7
e 107 12.1
Note: ** B114a had inclined grain.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity was strongly correlated with the average global modulus of
2
elasticity of the individual test pieces (Fig. 1iii, R = 0.97), but this correlation can be further improved
by weighting the average according to the shape of the first mode of longitudinal vibration. Since there
is a node in the middle of the length and antinodes at each end, the weighting can be done using half
of a sine wave. This accounts for the relative greater contribution of wood in the middle of the length to
2
the first mode resonance frequency, and brings the R value to 0.99. The weights are:
for 2 parts =(0.50,0.50), 3 =(0.25,0.50,0.25), 4 =(0.15,0.35,0.35,0.15), 5 =(0.10,0.25,0.31,0.25,0.10).
There was a good correlation between bending strength and global modulus of elasticity and
whole density, allowing strength values to be estimated for all boards in the batch with equation (6).
Bending test stiffness can be estimated with equation (7) and density sample density with equation
(8). Note that these attempt to predict the lowest values within a board. The within board coefficient of
variation for strength was 4%, except in case of B7 where it was 19% due to failure at a knot. For
global bending stiffness the coefficient of variation was 5%, for density 2% and ring width 10%.
2
{Board min bending strength} = 4.79×{Dynamic MoE Edyn} + 0.12×{whole board density} -50.5 N/mm
2
(R = 0.54) (6)
2 2
{Board min bending stiffness} = 0.72×{Dynamic MoE Edyn} – 1.68 kN/mm (R = 0.80) (7)
47
3 2
{Density sample density} = 1.03×{whole board density} – 41.6 kg/m (R = 0.97) (8)
These prediction equations allow comparisons of grade determining properties based on the
whole batch, to previously published mean values from small clear testing of UK-grown beech
(Table 5). They also allow estimation of characteristic values for comparison with EN 338 strength
classes (Table 6), for which the parametric method confidence adjustments of EN 14358 (CEN 2016b)
have been applied. To be conservative, the confidence adjustment for mean stiffness is also applied
even though this is not normally done for stiffness values.
Table 6 compares to EN 338 strength classes D and C (hardwoods may be assigned to
softwood strength classes, C), although the hardwood D class can be seen to fit better. It appears that
the stiffness is the limiting property in both cases. However, since this is just one batch of timber, and
a relatively small amount of testing that is not conducted in line with requirements for grading
assignments (EN 14081-1 and EN 384), these numbers are indicative only. They do, however,
compare well to existing visual grading assignments for beech grown in Germany, France and
Belgium, but with slightly lower stiffness.
(i)
R = 0.58
(ii)
48
(iii)
Fig. 1.
Matrix of scatter plots and Pearson correlation coefficients (R) for (i) non-destructive
measurements (n=178), (ii) destructive measurements (n=10) and (iii) prediction models (n=10).
Significance levels are shown as stars: p *** = 0.001, ** = 0.01, * = 0.05
(ii) and (iii) dynamic modulus of elasticity is uniform because of the subsampling method
Since beech is diffuse porous, the poor correlation between ring width and wood density is expected
Table 4
Per board summary of destructive testing, adjusted to 12% moisture content
Specimen Minimum Mean Dynamic
Bending Bending Density Moisture Ring MoE
3
strength stiffness [kg/m ] content width Edyn
2 2 2
[N/mm ] [kN/mm ] [%] [mm] [kN/mm ]
B7 72.7 {91.9} 10.9 {10.9} 689 {683} (700) 9.9 4.8 12.8 [11.4]
B23 110 {105} 11.9 {11.5} 759 {762} (777) 10.3 7.3 13.6 [12.2]
B41 115 {98.0} 12.5 {12.2} 665 {663} (681) 10.0 4.2 14.5 [13.2]
B72 96.6 {96.6} 11.0 {11.2} 708 {706} (723) 10.1 5.3 13.2 [12.0]
B96 98.9 {108} 11.7 {12.4} 721 {738} (753) 10.2 3.4 14.9 [13.4]
B99 134 {124} 14.7 {13.7} 808 {805} (818) 10.8 4.4 16.6 [14.8]
B101 122 {128} 14.6 {14.4} 793 {789} (803) 10.6 5.1 17.7 [15.6]
B111 109 {97.9} 11.7 {11.2} 727 {718} (734) 10.0 5.4 13.2 [11.9]
B114 108 {115} 12.6 {13.2} 756 {751} (766) 10.2 7.0 16.0 [14.1]
B176 107 {109} 12.1 {12.9} 699 {712} (728) 10.4 4.4 15.6 [13.5]
Note: Predicted strength is given in {} brackets and whole board density is given in () brackets.
Weighted bending stiffness for comparison with dynamic modulus of elasticity is given in [] brackets
Table 5
Summary of mean mechanical properties, compared to previously published values
Reference Bending strength Bending stiffness Density
2 2 3
[N/mm ] [kN/mm ] [kg/m ]
This study (subsample, all) 114 (10%) 13.0 (11%) 734 (5%)
This study (n = 10, board min) 107 (15%) 12.4 (11%) 732 (6%)
This study (estimate of batch) 106 (11%) 12.3 (9%) 725 (7%)
Lavers (1983) 118 (9%) 12.6 (10%) 689 (6%)
Note 1: Lavers (1983) is based on three point bending tests of small clear specimens
Note 2: Coefficient of variation is given in brackets
49
Table 6
Summary of estimated characteristic properties, after EN 14358 adjustment (CEN 2016b)
th th
5 %ile bending strength Mean bending stiffness 5 %ile density
2 2 3
[N/mm ] [kN/mm ] [kg/m ]
87.3 12.2 643
D80 (80) D35 (12×0.95) almost D40 D50 (620)
C50 (50) C30 (12×0.95) almost C35 C50 (430)
Note 1: The grade limiting property is highlighted in bold, strength class requirements are in brackets
Note 2: EN 338:2016 allows any hardwood to be assigned to a C-class rather than a D-class
CONCLUSION
A batch of UK grown beech, graded to high appearance grade, was found to be comparable to
clear wood properties published in the literature, with differences of only 5 to 10%. Bending strength
was reasonably well correlated with longitudinal dynamic modulus of elasticity and density. The
dynamic modulus of elasticity was strongly correlated with the global modulus of elasticity of portions
of the boards, especially when the average was weighted according to the shape of the first mode of
longitudinal vibration. Density sample density was very strongly correlated to whole board density and
about 2% lower. The grade determining properties match most closely to hardwood strength classes,
with stiffness as the limiting property. The grade indication for this largely clear batch of UK-grown
beech is similar to that for the highest EN 1912 grade assignments for Germany, France and Belgium,
and the dynamic modulus of elasticity is similar in mean and standard deviation to the values of the
highest visual grade German-grown beech reported by Frese and Blaß (2007). The relatively small
number of boards from a single batch, from a single location means that the results presented should
not be taken as generally applicable to UK grown beech, but are instead an indication of potential
quality only. However, since the results are similar to those previously published, and the grade
limiting property is stiffness, which can be easily assessed non-destructively, there is merit in further
research into the potential for UK-grown beech, especially for glued-laminated construction products.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is supported by the Forestry Commission England Forestry Innovation Fund grant
FIFRDC-39-17-18 led by Immanent Associates and Edinburgh Napier University Principal Investigator
Dr Ivor Davies. Additional thanks are due to East Brothers Timber and Grown in Britain for providing
the timber, and Nicolas Igoe for making the non-destructive measurements.
REFERENCES
CEN (2002) EN 13183-1:2002. Moisture content of a piece of sawn timber. Determination by oven dry
method. CEN, Brussels.
CEN (2004) EN 14146:2004. Natural stone test methods. Determination of the dynamic elastic
modulus of elasticity (by measuring the fundamental resonance frequency). CEN, Brussels.
CEN (2009) EN 975-1:2009. Sawn timber. Appearance grading of hardwoods. Oak and beech. CEN,
Brussels.
CEN (2012a) EN 1912:2012. Structural Timber. Strength classes. Assignment of visual grades and
species. CEN, Brussels.
CEN (2012b) EN 408:2010+A1:2012. Timber structures-Structural timber and glued laminated timber-
Determination of some physical and mechanical properties. CEN, Brussels.
CEN (2016a) EN 14081-1:2016. Timber structures. Strength graded structural timber with rectangular
cross section. Part 1: General requirements. CEN, Brussels. (Note: the harmonised standard is
considered to be EN 14081-1:2005+A1:2011 since the 2016 version is not yet cited in the Official
Journal of the European Union).
CEN (2016b) EN 14358:2016. Timber structures. Calculation and verification of characteristic values.
CEN, Brussels.
CEN (2016c) EN 338:2016. Structural timber. Strength classes. CEN, Brussels.
50
CEN (2018) EN 384:2016+A1:2018. Structural timber. Determination of characteristic values of

mechanical properties and density. CEN, Brussels.
Forest Research (2018) Forestry Facts & Figures 2018. Forest Research.
https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/forestry-statistics/
Forest Research (2019) Tree species database. https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-
resources/tree-species-database/beech-be/
Frese M, Blaß HJ (2007) Characteristic bending strength of beech glulam. Materials and Structures
40(3). https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-006-9117-9
Houston Durrant T, de Rigo D, Caudullo G (2016) Fagus sylvatica and other beeches in Europe:
distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz J, de Rigo D, Caudullo G, Houston
Durrant T, Mauri A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species, Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp.
e012b90+ https://forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu/en/european-atlas/
rd
Lavers G (1983) The strength properties of timber, 3 Edition revised by GL Moore, Building Research
Establishment Report BR241, ISBN 0851255620.
Ridley-Ellis D (2017a) TG1/201703/26rev Derivation of MTG 960 grading machine settings for UK
larch, Edinburgh Napier University.
Ridley-Ellis D (2017b) TG1/201703/27rev Derivation of MTG 960 grading machine settings for British
spruce, Edinburgh Napier University.
Ridley-Ellis D, Gil-Moreno D (2018) TG1/201804/25rev: Derivation of MTG grading machine settings
for Douglas fir. Edinburgh Napier University and National University of Ireland, Galway.
Ridley-Ellis D, Stapel P, Baño V (2016) Strength grading of sawn timber in Europe: an explanation for
engineers and researchers, European Journal of Wood and wood products 74(3).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-016-1034-1
51
EVALUATION OF COLOUR CHANGING OF SATURATED WOODS SURFACE

WITH NANOSILVER
Amir GHAVIDELESFAHLAN
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Faculty of Geography and Geology
Doctoral School of Geosciences,
Str. Carol I nr. 20A, Corp B, Iasi, Romania
Tel: 0232201662, E-mail: amir.ghavidel.66@gmail.com
Ion SANDU
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi
Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, Department of Science
Str. Carol I nr. 11, Iasi, Romania
E-mail: sandu_i03@yahoo.com
Viorica VASILACHE
Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, ARHEOINVEST Center
E-mail: viorica_18v@yahoo.com
Abstract
Wood is considered as one of the most applicable natural substance for inner and outer
decoration. For this purpose, maintenance of beautiful and natural appearance and also stability of
surface colour of wood is very important. Therefore, given the increase in population and the growing
need for wood, it is necessary that wood sources to provide for increase in resistance using
preservation techniques, such as nano silver. The usage of nano silver may change the wood surface
colour to some extent, thus the evaluation of colour changing by this substance is necessary. In this
study, cottonwood wood samples of 50×50×2mm were prepared and impregnated with nano silver
with three levels of concentration: 4000, 400, 200 ppm by the way of corrected full cell. The surface
colour of samples were measured after balancing humidity with the same level by the Elrepho 2000
apparatus. Treatment using nano silver with 4000 ppm concentration caused the most change in
surface colour while concentration of 200 ppm caused to least amount of colour change in the surface
of wood layers.
Key word: Nano silver; corrected full cell; CIE L*a*b* colorimetry; Elrepho2000.
INTRODUCTION
The beautiful natural appearance of wood and its easy processing for use in interior and
exterior decoration, it is very functional and valuable. However, due to the low level of wood reserves
and the increasing demand for wood, it is necessary to use the various methods to preserve and
increase the durability of this important material, while respecting the principles of forestry and the
development of wood resources. (Naji et al. 2005). One of these methods is the use of a nano silver
protector, which provides antimicrobial properties, and are used as disinfectants, in refrigerators,
washing machines, medical applications and antibiotics as well as for the conservation of wood and
wooden layers can be used (Green and Arango 2005, Moya et al. 2014, Can et al. 2018, Nosal and
Reinprecht 2018).
Colour is a basic visual characteristic for wood and wood products. Some treatments, such as
drying, steaming, protective treatment and some phenomena such as activation and weathering, can
change the colour of the wood. Colorimetry is one of the quality control tests that should be done
because the colour deviation is easily detected by consumers. Of course, because of the change in
colour variation, human sight is not always fixed, and electronic colour recognition tools can be used.
The colour of the wood is an important factor when determining the price of wood and can be
accompanied by different genetic factors, environmental conditions or treatment conditions such as
light, temperature, humidity, acidity and alkaline environment during steaming or drying. The purpose
of this research is to impregnate wood with a nano silver protector in order to protect the wood layers,
as well as to check the level of colour change due to the use of this protective agent. Aydin and
Colakoglu (2005), studied on the effect of thermal treatment and protective treatment on the
52
roughness and colour of the surface of the wooden layers and found that both treatments increased
the roughness and the colour change of the surface of the wood. Green and Arango (2007),
investigated the effect of silver on termite damage in a non-selective laboratory test, and found that
silver alone could not prevent termite damage, but could be an important additive to paint and protect
wood. Ellis (2007a) investigated the effect of silver in protecting wood from the ship instead of using
the chromated copper arsenate (CCA - Pressure), and it became clear that commercial silver with a
base of oxides produced a protective effect. Ellis et al. (2007b) examined the effect of silver in various
environments and on living organisms.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methodology included the following steps:
Sample preparation
A total of 9 wooden piles with 50×50×2mm diameter were cut from the cottonwood. Wood
samples were placed in a humidifying room at 70°C and a moisture content of 2% for 2 days. Then
they were prepared to measure the surface colour.
Colour Measurement
There are several methods to measure colour. The colour of the surface of the wood can be
measured using visual devices such as the Elrepho 2000 device (Fig. 1). Optical measurement
methods can also be used to determine the uniformity of colour, which represents L*, a*, and b*. L* is
the brightness that ranges from white (100) to black (0) throughout the gray scale. a* is red and green,
and b* is yellowish and blue (Schanda 2007). In this study, the Elrepho 2000 device was used to
measure the colour. The colour coordinates of one specimen were determined for each sample after
being subjected to a moisture equilibrium of 20% and a temperature of 70°C, and once again, when
the samples were saturated with a cell-saturated nanosilver, they were again subjected to a moisture
equilibrium, Colour coordinates to calculate the overall colour change (ΔE*) as the function of the
applied treatments (Nemeth and Faix 1988, Mononen et al. 2005, Hrcka 2008, Meints et al. 2017).
The following formulas were used to calculate the overall colour variations in wooden samples.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Saturation
At this stage, the samples of the wood were saturated with filler cells, modified with a nano
silver protector. Initial vacuum was taken 7 times for 30 minutes. After 500 mL of the material was
added to the specimens, pressure was applied 10 times for 2 hours. Finally, the secondary vacuum
was applied 7 times for 15 minutes. Three different concentrations of 200, 400 and 4000 ppm were
used to saturate. In each of the concentrations, three wooden samples were saturated.
In this research, the results were analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Fisher test using mini-tab
software.
RESULTS AND DISCUTION

After the wooden samples were saturated with the nano silver protector, the colour change of
the wood at concentrations of 200, 400 and 4000 ppm was carefully investigated. Measures taken in
L*, a* and b* indices can be seen before and after saturation in Table 1. Also, calculations of ΔL*, Δa*,
Δb* and ΔE* are shown in Table 2 and the colour change is based on the column graph in Figure 2.
53
Fig. 1.
Elrepho 2000.
Table 1
Measure L*, a* and b* before and after saturation
Nano silver Brfore saturation after saturation

concentration L* a* b* L* a* b*
ppm
200 87.05 2.75 16.69 70.79 10.49 23.52
400 80.63 2.87 17.6 61.96 7.99 18.01
4000 28.91 2.56 16.60 40.83 9 14.78
Table 2
Measures the colour change before and after saturation
Nano silver
concentration ΔL* Δa* Δb* ΔE*
ppm
200 16.25 7.75 6.82 19.47
400 24.66 5.13 1.03 25.42
4000 45.91 6.43 3.19 46.72
54
Fig. 2.
Measures the colour change before and after saturation.
In general, data showed that the use of a nano silver protector for wooden samples could
cause discoloration in various concentrations. This colour change is different at different
concentrations, which means that the higher the nano-silver concentration, the greater the colour
change. As shown in Table 2, the colour change between concentrations of 200 and 4000 ppm has a
significant effect. In Table 3, information is shown using the Fisher test.
Table 3
ΔL* comparison using Fisher test
Nano silver
concentration 200 400
ppm
400 ns s
4000 s
ns - the difference is not significant;
s - the difference is significant.
CONCLUSION
The type of nano silver material can be effective in changing the colour of the surface of the
wood. According to research by Ellis et al., the use of nanosilver with another material such as nano-
zinc, as a solution to wood-decay organisms, especially termites and bacteria, has antimicrobial
properties. Therefore, it can be stated that in this study, the use of nano silver alone caused a
difference in the results and caused significant changes in the surface of the wood.
REFERENCES
Aydin I, Colakoglu G (2005) Effects of surface inactivation, high temperature drying andpresarvative
treatment on surface and colour of alder and beech wood. Applied Surface Science. 252:430-440.
Can A, Sivrikaya H, Hazer B (2018) Fungal inhibition and chemical characterization of wood treated
with novel polystyrene-soybean oil copolymer containing silver nanoparticles. International
Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 133:210-215.
Ellis J (2007a) Silver as a wood preservative environmental Requirements and concerns. 38th Annual
Metting Jackson Lake Lodge, Wyoming.USA 20-24 may 2007.
th
Ellis J, Jayachandran K, Nicholas D (2007b) silver the next generation wood preservative. 38 Annual
Metting Jackson Lake Lodge, Wyoming.USA 20-24 may 2007.
55
Green F, Arango RA (2007) Wood protection by commercial silver formulations against Eastern
subterranean termites, 38th Annual Metting Jackson Lake Lodge, Wyoming.USA 20-24 may 2007.
Hrcka R (2008) Identification of discoloration of beech wood in CIELAB space. Wood Research,
53(1):119-124.
Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 46(12):472-472.
Meints T, Teischinger A, Stingl R, Hansmann C (2017) Wood colour of central European wood
species: CIELAB characterisation and colour intensification, European Journal of Wood and Wood
Products, 75(4): 499-509, DOI: 10.1007/s00107-016-1108-0.
Moya R, Berrocal A, Rodriguez-Zuniga A, Vega-Baudrit J, Noguera SC (2014) Effect of silver
nanoparticles on white-rot wood decay and some physical properties of three tropical wood species.
Wood and Fiber Science. 46(4):527-538.
Mononen K, Jaaskelainen AS, Alvila L, Pakkanen TT, Vuorinen, T (2005) Chemical changes in silver
birch (Betula pendula Roth) wood caused by hydrogen peroxide bleaching and monitored by color
measurement (CIELab) and UV-Vis, FTIR and UVRR spectroscopy. Holzforschung, 59(4):381-388.
DOI: 10.1515/HF.2005.063
Naji HR, Parsa Pajouh D, Karimi AN (2005) An investigation of effects of moisture content in high of
tree on degree and depth of penetration of preservative celcure (A.C.C.) in poplar wood. Iranian
Journal of Natural Resources. 58(2):415-421.
Nemeth K, Faix O (1988) Measurement of CIELAB color properties for evaluating wood
photodegradation.
Nosal E, Reinprecht L (2018) Preparation and application of silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles in
wood industry: The review, Acta Facultatis Xylologiae Zvolen 60(2):5-23.
Schanda J (2007) Colorimetry. Understanding the CIE System, Wiley-Interscience Publisher,
Hoboken, New Jersey, USA, ISBN:9780470049044.
56
EVALUATION OF WOOD CHEMOMETRICS CHARACTERISTICS WITH

ARCHAEOMETRIC VALUE FROM THE VARIATION OF WATER BALANCE FOR
WOOD
Amir GHAVIDELESFAHLAN
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Faculty of Geography and Geology
Doctoral School of Geosciences
Str. Carol I nr. 20A, Corp B, Iasi, Romania
Tel: 0232201662, E-mail: amir.ghavidel.66@gmail.com
Ion SANDU
Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, Department of Science
E-mail: sandu_i03@yahoo.com
Viorica VASILACHE
Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, ARHEOINVEST Center
E-mail: viorica_18v@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper presents the normal range of variation of water balance for different wood
essences, used in the preservation - restoration of cultural heritage artifacts. The evaluation uses two
dynamic processes: hydration - dehydration, between the minimum level of hygroscopic water, with no
sudden contractions, with microstructural destructions of the fibrils (<0.5%), and the fiber saturation
point (between 31 and 36%, depending on the variations essence). In the variation area of the two
curves, a series of chemometric features with archaeometric function (used in dating) or with the
potential to assess the impact of preservation treatments on the conservability of the studied artefacts
are identified. These aspects have a degree of absolute novelty, being studied for the very first time by
our laboratory. Samples used in this study were beech and oak.
Key word: wood essences; dehydration; hydration; chemometric study; archaeometic study.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is a natural and renewable material with many uses. Due to its natural structure, it is
susceptible to biological degradation. Due to biological degradation, the structure of wood changes,
which results in a significant reduction in the economic and practical value of this material; therefore,
the importance and necessity of wood protection against destructive factors are well defined (Verma et
al. 2009).
The moisture in the wood is in two basic forms: water in the cell wall and free water in the form
of liquid that is in the pores of wood. The water in the wood is balanced with the relative humidity of
the surrounding air. For example, in relative humidity of zero percent, moisture content of wood is also
zero. With increasing relative humidity, the moisture content of the equilibrium gradually increases and
in the relative humidity of 100%, the cell wall becomes saturated (Siau 1984, Wadsö 1993, Siau 1995)
In excess of this moisture, which is called the fiber saturation point (FSP), the excess water is
available in the form of free water. Between the wood and the wet soil that is in contact with it, there is
a state of equilibrium, and this also includes free water. Green wood contains free water, which is
exposed to hot and dry air. To understand the transport properties, moisture profile determination and
water state characterization during water uptake and drying should be carried out. The presence of
free water in the wood tends promote decay (Babbit 1940).
Wood moisture has a dramatic effect on all its physical properties. By increasing water, the
wood is bulky, its mechanical strength decreases, its thermal and electrical conductivity increases, and
the diffusion of water increases. These changes tend to slow down and continue to saturate the cell
wall, as wood properties change very little past the saturation point. Moisture content of wood to the
point of saturation of the fiber has a significant effect on the properties and processes of transfer.
Therefore, to study the permeability, the capillary behavior, thermal conductivity and moisture
57
distribution in wood, factors and methods one needs to study to the control of relevant factors and
methods (Krabbenhoft 2003, Verma et al. 2009, Perré 2002, Kowalski 2003).
Fig. 1.
Water vapour and air transfer (Krabbenhoft 2003).
For authentication of old wood artifacts, in the specialty literature there are many reference
works that have studied either a certain artifact or a structural component in this regard, use of
chemical and physico-structural analysis data from wood samples with different sessions from time of
putting it into work or cutting, has been evaluated through a series of archaeometric or chemometric
features with archeometric value. For example, elemental composition, hygroscopic moisture, ash and
extractable components, along with the morphology and distribution of anatomical components,
porosity, specific weight, etc. are archeometric features, which by corroboration allow the dating of the
old wood (Sandu et al. 1998, Sandu 2003, Vasilache et al. 2009, Sandu et al. 2015, Spiridon et al.
2017).

In this research, two species of beech (Fagus) and oak (Quercus) were used.
The beech is most widespread in Central and Western Europe, although it can be found as
shrub or tree between the 40th and 60th degrees of latitude. Beech can found in mixed woodlands as
well as in beech woods particularly in lowlands but also in low mountainous regions.
The European beech (Fagus sylvatica) is the most useful of beech timbers and is therefore
known simply as beech.
Beech trees can grow to 300 years or more, although trees of between 100 and 140 years old
are typically felled. They can reach a height of 30 to 35 metres.
Beech belong to the family of heartwood trees. Sap and heartwood have an even pale yellow
to reddish-white colouring, red-brown when steam-treated. The wood has an even fine-pored structure
without noticeable markings. Older trees (over 80 years old) can develop a reddish core of irregular
3
colour intensity and shape. Its Density is 0.73g/cm .
Beech wood is medium to heavyweight. It is very hard and tough. It has good strength
properties and high abrasion resistance.
Beech can shrink considerably and is subject to movement more than other woods. It should
not be subject to moisture fluctuations before or during working.
Despite its hardness, beech wood can be worked easily. It can be cut, planed, drilled and
milled. When steam-treated it is well-suited, like the ash, to bending into form.
Surface finishing is straightforward. It can be stained, painted and polished. As compensation
for its low durability it is well suited for impregnation (Parsa Pajouh et al. 1932).
In Figures 2 and 3 is shown SEM microphotography and an optical microscope image for a
beech sample.
58
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
SEM microphotography of Beech. Optical Microscope image of Beech.
Oak is commonly used to describe the two most common Northern European botanical
variants: (Quercus robur L.; Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl.; Quercus pubescens Willd.). Their
properties are however so similar that their wood is simply known as oak wood. Oak grows commonly
throughout Europe and Asia Minor, with the exception of the very northern and southern areas. Oak is
particularly widespread in France. It is one of the most important European trees altogether.
Oaks can often be several hundred years old and can reach a height of up to 50m, though
20m to 40m is more common. Oak grows rapidly in height but its body is not as extensive as other
kinds of trees.
Oak wood can be differentiated between sapwood and heartwood: the thin sapwood is grey-
white in colour, the heartwood is coloured yellow-brown to mid-brown and darkens considerably with
time. The springwood can easily be identified by its larger pore structure. When cut longitudinally the
3
vertical pores have a grooved structure. Its Density is 0.69 g/cm .
Oak wood dries slowly. This means that artificial drying should be undertaken with care to
avoid cracking and warping. Oak shrinkage is negligible and stability is good.
It can be worked easily with most tools and machinery, it can be split easily and is well suited
for use as a veneer. Nails and screw-fixings are straightforward. Surface finishing is generally not a
problem. Its high tannic acid content can lead to coloration when in contact with iron due to chemical
reactions Parsa Pajouh et al. 1932).
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
SEM microphotography of Oak. Optical Microscope image of Oak.
From both species of beech and oak wood, 3 samples were prepared in the size of 1×1×4cm
(R×T×L). After weighing and measuring the dimensions, the samples were all numbered, and samples
were placed in a desiccator to reach the minimum available water in each sample. After reaching the
minimum amount of water in the wood, the hydration step began. This was repeated with a protocol of
six times every five minutes, three times per 10 minutes, three times per 30 minutes, and then every
hour until reaching the constant water volume point. After reaching the constant volume of water at the
hydration stage, the dimensions of the samples were measured and they were placed in another
desiccator to perform the dehydration test. The same protocol was used for this step.
59

In Tables 1 we can see the results of constant mass of water in hydration and dehydration,
time and the mass of reversible water at the intersection of the two curves in the beech and oak
woods and and the average of time and mass values at the intersection of the two curves. After the
tests, the data is entered in the Excel program and the corresponding diagrams are plotted.
Table 1
The values of the chemometric characteristics
involved in study for beech and oak wood
Samples Hydration Dehydration Point of intersection of Average Average
(maximum (minimum curves Tc Mc (g)
mass, g) mass, g) Time, Tc Water (minutes)
(minutes) mass, Mc
(g)
Beech B1 0.3684 0.0082 580 0.1292 603 0.1376
B2 0.3325 0.0042 540 0.1187
B3 0.4313 0.0110 690 0.1650
Oak O1 0.2729 0.009 680 0.1158 660 0.1162
O2 0.2691 0.0051 660 0.1126
O3 0.2959 0.0036 640 0.1204
In Figures 6 and 7, presenting the beech and oak woods diagrams, the smallest and most
water volume in the wood, as well as the intersection points in the hydration and dehydration, can be
observed.
60
Fig. 6.
The smallest and most water volume in the beech wood.
61
Fig. 7.
The smallest and most water volume in the oak wood.
Graphs show that for beech the intersection time of the two curves varies between 540 and
690 minutes, and the water mass varies between 0.1180 and 0.1650. In the oak the critical time is
between 640 and 680, and the water mass varies between 0.1126 and 0.1204
Making an average of the intersection points of hydration and dehydration curves it is found
that for beech the average time is 603 minute, and the average water mass of 0.1376g, but for oak the
average time is 660 minutes and the average mass is 0.1162.
This difference can be due to high density in beech wood. Density in the beech wood is
3 3
0.73g/cm and in the oak wood is 0.69g/cm . The other reason can be due to the structure of wood in
the oak and in beech wood.
CONCLUSIONS
The information obtained on the hydration/dehydration processes for beech and oak woods
confirms that they occur by similar mechanisms. The correlation of the two processes: hydration and
dihydration, described by the intersection of the curves, are represented by the equilibrium time, and
the equilibrium water content. Note that equilibrium time is the same for both species, instead the
water equilibrium is higher in beech and lower in oak. Both species are in the group of semi-heavy
wood, but oak wood is a thick texture and beech wood with a compact texture. And this difference in
tissue can be due to the difference in water weight in beech and oak wood samples.
REFERENCES
Babbit JD (1940) Observations on the permeability of hygroscopic materials to water vapor I.
observations at relative humidities less than 75%. Can J Res. 18A(6):105-121.
Kowalski SJ (2003) Thermomechanics of Drying Processes, Springer, Berlin.
Krabbenhoft K (2003) Moisture transport in wood, A study of physical-mathematichal models and their
numerical implementation, Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Denmark.
Parsa Pajouh D, Schweingruber FH, Lenz O (1932) Atlas des bois du nord de l'Iran: description
anatomique et identification microscopique des essences principales, ISBN 964-03-4222-x.
Perré P (2002) The numerical simulation of drying: a mature tool available to the wood industry, in
‘COST E15Workshop, Methods for improving drying quality of wood’.
Sandu I, Sandu ICA, Saanen A (1998) Expertiza Stiintifica a Operelor de Art, vol. I (Autentificarea,
stabilirea paternitatii si evaluarea patrimoniala), Ed. Universitatii Al.I. Cuza Iasi în colab. cu Ed.
TRINITAS Iasi.
Sandu ICA (2003) Cercetarea proceselor de imbatranire a materialelor organice din structura picturilor
vechi pe suporturi cu straturi de preparatie, Ph.D. Thesis, Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iasi.
62
Sandu ICA, Hayashi M, Vasilache V, Cozma DG, Pruteanu S, Urma M, Sandu I (2015) Influence of
Organic Solvents and Dispersions on Wooden Supports of Paintings, Revista de Chimie, 66(4):587-
595.
Siau JF (1984) Transport processes in Wood, ISBN 964-03-5640-9.
Siau J (1995) Wood: Influence of moisture on physical properties, Department of Wood Science and
Forest Products, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Spiridon P, Sandu ICA, Nica L, Vasilache V, Sandu I (2017) Archaeometric and Chemometric Studies
Involved in the Authentication of Old Heritage Artefacts I. Contributions of the Iasi school of
Conservation Science, Revista de Chimie, 68(9):2018-2027.
Vasilache V, Sandu I, Luca C, Sandu ICA (2009) Noutăţi privind conservarea ştiinţifică a lemnului
vechi policrom, Editura Universității ”Al.I.Cuza”, Iasi.
Verma P, Junga U, Militz H, Mai C (2009) Protection mechanisms of DMDHEU treated wood against
white and brown rot fungi. Holzforschung, 63(3):371-378.
Wadsö L (1993) Studies of water vapor transport and sorption in wood Division of Building Materials,
LTH, Lund University.
Zillig W, Janssen H, Carmeliet J (2006) Liquid water transport in wood: Towards a mesoscopic
approach, Research in Building Physics and Building Engineering – Fazio, Ge, Rao & Desmarais
(eds).
63
STUDY CONCERNING THE NATURAL FREQUENCY AND DAMPING FACTOR OF

THE TOP AND BACK PLATE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VIOLINS
Vasile Gh. GLIGA

PhD Student - Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
E-mail: vasile@gliga.ro
*
Mariana Domnica STANCIU
Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Str. Universitatii nr. 1, 500068 Brasov, Romania
E-mail: mariana.stanciu@unitbv.ro
Silviu-Marian NĂSTAC
„Dunărea de Jos” University, Faculty of Engineering and Agronomy Braila
Calea Calarasilor 29, Braila, Romania
E-mail: silviu.nastac@ugal.ro
Florin DINULICĂ
Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering
E-mail: dinulica@unitbv.ro
Mihaela CAMPEAN
Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
E-mail: campean@unitbv.ro
Abstract
The present study envisaged the modal analysis of the top and back plate of violins, in order
to establish the first natural frequency and the damping factor of each plate as individual violin part.
The differences between the wood species involved (resonance spruce wood – used for the top plates
and curly maple wood – used for the back plates), but also the influence of the wood characteristics
specific to four different quality classes of violins upon were investigated by a dynamical test, using
excitation of the plate by means of a hammer and signal acquisitioning by means of an accelerometer.
The results revealed that the first natural frequency of resonance spruce wood lies at about 140Hz
and that of curly wood at 327Hz. The damping factor has the lowest value for the spruce top plate of
maestro-class violins.
Key words: violins; resonance wood; natural frequency; damping factor.
INTRODUCTION
The violin is a musical instrument with strings and
bow. The main parts of the violin body (Fig. 1) are: the top
plate with the specific f-holes, the soundpost and the bass
bar (placed inside the violin body), all these being made of
resonance spruce wood, and the back plate, the bridge and
the ribs, all these being usually made of curly maple, but
different other species (e.g. poplar, willow, walnut, ash,
hornbeam, plumtree, yew wood) can also be used for this
purpose, in order to satisfy various aesthetical demands of
the customers.
Fig. 1. Main parts of the violin body:

TP-top plate; BP-back plate; B-bridge; R-ribs.
*
64
The strings themselves have almost no air and consequently produce almost no sound. The
sound is produced by rubbing the bow over the strings under different angles. The angle between the
bow and the excited string decomposes in a horizontal plane the force produced by the bow into a
longitudinal component (parallel to the string) and a transversal component to the string direction. The
string begins to vibrate both transversally (in the direction of the force applied by the bow) and
longitudinally - along the strings, the transverse vibrations being transmitted through the bridge to the
entire volume of air in the violin body. Thus, the violin body behaves like a Helmholtz- type resonator,
forming compression and dilatation waves between the top plate, the back plate and the ribs of the
violin body, giving rise to intense sound. When resonance occurs, the sound intensity increases due to
the intensification of the radiation inside the violin body.
The top plate has two features that significantly affect the sound output: one is given by the f-
holes, which connect the air inside the instrument with the air outside, and this oscillating air is
responsible for the violin’s lowest resonance (the so-called natural resonance). The second feature of
the violin’s top plate is the bass bar, which serves several purposes: it strengthens the top plate to
withstand the string pressure; it couples the vibrations of the area between the f-holes, which
oscillates relatively freely, to the more constrained part of top plate closer to the neck; and it prevents
energy from being wasted in higher-frequency vibrations of the body that don’t produce much sound.
The sound post and bass bar together break the symmetry of the violin body, thereby allowing the
body to oscillate in different ways than if it were symmetrical, and generally increasing the sound
output of the instrument (https://www.physicscentral.com/).
Of course, there is also a third feature, which significantly influences the sound output and this
is the quality of the wood used for the top and back plate. According to the structural and physical
characteristics (e.g. grain straightness, texture finesse, annual rings widths and their uniformity, the
proportion of latewood within each annual ring, wood density etc.) of the wood the top and back plate
are made of, violins are divided, according to SR 1294:1993, into four classes: maestro, professional,
student and school.
The natural frequency (also called eigenfrequency) of a vibrating body is the frequency at
which the system tends to oscillate in the absence of a driving or damping force (www.wikipedia.org
citing General Physics 2012). Its value is determined by the geometrical characteristics of the source
from which the wave propagates. The motion pattern of a system oscillating at its natural frequency is
called the normal mode. The number of harmonics is determined by the resonator which amplifies the
initial sound, adding series of its own frequencies. Thus, the quality of the wood used for the
construction of a violin plays a decisive role in ensuring the acoustic quality of a musical instrument.
Previous researches regarding the values of the first vibration mode were performed by Molin
et al (1987), who obtained for spruce plates with a constant thickness of 2.5mm frequencies between
150.5Hz and 157.1Hz, and for maple plates with a constant thickness of 3.5mm, frequencies between
351.9Hz and 362.9Hz.
Lomte (2013) reported for the top plate an eigenfrequency of 157.8Hz obtained by finite
element modeling. Gough (2015) also determined the eigenfrequencies of the violin plates by finite
element modeling, obtaining the value of 158Hz (second eigenfrequency) for the spruce plate and
348Hz for the maple plate (5 # vibration mode). Dünnwald (1991) proposes four frequency bands for
evaluating the acoustic quality of violins. Thus, between 190-650 Hz, one can identify the fundamental
acoustic characteristic of the instrument, called "signature mode"; the second frequency band is
between 650-1300Hz which contains a strong response of the violin, associated with "a nasal quality
in the sound"; the third frequency band between 1300-4200Hz contains the sounds which are
responsible for brightness, characterized by efficient acoustic radiation and sound uniformity. The
fourth frequency band, in the range 4200–6400Hz, should be relatively low in order to obtain a clear
sound.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present study, which is part of a broader research, was to establish
the natural frequency of the top and back plate, as individual violin parts, made of resonance spruce
wood, and curly maple wood respectively, but also having different characteristics, depending on the
quality class of the violin for which they are selected (maestro, professional, student or school violin).
65

The material used within this study consisted of eight top plates without ”f” holes (Fig. 2, a)
and eight back plates (Fig. 2, b), two for each violin class, furtherly noted with: A – maestro violins; B –
professional violins; C – student violins; D – school violins.
All violin parts were manufactured and tested at GLIGA INSTRUMENTS Reghin (Romania).
Table 1 presents the wood species / assortments used for each violin class, as well as the
characteristics of the wooden material involved. In Romania, the total ring width (TRW), the latewood
proportion (LWP), and the difference between consecutive growth rings (Δi) are the structural criteria
used to select the raw material for the manufacture of musical instruments and for their qualitative
classification (Dinulică 2015).
Because the selection of the maple wood for violins uses vague terms like „curly wood”, „very
curly wood”, „slight curly wood” etc. in order to characerise the wood grain, a quantification method for
this aspect was developed. Thus, the annual ring width and the wavelength of the curly grain (l) were
measured on the radial face of the wood samples, by using a WinDENDRO Density image-analysis
system (Régent Instruments 2007). The samples were scanned at a resolution of 2200 dpi. The
annual ring width was measured digitally in radial direction, and the wavelength was measured in
tangential direction (Fig. 3). The measurements were carried out with an accuracy of 0.001mm. The
database, originally in .txt format was imported and primarily processed in Microsoft Excel.
a. b.
Fig. 2.
Violin plates – top plate (a) and back plate (b).
66
Table 1
Characteristics of the wooden material used for the tested violin plates (faces and backs)
Violin class Wood species used for Wood characteristics (Dinulică 2015; Albu 2010)
violin face and back
Maestro Face: resonance spruce A-spruce is the best quality resonance spruce wood
(Picea abies) TRWi ≤ 2.5 mm; LWPi ≤ 35%; average (LWPi) ≤ 20%. No
more than 7 growth rings with 35 < Δi ≤ 0.8 mm are
accepted.
Back: maple (Acer A-maple is very curly
pseudoplatanus) TRWi ≤ 1.3 mm; l≤ 3 mm
Professional Face: resonance spruce B-spruce
(Picea abies) TRWi ≤ 2.5 mm; LWPi ≤ 37%; average (LWPi) ≤ 35%. No
accepted.
Back: maple (Acer B-maple
pseudoplatanus) TRWi ≤ 1.5 mm; 3≤ l≤ 8 mm
Student Face: resonance spruce C-spruce
(Picea abies) TRWi ≤ 3 mm; LWPi ≤ 39%; average (LWPi) ≤ 37%. No
accepted
Back: maple (Acer C-maple
pseudoplatanus) TRWi ≤ 1.7 mm; 8≤l≤ 12 mm
School Face: resonance spruce D-spruce
(Picea abies) TRWi ≤ 3 mm; LWPi ≤ 43%; average (LWPi) ≤ 39%. No
more than 7 growth rings with cu 43 < Δi ≤ 1.5 mm are
accepted.
Back: maple (Acer D-maple
pseudoplatanus) TRWi ≤ 2.5 mm; l →∞
a.
Wavelength l [mm]
b.
Fig. 3.
Maple samples with different structural features used for characterising the grain curliness:
a - curly maple samples; b - measuring the wavelength of the curly fibres (longitudinal-
tangential view).
67
In order to measure the natural frequency of each violin plate (top/back plate), each plate was
supported with spring elements on a table, to simulate the free structure. Then the plate was excited
by an impact hammer type B&K 8204 and its response was captured by an accelerometer type B&K
4517-002. The received responses were transmitted via the conditioning device to a Dynamic Signal
Acquisition System (DAQ), connected to a laptop. The capture and visualization of the signal was
achieved through the software developed in LabView, and the graphic data processing was performed
with the MatLab program, in order to obtain the first natural frequency (f0) and the damping factor (n)
for each tested plate. The experimental set-up is presented in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
Experimental set-up: 1 - violin plate; 2 – spring element; 3 – impact hammer; 4 – accelerometer;
5 – cables; 6 – DAQ; 7 – laptop.

It is known that the natural frequencies are certain discrete frequencies at which a system is
prone to vibrate. They appear as standing waves in a musical instrument (https://www.comsol.com/
multiphysics/eigenfrequency-analysis).
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 present the exponential damping curves and the spectral signal
compositions for the tested top plates made of spruce and back plates made of maple, respectively.
The values of the first natural frequency (f0) and the damping factor (n) obtained for each tested violin
plate are presented in Table 2. The average natural frequency ( ) and the average damping factor ( )
for each violin class are also presented in Table 2.
By analyzing the spectral composition of the spruce plates as compared to the maple plates, it
can be noticed that the maple plates are much richer in frequencies than those of spruce. It turns out
that from an acoustic point of view, the back plate contributes to the formation of harmonics and the
considerable enrichment of the musical timbre (tone color) of the musical instrument.
From a technological and constructive point of view, the top plates have different thicknesses
compared to the back ones. The thickness varies according to five zones, where zone 1 is the outmost
region, around the edge (contour) and zone 5 is right in the center of the plate, being about 40%
thicker than the contour. Being made of different species, there is a mass difference between the two
plates (top / back) of 53-54% in the case of the master-class (A) and professional (B) violins and of 32-
42% for the student-class (C) and school-class (D) violins.
68
a. b.
c. d.
Fig. 5.
Exponential damping curve and spectral signal composition for top plates made of
resonance spruce wood for: a – maestro violin ; b – professional violin; c – student violin;
d - school violin
a. b.
69
c. d.
Fig. 6.
Exponential damping curve and spectral signal composition for back plates made of maple
wood for: a – maestro violin ; b – professional violin; c – student violin;
d - school violin
Table 2
The natural frequency and damping factor of top and back violin plates made of different wood
species and wood assortments for different violin classes
Wood Sample Mass Thickness, mm Natural Damping
Average Average
species code g Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone frequency, factor -1
, Hz -1 ,s
1 2 3 4 5 , Hz ,s
A- A00F1 76 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 146.48 79.349
146.48 78.83
spruce A00F2 85 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 146.48 78.302
A- A00S1 114 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 317.38 111.331
320.43 105.85
maple A00S2 129 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 323.49 100.376
B- B00F1 86 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 146.48 84.843
134.28 85.73
spruce B00F2 85 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 134.28 86.614
B- B00S1 136 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 347.90 109.31
323.49 104.38
maple B00S2 131 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 323.49 99.456
C- C00F1 93 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 140.38 106.98
146.49 104.13
spruce C00F2 90 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 152.60 101.29
C- C00S1 135 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 341.80 139.04
341.80 114.54
maple C00S2 128 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 341.80 90.0419
D- D00F1 86 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 140.38 92.3041
134.28 94.57
spruce D00F2 86 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 134.28 96.8283
D- D00S1 112 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 323.49 113.864
323.49 102.45
maple D00S2 116 2.5 2.8 3 3.5 4.3 323.49 91.037
The fundamental frequency also differs for the two types of plates: for the top plates made of
resonance spruce, the average value was 140±6.4 Hz and for the back plates, the average value was
327±7.4 Hz.
Comparing the own frequencies of the plates for each quality class, it was established that for
the master class violins the ratio is by 10% lower than for the other quality classes (Fig. 7).
From the viewpoint of the damping factor, it was established that with the decrease of the
quality class of the violin, the ratio between the damping factors of the back plate and front plate,
respectively, decreases (Fig. 8).
70
Top plate (spruce) Back plate (maple) FBP/FTP

400 2.45
The first natural frequency [Hz]

342
350 320 323 323 2.4
300 2.35
250 2.3
200 2.25
146 134 146 134
150 2.2
100 2.15
50 2.1
0 2.05
A B C D
Types of violin plates
Fig. 7.
Comparison between the first natural frequencies obtained for the top plate made of spruce
and the back plate made of maple, for violins belonging to different quality classes (A-maestro;
B-professional; C-student; D-school)(FBP/FTP represents the ratio between the frequency of
the back plate and that of the top plate).
Top plate (spruce) Back plate (maple) nBP/nTP

140 1.6
120 115 1.4
Damping factor n [s-1]
106 104 104 102

100 95 1.2
86
79 1
80
0.8
60
0.6
40 0.4
20 0.2
0 0
A B C D
Types of violin plates
Fig. 8.
Comparison between the damping factors obtained for the top plate made of spruce and the
back plate made of maple, for violins belonging to different quality classes (A-maestro; B-
professional; C-student; D-school)( nBP/nTP represents the ratio between the damping factor
of the back plate and that of the top plate).
CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this experimental study was the modal analysis of the top and back plates for
violins of different quality classes. The conclusions of the present research can be formulated as
follows:
1. From the viewpoint of the structural characteristics of the resonance wood, the parameters
that characterize each quality class of the wood used for violins type maestro (A), professional (B),
student (C) and school (D), respectively, were established.
2. The experimental modal analysis showed that the spruce top plates have the first natural
frequency about 2.5 times lower than the first natural frequency of the back plates (made of maple),
regardless of the anatomical structure of the wood (which is different for the four quality classes).
3. The ratio between the natural frequency of the top plate and that of the back plate of a
master-class violin is by 10% lower than for the other violin classes.
4. The damping factor turned out to be the lowest in the case of the spruce plate of the
master-class violins (n = 79).
5. The ratio of the damping factors of the plates for master-class violins is about 27% higher
than for the other violin classes.
6. The results are in good accordance with the ones provided by reference literature.
The research is going to be continued after pairing the top and back plates into violin bodies.
71
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to Dr. Voichita Bucur for her guidance and support along this research.
REFERENCES
Albu CT (2010) Research on the characteristics of resonance spruce wood from Gurghiu River Basin
in conjunction with the requirements of musical instruments industry. PhD Thesis, Transilvania
University of Brașov, Romania, 365 p.
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Bucur V (2006) Acoustics of Wood. 2 edition. Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Bucur V (1987) Varieties of resonance wood and their elastic constants. J Catgut Acoust Soc
47:42−48.
Bucur V (1980) Anatomical structure and some acoustical properties of resonance wood. Catgut
Acoust Soc Newslett 33:24−29.
Buen A (2005) Two models for predicting the violin timbre from the material properties of the top and
back plates. Online at: http://home.online.no/~an-buen/CASJ%20Models%20for%20the%20
violin%20sound%20spectrum.pdf
Dinulică F, Albu C, Borz SA, Vasilescu MM, Petriţan C (2015) Specific structural indexes for
resonance Norway spruce wood used for violin manufacturing. Bioresources 10(4):7525-7543. DOI:
10.15376/biores.10.4.7525-7543
Dünnwald H (1991) Deduction of objective quality parameters on old and new violins. Catgut Acoust.
Soc. J. (Series II) 1, 1–5.
Gough C (2015) Violin plate modes. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 137(1):139-153.
Haines D (1979) On musical instrument wood. Catgut Acoust Soc Newsl 1(31):23−32.
Lomte CJ (2013) Vibration Analysis of Anisotropic Plates, Special Case: Violin. ETD Archive. 854.
https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/854
Molin NE, Lindgren LE, Jansson EV (1987) Parameters of violin plates and their influence of the plate
modes, Journal of Catgut Acoustical Society 83(1):281–291.
Rocaboy F, Bucur V (1990) About the physical properties of wood of twentieth century violins. Catgut
Acoust Soc J Ser 2 1(6):21−28.
Saitis Ch (2013) Evaluating violin quality: Player reliability and verbalization. A dissertation submitted
to McGill University. Online at: http://www.music.mcgill.ca/caml/lib/exe/fetch.php?
media=publications:phd_saitis_2013.pdf
Schelleng JC (1982) Wood for violins. Catgut Acoust Soc Newsl 37:8−19.
SR 1294:1993. Resinous roundwood for industrial purposes (in Romanian language)
*** https://www.comsol.com/multiphysics/eigenfrequency-analysis
*** https://www.physicscentral.com/
72
SPIRAL GRAIN IN EUROPEAN ASPEN (POPULUS TREMULA L.):

VARIATIONS WITHIN AND BETWEEN THE TREES
Alma STRKONJIC
Linnaeus University, Department of Forestry and Wood Technology
P G Vejdes veg, 351 95 Vaxjo, Sweden
Tel: 0046 76136 0987, E-mail: alma.strkonjic@lnu.se
Harald SALL
E-mail: harald.sall@lnu.se
Jimmy JOHANSSON
E-mail: jimmy.johansson@lnu.se
Abstract
The consequences of spiral grain are encountered in the form of twist in dry timber, distortion in
veneer and plywood sheets, short-grained failure of timber under stress, and surfacing problems
during machining. In this study grain angle measurements were made on wood disc samples from six
50 – 70 year old trees of European aspen (Populus tremula L.) from two different sites in southern
Sweden. The grain angle was measured every 15mm pith to bark at three fixed heights using a disc
“scribing method”. The aim of the study was to examine variation in the spiral grain in vertical (bottom
to top) and radial (pith to bark) direction within and between aspen trees.
The results proved that aspen tree belong to the group of "straight grained" trees. The highest values
and deviations of grain angle were registered in the butt log and lowest in the middle. With regard to
absolute values, the values of grain angle and deviations were highest in the top log and lowest in the
middle.
Key words: spiral grain; aspen; vertical and radial direction.
INTRODUCTION
European aspen (Populus tremula L.), also called Native or Eurasian aspen belong to the group
of hardwood. It is one of the most widely spread species in the world. Aspen is a fast-growing multi-
purpose species. Its market include timber, veneer for matches, packaging material, and furniture,
construction materials such as orientated strand board (OSB) and laminated veneer lumber (LVL),
pulp and paper, biofuel. Aspen plays an important role in biodiversity. A very large number of
organisms are dependent on aspen. In Sweden alone, there are 312 fungi, 15 bryophytes, around 350
beetles and 110 lichens, using aspen as their host. Fast growing broadleaves such aspen are
considered to be economically viable plantations due to their high growth. New European approaches
to silviculture call for maximum increase of biodiversity in forests through the creation of mixed forest
stands.
Many technical problems arise when using roundwood, sawn timber, and veneers made from
trees containing large spiral grain. Spiral grain is fundamentally simple concept in which wood grain,
as for example can be seen on the outside the log, runs around spirally rather than parallel with the
axis (Haris 1989). As grain angle (GA) increases, the strength and stiffness decreases (Kollmann and
Côté 1968). Mechanical strength properties are affected negatively as the GA increases and deviate
to a greater degree from the longitudinal direction of sawn timber (Kollmann & Côté 1968). Twist in
sawn timber is a serious shape defect, which is dependent to the greatest degree on the moisture
content of the wood, and on the spiral grain (Danborg 1994, Johansson et al. 1994). Twist can be
explained to a great degree by the helical deviation of the grain angle in relation to the longitudinal
direction of the log or the sawn board (Säll 2002). High deviation of grain angle can also have a
serious effect on wood machining. In veneers, it contributes to splits or tears in the sheet. Twist in
plywood usually arises due to differences in grain direction.
The technical disadvantages arising from spirally grained timber are certainly a major reason
why so much interest has been expressed in the subject. Spiral grain is a very common defect,
73
occurring both in softwood and hardwood. The grain angle, or inclinations of the fibre direction from
the stem axis, vary from 0 degrees to approximately 30 degrees, but can reach 90 degrees in very
rare cases.
There is great variation in the occurrence of grain pattern, both between and within trees
species (Harris 1989). In some old trees, the cracks are visible under the bark. In softwood, the cracks
lean mostly to the right which means that grain angle is right-handed. If the cracks lean in the opposite
direction, then the grain angle is left handed. The left-handed angle is given a positive number and a
right-handed angle is given a negative number. For most trees, the grain angle turns rom left-handed
to right-handed in a linear fashion. A majority of coniferous trees seem to develop at first left-hand
spirals, to change over to right hand after 10-30 years, maintaining right hand to the rest of their
lifetime (Kubler 1991). Grain patterns in hardwoods are both less predictable and more complex than
those in softwood. Based on summarized results (Ohkura 1958) for more than 140 species of
hardwood leads to the pinion that the change in spiral grain direction is encountered less frequently in
hardwoods than in softwoods. However, not all hardwood species have been studied equally. The
formation of spiral grain is genetically controlled, but there are also environmental factors involved
(Eklund and Säll 2000). All individual trees differ in appearance concerning spiral grain. Differences
between species might be explained by the science of genetics, whilst differences between members
of the same species can be explained by both inheritance and environment. Although aspen is
considered fairly straight, trees in some stands can be very contorted (Perala and Carpenter 1985). An
important observation (Skatter and Kucera 1998) is that spiral grain varies depending in degree from
the pith to the bark. The authors of this paper are unaware of any research that has investigated
variations of aspen spiral grain in the vertical and radial direction. Knowledge about characterization
within and between tree variations in a spiral grain angle is urgently required for technological
reasons. With regard to the influence of spiral grain on wood properties and thereby the quality of end
products, detailed knowledge about variation of spiral grain enables removal of poor quality logs.
Qualitative wood selection leads to a decrease in production costs and optimisation of raw materials.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the study are to (a) examine variation in spiral grain within and between aspen
trees (b) draw conclusion and recommendations based on the results for wood processing industry,
(c) give a brief overview of methods for spiral grain assessment from industry appliance perspective
and recommendations for further research.

Six aspen trees were cut from two different sites, Vimmerby and Askeramala (three trees from
each sites) in southern Sweden. The stand age ranged between 50 and 70 years. Each tree is cross
cut at 3m intervals and marked. Stem discs (10cm thick) were cut out from positions 1,2 and 3 (Fig. 1).
In total 18 discs was marked and placed in plastic bags in a cold storage room, at a temperature of -
15° C. The „scribing method” involved splitting of discs through the pith and measuring the deviation of
the split surface every 15mm in radial direction (pith to bark). Many studies has been done using disc-
scribing and splitting method (Cown et al. 1991, Danborg 1994, Sall 2000). This method have the
advantage that the samples at equivalent positions on either side of the pith can be averaged to
eliminate bias (hence giving ábsolute´ values referenced to the vertical axis of the stem) (Riddel et. al
2012). This process eliminates errors related to sample preparation, and leaning of the stem, and
minimizes the effect of grain deviation around knots. Measurement started by marking up a line
through the pith regardless of orientations. Care was taken to avoid knots and irregularities of the
stem, which could affect the measurement.
Marks were made along the line at every 15mm from pith to bark. Diametrical strips, with a
width of 4 cm to 5 cm and a thickness of 4 cm to 6 cm, were sawn from the stem discs in the direction
of the line.
Measurement started at the outermost measurement point near the bark and proceeded
towards pith. On the tangential surface, a sharp point was used to mark the direction of the grain.
The spiral grain angle was measured with a measurement frame (Fig. 2).
74
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Extraction of wooden discs and strips. Marking and measurement with the tool.
The frame was made of a board, to which a flexible ruler was fixed with a screw. A millimetre-
scale was fixed to the upper part of the frame, which was parallel to and at a distance of 500 mm from
the board. Zero on the horizontal millimetre-scale corresponds to a vertical position for the ruler, and
0° spiral grain angle. The vertical line and the horizontal millimetre-scale form the smaller sides of a
right-angled triangle. The smaller cathetus was read on the millimetre-scale and the longer cathetus
was fixed at 500 mm. A positive value was assigned if the ruler leans to the left, and a negative value
if the ruler leans to the right. Calculation of readings from millimetre-scale converted to degrees was
made with the trigonometric function:
GA1 = arctan (k1/500)
where: GA1 is the spiral grain angle;

k1 is the value read on the smaller cathetus.

The results presented below are based on measurement of grain angle from 6 aspen trees and
18 wooden discs (six-disc samples from each of three positions). Data registration, generation of
diagrams were made using Microsoft Excel software. Descriptive statistics are used to represent and
describe results for variation of grain angle values.
Vertical (bottom to the top) variation of grain angle in aspen trees

The range of grain angle values recorded in position 1(here and after referred as the butt log)
was between -4.7° to 2.5° with 50% of GA values between -1.7° and 0.4°. The mean value of aspen
GA in the bottom log was -0.8° with 2° standard deviation.
The range of grain angle values recorded in position 2 (here and after referred as the middle
log) was between -1.8° and 1.6° with 50% of values between -0.9° and 0.1°. The mean value was -
0.4° and standard deviation of 1°.
The range of GA values recorded in position 3 (here and after referred as the top log) was
between -2.7° and 1.7° with 50% of values between -0.9° and 0.4°. The mean value was -0.4° and
standard deviation of 1.2°.
According to the results, there is no significant difference between the average values of the
grain angle in a vertical direction. The differences between average GA in the butt, middle and top log
appeared to be less than half of a degree. The results were as expected and in accordance with
previous studies that concluded insignificant variation of GA in the vertical direction of most of the tree
species.
75
Fig. 3.
Vertical variation of GA.
Radial (pith to bark) variation of grain angle in aspen trees

The summarized values of grain angles in radial direction (pith to bark) from six aspen trees at
three different positions are presented in Figure 4. The mean value of GA was not exceeding -2° at
any of the measurement points (15mm intervals) regardless of the position in the tree. The values of
GA registered in butt logs had a decreasing trend towards the bark. Opposite, the values of GA in top
logs had an increasing trend towards the bark. The middle log had insignificant variation and
deviation. An average values of all obtained measurements are presented with last graph in Figure 4,
as typical pattern for aspen tree. The average values of GA at every measuring point (15mm distance)
were less than -1° with almost constant trend line. This classifies aspen as “straight grained” tree.
76
Fig. 4.
Radial variation of GA.
Radial variation of GA in absolute values

Due to the low thickness (usually less than 3mm), dispersion of grain angle from 0° regardless
of positive or negative inclination is what influences the quality of veneer from a grain angle
perspective. Therefore, for the purpose of GA variation from veneer perspective, the obtained results
were converted in absolute values (Figure 5).
Thus, mean GA values recorded in the bottom logs were between 0.8° and 3.5° with 1.7°
standard deviation. The top log had average values of GA between 1.5° and 4.1° with 1.9° standard
deviation. The middle log had values between 1° and 2.3° with 0.9° standard deviation. According to
these results, the highest values of mean GA and deviations appeared in top log. This might be
explained with numbers of branches associated with this particular section in the tree.
Fig. 5.
Radial variation of GA presented in absolute values.
77
The variation between the trees

Different values of mean and deviations of GA were observed for every tree (Table 1). Highest
values were recorded in tree no. 3 from Askeramala site. In line with the above presented average
values, this tree experienced high values and deviation in the butt and top log as presented in Figure
6. The pattern of GA in the top log (Figure 6) shows a change of almost 3° within 15mm (first 30 mm)
and continuous low-high change of values every 15mm (pith to the bark). The GA values of the same
tree in the top log position (Figure 6) reach 5° difference within a 60 mm distance (90-150 mm) in a
radial direction. This might be connected with large knots registered at the samples. Vimmerby site
appeared to have an advantage in term of GA values over the trees collected from Askeramala site.
Table 1.
Mean and deviation in absolute values of GA (in degrees °)
Site Askeramala Vimmerby
Tree no. 1 2 3 Mean 4 5 6 Mean
Mean 1.8 2.1 3.9 2.6 1.3 2.8 1.7 1.9
Deviation 0.8 1 2.7 1.5 0.6 1.6 1 1
Fig. 6.
Tree no. 3 - variation of GA in radial direction.
CONCLUSION
This study was based on measurement on grain angle in six aspen trees at three vertical
positions. The values obtained from measurement of 18 wooden discs (a six from each position) were
collected and grain angles were calculated. The results confirmed that aspen belongs to species with
straight-grained wood. In line with other species, aspen tree shows higher variation in radial than in
vertical direction. In vertical direction (bottom to the top), the bottom log had highest values. The
registered mean value of aspen GA in this position was -0.8° with 2° standard deviation. The middle
log recorded lowest values. The average GA in this position was -0.4° and standard deviation 1°.
With regard to radial variation, the mean values of GA registered in butt logs had a decreasing
trend towards the bark. The average value was not exceeding 2° of grain angle value and deviation at
any of measuring points (15mm intervals) within three different positions. The values obtained from a
concluded study on GA in aspen are highly desirable in sawmilling industry. From this perspective,
aspen could be considered for higher utilization in this industry.
For the purpose of grain angle significance in veneer industry, the obtained results were
presented in absolute values. According to these results, the highest values of mean GA and
deviations appeared in the top log. This section recorded mean values of GA higher than 4° with
nearly 4° deviation in the outer part of the log. With less than 2°, lowest values of grain angles and
deviations are obtained in the middle log. As higher values and deviations are associated with the
outer part of the top log, this part should be carefully evaluated before processing and converting into
veneer. In both cases, it can be concluded that best quality of wood from the aspect of GA is to be
extracted from the middle part of the aspen tree.
78
Nevertheless, as conducted on six trees, this study showed that individual trees might have
much higher values as registered with tree no. 3. It would be of high importance for the wood
processing industry to consider this aspect. Detection of spiral grain enables qualitative wood
selection. This way raw material with unacceptable spiral grain can be excluded before processing or
selected for other purpose. The same applies for detection of grain angle during processing according
to different quality requirements of end products.
In overall, the acquired knowledge of aspen spiral grain can be considered as promising in the
expansion and better utilization of this wood in the future.
Considering these aspects it will be of significant importance to expand the research by:
- More extensive study of GA variation in terms of larger number of aspen trees,
- Appliance of different testing methods for detection on GA in aspen (logs, timber, veneer),
- Testing significance of GA values for specific end products.
Brief overview of methods for spiral grain assessment from industry appliance perspective
In general, most published studies based on GA measurements are often averaged over a
specific distance or group of growth rings. However, some recent studies (Nilsson et al. 2007, Cown et
al. 2010) have indicated that there may be more variation present within a tree than has been
previously reported. Although, while universally recognized as important for wood behaviour, as yet,
there is no accepted of efficiently collecting data on within-tree grain angles (Riddel et al. 2012). There
are several developed methods that were able to be automated. In 2002 Nystrom developed an
automated method for measuring spiral grain on sawlogs and lumber utilizing so-called "tracheid
effect". This created the possibility for measurement and segregation of softwood material according
to surface grain angles in commercial situations. In addition, techniques based on X-rays and/or
microwaves (Sepuveda et al. 2003, Ekevad 2004, Sjoden et al. 2005, Buksnowitz et al. 2008, Riddel
et al. 2012) have been developed. Most of them require rather expensive equipment and
mathematical modelling capability. They are applicable for certain types of wood, for instance, the
tracheid effect in the softwood milling industry. As mentioned in the earlier text trend of increasing
hardwood forest inspired many scientists towards more intensive research for extensive and efficient
use of this wood source. In a recent study (Schlotzhauer et al. 2018) performed the study about the
comparison of three systems for automatic grain angle determination on European hardwood for
construction use. The tracheid effect, microwave measurement, and electrical field strength
measurement were tested on six indigenous hardwoods (ash, basswood, beech, birch, maple, oak)
and spruce as reference. Ash showed no correlation at all. The tracheid effect showed a high R² value
for basswood (0.71), maple wood (0.81) and low value for birchwood (0.51). For beech wood, the
electrical field strength measurement showed the highest correlation (0.66). For oak, the electrical field
system and microwave measurement systems showed a high correlation (0.80 and 0.73). The
microwave system showed a high correlation (0.88) for maple.
The other recent study (Viguier et al. 2018) presented an innovative method based on grain
angle measurement to sort veneer and predict mechanical properties of beach laminated veneer
lumber. This study proposed an innovative model based on local grain angle measurements to predict
the modulus of elasticity of LVL made from beech. Local grain angle was obtained with two-
dimensional scanners by projecting a line of laser spots on the surface of the veneer. Due to low
computational time veneers, a sorting method was considered as industrially compatible. The model
based only on local grain angle measurements has been proven more efficient than models taking into
account the veneer density. The proposed method can be used to sort veneer during the peeling
process and grade the production of LVL panels to optimize their mechanical properties even for a
low-quality veneer.
Since considered as important wood attribute it is to expect more research connected to the
spiral grain, particularly from in the area of detection methods for industry appliance.
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MODIFICATIONS IN SPRUCE WOOD STRUCTURE FOLLOWING HYDRO-

THERMAL TREATMENT EVALUATED BY NIR SPECTROSCOPY
Carmen-Mihaela POPESCU
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Romanian Academy
Grigore Ghica Voda Alley, no. 41A, 700487 Iasi, Romania
Graduate school of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Tsukuba
Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
Tel: 0040 232 217454, E-mail: mihapop@icmpp.ro
Nanami ZENIYA
E-mail: zeniya.773@gmail.com
Kaoru ENDO
E-mail: kaoru.end.0123@gmail.com
Takuma GENKAWA
E-mail: genkawa.takuma.fm@alumni.tsukuba.ac.jp
Eiichi OBATAYA
E-mail: obataya.eiichi.fu@u.tsukuba.ac.jp
Abstract
Sitka spruce wood samples were subjected to different conditions of hydrothermal treatment
o
at 140 C by varying the relative humidity and period of exposure. The control/reference and treated
wood samples were evaluated using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), principal component analysis
(PCA) and two dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2DCOS) in order to identify the structural
modifications appearing during the treatment. Following this, the changes were reflected by the
shifting of the bands position, modifications in bands intensities and width, as well as baseline offset.
-1
Higher modifications were identified in the 7400-6000 and 5100-4100 cm regions assigned mainly to
hemicelluloses and extractives, indicating that these components were the most susceptible to
degradation in the present treatment conditions. Further, by PCA was possible to differentiate the
modifications in the wood samples according to the time of treatment and relative humidity, while by
2DCOS was possible to identify the sequential order of modifications.
Key words: sitka spruce wood; hydrothermal treatment; near infrared spectroscopy; principal
component analysis, two dimensional correlation spectroscopy.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is a material used in many applications (from construction to furniture and different
objects), but due to its structural features and depending on the environmental conditions (humidity,
temperature and biological agents), can be easily degraded by different factors.
Three major components, cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose are composing the structure of
wood, along with other low molecular compounds. Cellulose is a linear polymer composed by
anhydro–D–gluco–pyranose units which are linked via β(1–4) glycosidic linkages. On the other side,
lignin is a three dimensional crosslinked aromatic polymer formed from phenyl propane units,
with/without methoxyl groups bonded to the aromatic ring (guaiacyl, syringyl and p-hydroxyphenyl
units), and linked together by β–O–4 aryl ether or carbon-carbon linkages, while hemicelluloses are
mainly composed of glucose, mannose, galactose, xylose and arabinose, and are branched polymers
81
with a significantly lower molecular mass comparing to cellulose (Chang et al. 2010; Assor et al.
2009).
To understand the mechanisms of degradation of wood during natural conditions, many
researchers tried to simulate the natural environmental conditions with accelerated controlled ones. In
this context, biodegradation agents, like soft, brown and white rot fungi or termites (Fackler and
Schwanninger 2011; Lekounougou and Kocaefe 2012; Popescu et al. 2016); thermal and
hydrothermal ageing (Popescu et al. 2018; Zeniya et al. 2019a; Zeniya et al. 2019b) or weathering
and UV light eposure (Popescu et al. 2011; Tolvaj et al. 2016) were investigated in the last years in
research studies in order to simulate by accelerated controlled conditions the natural occurring ones
and to understand the mechanisms of degradation.
Thermal and hydrothermal treatments are often used to improve some of the wood material
properties (i.e. durability, dimensional stability of hydrophobicity) (Esteves and Pereira 2009), but also,
as mentioned above, at the same time can be used to simulate the natural degradation of wood
(Popescu et al. 2018; Zeniya et al. 2019a; Zeniya et al. 2019b; Candelier et al. 2011). During dry
thermal degradation, wood undergoes combined dehydration, decarboxylation and oxidation reactions
coupled with heat and mass transfer. If certain amounts of water vapours are present in the medium
during the treatment, other than the above-mentioned reactions, wood undergoes hydrolysis reactions
and the crystallization of wood cellulose might be affected (Akgul et al. 2007; Popescu et al. 2018). In
this context, the degradation of wood components is reached mainly by means of hydronium catalysed
reactions. In a first stage, these ions are generated from the water molecules autohydrolysis, followed
by the generation of the acetic acid (by the hydrolysis of the acetyl groups from the wood structure).
Further ionization provides most of the catalytic species involved in the degradation process (Conner
1984). Therefore, the susceptibility of a certain wood species to hydro thermolysis depends on its
ability to generate acetic acid in the reaction media, although the neutralizing ability of the wood plays
a role in the presence of hyronium ions (Garrote et al. 2001).
Spectral techniques, and in particular near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), gives exceptional
combination of speed, little or no sample preparation, easy use, non-destructiveness and good
reproducibility and low cost instrumentation, thus can be applied to process monitoring and quality
control evaluation (Schwanninger et al. 2011; Popescu and Popescu 2013). Small changes in the
chemical composition or physico-chemical properties of materials will cause spectral changes in
diffusely reflected near infrared radiation, the multiple chemical absorptions considerably affecting the
shape of the near infrared spectra leading to sifts of the position of the maxima, increased or reduced
bands’ intensities and/or baseline offset (Schwanninger et al. 2011; Popescu et al. 2016; Popescu et
al. 2018). In the case of wood material, near infrared spectroscopy can be successfully used for the
non-destructive evaluation of various wood species stiffness (i.e. Meder et al. 2002) and structural
changes during thermal treatment (Schwanninger et al. 2004; Popescu and Popescu 2013; Popescu
et al. 2018) etc.
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a well-established statistical procedure, which gives a
precise mathematical estimation of the changes taking place along the object and variable vectors. By
PCA data dimensionality is reduced by redefining the axes, therefore they correspond with the
directions of most variances, where these new axes or principal components (PCs) correspond with
the eigenvectors of the original data’s covariance matrix (Via et al. 2014; dos Santos Grasel et al.
2016). By converting the data into the dimensionally reduced PCA space, the input data set is
decomposed into two matrices of interest: scores and loadings (Via et al. 2014). The loadings matrix
defines the new axes of the dimensionally reduced data set, while the scores matrix describes the
samples in the PC space. With PCA, the most important features of the NIR spectra can be identified,
and the band shifts and non-symmetries in the bands between the samples can be quickly determined
(Via et al. 2014; Popescu and Popescu 2013; Popescu et al. 2018).
Two dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2DCOS), a technique established by Noda in 1993
(Noda 1993), is based on computation of auto-correlation and cross-correlation between spectra and
provides a graphical overview for the analysis of external perturbation induced variations. This
external perturbation can be related to temperature, pressure, moisture, concentration, composition,
pH or time change (Noda 1993; Czarnecki 1998; Noda and Ozaki 2004). 2D correlation analysis can
be applied to various types of systems, once the external perturbation is described as a specific
function. The method was widely applied in wood science to mid infrared spectroscopy (i.e. Popescu
et al. 2011; Popescu et al. 2007; Popescu et al. 2016) and near infrared spectroscopy (Fackler and
Schwanninger 2010; Wanga et al. 2009; Popescu and Popescu 2013; Popescu et al. 2018).
In previous papers (Zeniya et al. 2019a; Zeniya et al. 2019b) time–temperature–superposition
relationship to predict the mass loss of wood after hydrothermal treatment at arbitrary temperature and
relative humidity, as well as the mass loss dependencies of vibrational properties and colour
82
parameters were discussed. In the present study, we describe the relation between the applied
treatment and the related structural changes taking place by near infrared spectroscopy, principal
component analysis and two dimensional correlation spectroscopy.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of the present research was to evaluate the structural changes which may
o
appear during the hydrothermal treatment of Sitka spruce wood under 140 C and different values of
RH (0, 60, 75 or 100 %RH) and periods of exposure, by using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and
chemometric techniques.

Materials
3
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) wood specimens with an average air-dry density of 439 kg/m
and dimensions of 120mm (longitudinal) x 15mm (radial) x 1.6mm (tangential) were used in the
present study. In order to remove the hygroscopic history during seasoning, the wood samples were
o o
moistened at 25 C and 100%RH for about 5 days, followed by vacuum drying on P2O5 at 25 C for
o
about 7 days. On a second step the wood samples were conditioned at 25 C and 0, 60, 75 or
100%RH for more than 30 days prior the hydrothermal treatments.
Hydrothermal treatment
o
The wood samples, previously conditioned at 25 C and 0, 60, 75 or 100%RH for more than 30
o
days, were hydrothermally treated in an autoclave at 140 C, different RH values and different periods
of time. The autoclave was equipped with a thermocouple and pressure sensor (PHS-B-500KP,
Kyowa Dengyo Co.). For each treatment condition were used five sample replicates.
The wood samples were placed in the autoclave along with different amounts of deionized
water in order to achieve the desired values of the RH in the chamber, then closed and the
o
temperature was increased to 140 C. Both, temperature and pressure reached the expected levels
within 1h. The values of RH in the autoclave were calculated from the water vapour pressure. Detailed
information about the specification and performance of the autoclave are given in a previous paper
(Endo et al. 2016).
o
The samples treated at 0 %RH were heated in an oven at 140 C for up to 47 days, in order to
obtain a sufficient mass loss comparable with that obtained in moist conditions.
After the treatments, the wood samples were immediately cooled down to room temperature
and vacuum dried on P2O5. The absolute dry mass was determined according to the following
formulae:
(1)
where: ML is the mass loss, M1 and M0 are the absolute dry mass of the control/unmodified and
hydrothermally modified wood samples respectively.
Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measurements

-1
Near infrared spectra were recorded on a NIRFlex N500 instrument with a resolution of 8 cm ,
-1
in the 10000-4000 cm spectral range. The data processing was performed using The Unscrambler®
X 10.4.1 program (CAMO AS, Trondheim, Norway). Further, in order to get more detailed information,
principal component analysis (PCA) and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2DCOS) were
applied. For the analysis, the medium spectrum obtained from the three recordings of each sample
replicate was retained.
For PCA analysis, the NIR spectra of all the measured samples were used and the processing
was performed by The Unscrambler® X 10.4.1 program (CAMO AS, Trondheim, Norway).
Generalized 2D correlation spectra were created using 2Dshige (c) (developed by Shigeaki
Morita, Kwansei-Gakuin University, 2004-2005) and the second derivative of the medium spectrum
obtained from the five replicates of the wood NIR spectra.
83

Hydrothermal treated samples present different values of mass loss depending on the values
of relative humidity during the treatment and on the treatment time (see Table 1). As can be observed,
the wood samples treated at higher RH values and time present higher values of the mass loss.
Table 1
Hydrothermal conditions and mass loss
o
Temperature ( C) RH (%) Time (days) average ML (%)
0 0.23
12 4.47
0
23 7.79
47 7.78
0 0.11
1 2.56
60 2 3.65
4 8.54
7 11.94
140 0 0.10
0.5 2.01
75 1 4.74
1.875 6.23
4 11.74
0 0.30
0.125 1.29
100 0.25 2.58
0.5 4.39
1 6.69
Near infrared spectroscopy

-1
The NIR spectra recorded in the 10000-4000 cm region are presented in Figures 1a – d. The
spectra present typical absorption bands for wood, consisting in broad signals of highly overllaping
individual bands of the overtone and combination modes associated with its chemical components.
-1
Generally, the spectra are divided in five main regions, namely: 10000-7000 cm assigned to first and
second overtones of C-H stretching vibrations in methyl and methylene groups from carbohydrates
-1
and lignin (Schwanninger et al. 2011; Popescu et al. 2018); 7000-6000 cm assigned to first overtone
of the C-H combination bands, and first overtone of different O-H stretching vibrations (Schwanninger
-1
et al. 2011; Popescu et al. 2018); 6000-5000 cm dominated by the first overtone of the aliphatic and
aromatic C-H stretching vibrations and O-H combination bands in all wood components
-1
(Schwanninger et al. 2011; Popescu and Popescu 2013; Popescu et al. 2018) and 5000-4000 cm
assigned mostly to C=O groups, O-H stretching and deformation vibrations, Car-H and C-H stretching
vibrations and also to C-H stretching and C-H deformation vibrations (Schwanninger et al. 2011;
Popescu and Popescu 2013; Popescu et al. 2018).
As can be observed from Figure 1, the changes induced in the structure and content of wood
components by hydrothermal treatment are reflected in the NIR bands position of the maxima,
intensities, width, as well as baseline offset, and they differ according to the applied treatment.
The samples treated in dry conditions, even though the treatment time is longer than for the
other samples, present less variations in their spectra (Fig 1a) comparing to the spectra of the
samples treated in different humid conditions (Figs 1b, 1c and 1d).
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Fig. 1.
NIR spectra of reference and hydrothermally treated wood samples at 0%RH (a); 60%RH (b);
75%RH (c) and 100%RH (d).
85
In contrast to mid infrared spectroscopy, in NIRS it is more difficult to assign the bands to a
certain functional group and to identify the specific individual signal due to their overlapping. Also, the
reason of intensity decrease or increase or position shift may be due to only one component band
modification. Therefore, to improve the spectral resolution, the second derivative (Savitzky-Golay
method) spectra were obtained. In Fig. 2 are presented the second derivative spectra of the
hydrothermally treated samples in 100% RH conditions (as an example). The strongest differences
-1 -1
were observed in the 7400-6000cm and 5100-4100cm (regions highlighted in Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Second derivative of the NIR spectra of reference and hydrothermally treated wood samples
100%RH.
-1
In the first region, the bands from 7412, 7315 and 6490cm are shifting to lower wavenumber
-1
to 7402, 7309 and 6470cm , respectively. These bands are assigned to first overtone of the
combination band of C-H stretching vibration and C-H deformation vibration from methyl groups in
hemicelluloses, and to first overtone of O-H stretching vibration from intramolecular H-bonds in
-1
cellulose (Schwanninger et al. 2011). The bands from 6782, 6647, and 6280cm increase in intensity
with the increase of the treatment time. These are assigned to first overtone of O-H stretching
vibration from semi crystalline regions and O(6)-H6…O(3)’ intermolecular H-bonds in cellulose
-1
(Schwanninger et al. 2011). The last band is also shifted to higher wavenumber, at 6290 cm . The
modification in these bands is due to the modifications induced in the wood structure due to partial
removal of low molecular compounds and hemicelluloses during the treatment, as well as formation of
new compounds.
-1
The second region, 5100-4100cm , indicate modifications of the bands from 4746, 4673,
-1 -1
4403 and 4287cm . The bands from 4746, 4403 and 4287cm assigned to combination band of O-H
deformation and O-H stretching vibration in carbohydrates, and to C-H stretching and deformation
vibration in cellulose and hemicelluloses increase in intensity with the increase of the treatment time,
-1
while the band from 4673cm assigned to combination of C-H and C=O stretching vibration of the
-1
acetyl groups is shifted to lower wavenumber, at 4650cm .
Principal component analysis differentiated the groups of treated samples according to the
relative humidity involved during the treatment, as well as according to the time of treatment, while by
2DCOS synchronous and asynchronous maps was possible to identify the auto and cross-peaks, as
well as the sequential order of bands’ modification under the applied hydrothermal treatments. Thus,
firstly modify the bands related to O-H and C-H groups from hemicelluloses, followed by the O-H and
C=O groups from extractives and lignin as well as the bands related to C-H and O-H groups in
cellulose.
CONCLUSIONS
o
The structural modifications occurring during hydrothermal treatment at 140 C and different
values of RH and time of exposure were evaluated by near infrared spectroscopy and chemometric
methods (principal component analysis and two dimensional correlation spectroscopy). It has been
86
observed that during treatment, hemicelluloses and extractives are the most susceptible, but also the
lignin and cellulose presented bands variations. Moreover, these methods indicate a different
degradation pattern of the wood samples related to the relative humidity values presented in the
environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been performed under the JSPS (FY2018) International Research Fellowship
Program. Carmen-Mihaela Popescu acknowledges the financial support as a JSPS International
Research Fellow – FY2018-L18536.
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88
HYGROSCOPIC PROPERTIES AFTER WEATHERING OF SOME VARNISH

COATED WOOD SPECIES
Dr. Dimitrios KOUTSIANITIS
University of Thessaly, Department of Forestry, Wood Science and Design
V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: dkoutsianitis@teilar.gr
Dr. Andromachi MITANI

V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: amitani@teilar.gr
Prof. George NTALOS

V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: gntalos@teilar.gr
Dr. Konstantinos NINIKAS

V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: kninikas@teilar.gr
Abstract
Eight different wood species (Juglans regia, Paulownia tomentosa, Acer spp., Querqus, Larix
decidua, Niangon, Tilia cordata, Fraxinus excelsior) have been subjected to artificial weathering from 0
to 600h. The long term artificial weathering experiment was performed in order to examine the
resistance to weathering regarding dimensional stability and absorption of various wood species
coated with water-soluble varnish and uncoated (control samples). Samples were prepared in
tangential, radial and longitudinal grain orientations from the above species. The eight wood species
studied showed, however, differences in their response to artificial weathering conditions. According to
the results obtained from the coated and uncoated samples, better wood stability would be certainly
achieved by coated samples.
Key words: artificial weathering; absorption; dimensional stability; wood; varnish.
INTRODUCTION
When wood is revealed to outdoor conditions, a multiplex mixture of chemical, mechanical and
energy factors contribute to what is reported as a weathering. The exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
irradiation and moisture are the basic circumstances of wood weathering. Wood degradation is
demonstrated by color change, followed by, roughening and sometimes by checking. The alteration of
wood color is however to be as a result of the UV light which acts in cooperation with moisture,
temperature, and oxygen and/or ozone to depolymerize lignin and cellulose in wood cell wall
(Anderson et al. 1991). The depolymerization of lignin and cellulose also lead to decrease in some
physical, chemical and biological properties of wood. The weathering influences mainly the wood
surface and significantly eliminates the aesthetic appearance and efficiency of wood. Sunlight
converts the wood color to grey at the beginning of the exposure period, and then the surface fibres
are detached upon prolonged exposure owing to depolymerisation of lignin and carbohydrates in the
cell walls. In addition to color changes, mildew growth, checking, splitting, and warping take place on
the wood surfaces (Teacă et al. 2013; Temiz et al. 2009).
Consequently, wood should be protected by various preservatives. Wooden material should
be preserved to improve its durability against outdoor conditions. It is been well known that the most
familiar method is to coat surfaces of wooden materials with different lacquer layers to protect them
against weathering conditions. Water-based finishes are made up of droplets of solvent-based finish,
usually acrylic or polyurethane, and a solvent, usually glycol ether, with water functioning as a thinner.
Water-based finishes may raise the wood grain and offer only moderate resistance to water, heat, and
solvents (Çakıcıer et al. 2011; Sonmez and Budakçı 2004).
Coatings can be degraded under the weathering procedure such as sunlight, temperature,
oxygen, water and pollutants, which can deteriorate wood’s properties. The service life of a coating
rely on the environmental conditions, the properties of the coating, and is associated with the moisture
content of wood, photochemical and microbiological degradation occurred by blue stain and mould
fungi. The protection competence also depends on the darkness of the coating. Among these factors,
89
UV irradiation is the major contributor to degradation. In order to evaluate coating service life in a short
term, different accelerated ageing tests are carried out by simulated solar irradiation, temperature,
moisture in natural environment (Ozgenc et al. 2012).
The solid color stains and paints have longer service life than transparent ones. This may
happens due to the fact that clear or transparent finishes do not have pigments to absorb the UV rays,
thus, the UV can pass through the clear coating layer and cause oxidation of lignin. Lignin degradation
contributes to raised water uptake and defibrillation of cellulose fibres from the wood surface. Thus, if
we can find a good way to prevent lignin degradation, for instance by having high pigment
concentration or other UV absorbers, then the coating will last longer (Williams 2010).
Swelling and shrinking of wood also influences the reliability of those wood constructions that
must have a high dimensional stability for good performance. Thus, the dimensional stabilization of
wood in these situations would improve their long-term durability in exterior exposures. Weathering
provokes reduction of hydrophobicity of the wood surface via a variety of chemical and structural
alterations (Kishino and Nakano 2004). Exposure to UV causes photodegradation of lignin and the
formation of a cellulose hydrophilic surface. Although photodegradation is primarily external, moisture-
induced checking may extend to depths of several millimeters (Evans et al. 1993) and can work as
pathways for water into the wood subsurface. Most of the photodegradation and checking takes place
within weeks of exposure, but can go on for at least 6–12 months before proceeding to continuous
erosion (Evans 2012; Kalnins and Feist 1993).
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to investigate the changes caused by weathering on some
wood species coated with water soluble-varnish. Hygroscopic properties of wood species were
investigated after several intervals (0-600 h). Accelerated weathering using UV irradiation and water
spray was used to simulate natural conditions in multi-year cycles according to the method described
in standard EN ISO 11341:2004.

Wood material
Eight different species of wood (5 of each specie), Juglans regia, Paulownia tomentosa, Acer
spp., Querqus, Larix decidua, Niangon, Tilia cordata, Fraxinus excelsior, were used for the
experiments. Samples with dimensions of 50 mm by 50 mm by 10 mm were conditioned in a climate
o
room having a relative humidity of 65% and a temperature of 20 C until they reach equilibrium
moisture content of 11%. All samples of each species were cut from the same air-dried board to
ensure high homogeneity.
Artificial weathering was carried out according to the European standard EN ISO 11341
equipped with a filtered xenon-arc UV lamp for 2000 h (5 cycles). The test was carried out for coated
with varnish and uncoated samples for 0- 600h. The duration of each wetting cycle test was 120 min
where 18 min was the wetting time and the 102 min was the dry period (Relative humidity 40-60 %).
Dimensional stability Measurements

The changes of coated with varnish and uncoated specimen’s water absorption and
dimensions changes of (Tangential, Radial and longitudinal) directions were measured before and
after artificial weathering in the same location each time. The measurements took place in various
weathering duration (0, 24h, 48h, 72h, 96h, 120h, 172h, 316h, 388h, 532h).

Figures 1 to 16 depict the periodical rate of water absorption and dimensional stability of wood
species after artificial weathering for different exposure times.
Water absorption of Juglans regia was gradually decreased until the end of the weathering
test. Comparing coated and uncoated samples it is obvious that coated specimens show much better
results as regards dimensional stability and absorption. As concerns dimension changes, tangential
direction presents more intense changes than radial and longitudinal direction.
The same phenomenon was noticed at Paulownia tomentosa samples. The water absorption
of coated samples was significantly lower than uncoated specimens. The higher reduction of water
absorption was observed at 316h weathering. Associating the results of all (eight) wood species above
and below, Paulonia tomentosa display the major absorption and dimensional change reduction.
90
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Absorption-dimension changes of Uncoated Absorption-dimension changes of Coated
Juglans regia. Juglans regia.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Absorption-dimension changes of Uncoated Absorption-dimension changes of Coated
Paulownia tomentosa. Paulownia tomentosa.
Uncoated samples of Acer sempervirens exhibit great increase of water absorption, effect that
is in contrast to coated samples which gave an adequate decrease. Longitudinal direction of all wood
species shows faint changes comparing to tangential and radial directions.
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Absorption-dimension changes Absorption-dimension changes
of Uncoated Acer sempervirens. of Coated Acer sempervirens.
91
The same effect as uncoated Acer sempervirens observed at Querqus alba samples. On the
contrary, the dimension changes and absorption of coated samples were enhanced at the initial
weathering time (till 72h).
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
of Uncoated Querqus alba. of Coated Querqus alba.
Weathering conditions of uncoated Larix decidua samples did not influenced in great extend
as other wood species. On the other hand, coated samples showed decrease.
Tarrieta utilis samples both uncoated and coated present reduction in water absorption and
dimension changes. Additionally, the reduction fluctuate during the test in great extent.
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

of Uncoated Larix decidua. of Coated Larix decidua.
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

of Uncoated Tarrieta utilis. of Coated Tarrieta utilis.
92
Tilia cordata exhibited the most intense increase of water absorption concerning the uncoated
samples. However, coated samples did not show decrease as other wood species but a great
increase in some cases like 96h weathering. This proves that water-soluble varnish did not protect
Tilia cordata as it was expected.
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

of Uncoated Tilia cordata. of Coated Tilia cordata.
Fraxinus excelsior uncoated samples did not influenced at first 24h of weathering, although as
the test continuing an extensive increase was mentioned. The coated samples act in similar way as
other wood species presenting reduction of water absorption and dimension change.
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

of Uncoated Fraxinus excelsior. of Coated Fraxinus excelsior.
It is well known, that water leaks through the coated film, the wood starts swelling, causing
cracks in the film and weakening the surface appearance. After a few weathering cycles, the film is
extracted from the wood surface and the water without restraint diffuses in, causing dimensional
changes. Subsequently, the coating is not an appropriate procedure to stabilize the wood exposed to
conditions of increased humidity and action of water.
CONCLUSIONS
According to the results obtained from the coated and uncoated samples, better wood stability
would be certainly achieved by coated samples. The eight wood species studied showed, however,
differences in their response to artificial weathering conditions. Tarrieta utilis samples both uncoated
and coated present reduction in water absorption and dimension changes. Tilia cordata exhibited the
most intense increase of water absorption concerning the uncoated samples.
Longitudinal direction of all wood species shows faint changes comparing to tangential and
radial directions. On the contrary, tangential direction presents highest alterations.
93
This research contributes to the development of a wood finishing that will improve dimensional
stability of the wood weathered or exposed to UV light and water spray conditions.
REFERENCES
Anderson EL, Pawlak Z, Owen NL, Feist WC (1991) Infrared Studies of Wood Weathering. 1:
Softwoods. Appl. Spectrosc. 45(1991a):641–647.
Çakıcıer N, Korkut S, Sevim Korkut D, Kurtoğlu A, Sönmez A (2011) Effects of QUV accelerated aging
on surface hardness, surface roughness, glossiness, and color difference for some wood species.
International Journal of the Physical Sciences 6(8):1929-1939.
Evans PD, Schmalzl KJ, Michell AJ (1993) Rapid loss of lignin at wood surfaces during natural
weathering. In: J. F. Kennedy, G. O. Phillips, P. A. Williams (eds.), Cellulosics: Pulp, Fibre and
Environmental Aspects, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, Chap. 51, pp. 335-340.
Evans PD (2012) Weathering of wood and wood composites. In: R. M. Rowell (ed.), Handbook of
Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites, 2nd Edition, CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group), New York,
Chap. 7, pp. 151-216.
Kalnins M, Feist WC (1993) Increase in wettability of wood with weathering. For. Prod. J. 43:55-57.
Kishino M, Nakano T (2004) Artificial weathering of tropical woods. Part 1: Changes in wettability.
Holzforschung 58:552-557.
Ozgenc O, Hiziroglu S, Yidiz U (2012) Weathering properties of wood species treated with different
coating applications. Bioresources 7:4875-4888.
Teacă CA, Roşu D, Bodîrlău R, Roşu L (2013) Structural changes in wood under artificial UV light
irradiation determined by FTIR spectroscopy and color measurements – A brief review. BioResources
8(1):1478-1507.
Temiz A, Terziev N, Eikenes M, Hafren J (2007) Effect of accelerated weathering on surface chemistry
of modified wood. Appl. Surf. Sci. 253(12):5355-5362.
Williams SR (2010) Finishing of wood. In: Wood Handbook. General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190.
Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Chapter
16:1–39.
94
PHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LONCHOCARPUS SERICEUS

(POIR). A LESSER UTILIZED SPECIES IN NIGERIA
Lawrence Olanipekun AGUDA
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B. 5054, Jericho Hill, Ibadan Nigeria
Tell: +234-803-872-4979, E-mail: aguda.lo@frin.gov.ng
Babatunde AJAYI
Federal University of Technology Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
Email: babatundeajayi2002@yahoo.com
Babatola OLUFEMI
Federal University of Technology Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
E-mail: olufemibabatola@yahoo.com
Adeshola Olatunde ADEPOJU

Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B. 5054, Jericho Hill, Ibadan Nigeria
E-mail: soadepoju2005@gmail.com
Abstract
Declining availability of the prime economic species in Nigeria timber market has led to the
introduction of Lesser-Used-Species (LUS) as an alternative. Their acceptability demands information
on their wood technical properties. The aim of this study is to investigate properties of lesser
used/known timber to determine their potential for timber. Three matured trees of Lonchocarpus
sericeus were selected from a free forest area of Longe village, Busogbooro along Ibadan/Ijebu Ode
0
road in Oluyole local Government area in Ibadan, Oyo State Nigeria located at Latitude 07 09.715`N
0
and Longitude 003 53.235È and 122mm above sea level. Samples from the harvested trees were
collected at base (10%), middle (50%) and top (90%) along the sampling heights and further
partitioned into innerwood, centrewood and outerwood across the sampling radial position.
Investigation were carried out on the wood density, shrinkage, impact strength, modulus of elasticity,
modulus of rupture, compressive strength parallel to grain, shear strength parallel to grain. Standard
methods were used to determine these physical and mechanical properties of the species. The mean
3
wood density of Lonchocarpus sericeus at 12% moisture content was 836.63kg/m which shows that it
belongs to high density wood category. The mean shrinkage of Lonchocarpus sericeus at radial,
tangential and longitudinal direction were 2.50%, 3.99% and 0.78% respectively. The volumetric
shrinkage was 6.36%. The mean shrinkage values indicated good dimensional stability. The mean
impact bending strength, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, maximum shear strength parallel to
grain and maximum compression strength parallel to grain for Lonchocarpus sericeus were
2 2 2 2 2
24.14N/mm , 114.18N/mm , 11276N/mm , 12.76N/mm and 47.16N/mm respectively. End use
assessments suggest that the wood species can be used in similar applications as the well-known
timbers. The study found the species to be very dense with high mechanical strength in comparison to
well-known timbers. It was observed that the mechanical properties of the species decreases from the
base to the top and also increases from the outerwood to the corewood which shows the variations
that exist along and across the trees of Lonchocarpus sericeus.
Key words: Lesser Used Species; physical properties; mechanical properties; well known species;
Nigeria.
INTRODUCTION
The Nigeria forest contain vast stock of trees species out of which over hundreds are suitable
for sawing and therefore have the potential for commercial utilization (Ogunsanwo et al. 2006).
Unfortunately, very few of the species such as Milicia excels, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Nauclea
diderrichi, Afzelia Africana, Etandrophragma cylindrium, Afzilia pachyloba, Albizia zygia, Celtis
zenkeri, Daniella ogea, Daniella oliveri, Diospyros mespiliformis, Distemonanathus benthamiamus and
Entandropharagma candollei and among others are still being sought after (Adedeji 2016).
Increase in Nigeria population has brought pressure on the timber species listed above as a
result of high demand for wood and wood products as raw materials for building and construction
purposes as well as for fuelwood. This situation has led to rapid shrinking of natural forest (Sadiku
95
2016). The demand for good quality timber has been increasing, government regulations and
environmental restrictions to preserve the world`s existing forest have been mounted pressures on
logging in many developing countries (Cherdchim et al. 2004). Modern forest management
approaches which include the search for alternative substitute timber species for those most exploited
are increasingly employed in the timber sectors in Africa. Remarkable progresses were reported from
Nigeria (Aguda et al. 2012), Ghana (Otengo-Amoako 2006), Tanzania (Gillah et al. 2006) and
Mozambique (Alexandre 2011). Several studies about wood properties of lesser used species growing
in Africa aiming to reduce pressure on the well-known species have been conducted (Poku et al.
2001; Ishengoma et al. 2004; Zziwa et al. 2006).
Ten lesser used species from Nigeria were selected and studied but only Lonchocarpus
sericeus will be discussed in this write up. The selection of these species was based on the plank
market survey conducted by the Timber Engineering section of Forest Products Development and
Utilization Department, Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria. The survey showed the availability of
these species in the timber market and little or nothing is known about their properties. These wood
species are lesser-used species that are currently ultilized due to the scarcity of species whose
properties had been evaluated. It is therefore very important to determine the physical and mechanical
properties of these species prior to their utilization as the incessant collapse of buildings and other
structures and its attendant problems portent grievous dangers for the end users (Adetogun 2010).
OBJECTIVE
The general objective of this study is to investigate the wood properties of Lonchocarpus sericeus with
the view of assessing their potentials for relevant industrial utilization.
The specific objectives are as follows:
(i) to determine some selected physical and mechanical properties of Lonchocarpus sericeus
species.
(ii) to investigate the pattern of variation of the properties in (i) on the wood parts (base, middle
and top) and across the wood (Corewood, middlewood and outerwood) Lonchocarpus
sericeus species.
MATERIAL, METHODS, EQUIPMENT

The Study Area
The study area is a free forest area called Longe village, Busogbooro along Ibadan/Ijebu Ode
road in Oluyole local Government area in Ibadan, Oyo State. It is surrounded by many other villages
among which are Onigambari, Adebayo, Aba-Dalley, Mamu, Aba-Igbagbo, Idi-Ayunre, Ajibode,
0
Lagunju, Gbale-Asun, Akintola and Onipade. Longe village is located at Latitude 07 09.715`N and
0
Longitude 003 53.235È. and is 122mm above sea level with an average annual rainfall of 1421mm
and relative humidity ranging from 84.5% in June to September and 78.8% in December to January
(WAHIP 1997).
Materials Selection
Sampling Selection and Preparation
Lonchocarpus sericeus were selected for this research based on their availability in the timber
market and little or nothing is known about their wood properties.
The trees were felled and their merchantable heights were measured. Bolts of 91.44cm long
were cut from each of the sample at the base (10%), at the middle (50%) and at the top (90%) of the
merchantable length resulting to sixteen (16) bolts for both species. The sixteen bolts were then
transported to the sawmilling section of the Department of Forest Products Development and
Utilization (FPD&U), Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN), Ibadan for conversion. Eighty (80)
planks were obtained from all the bolts and they were taken to the Wood Workshop Section for further
conversion to test samples. The planks were sectioned into six (6) equal portions labelled 1-6 from
bark to bark. Section 1 and 6 forming the outerwood portion, section 2 and 5 forming the middlewood
and 3 and 4 forming innerwood portion as showed in Fig 1.
96
Table 1
Allocation of Test Materials
Properties Test Sample Size
Physical Density 20mm x 20mm x 60mm
Percentage shrinkage 20mm x 20mm x 40mm
Specific gravity 20mm x 20mm x 60mm
Mechanical MOR 20mm x 20mm x 300mm
MOE 20mm x 20mm x 300mm
Compression strength//to grain 20mm x 20mm x 60mm
Impact bending 20mm x 20mm x 300mm
Shear strength 20mm x 20mm x 20mm
Wood Properties Evaluation

Physical Properties
The physical properties tested and recorded are tree age, Wood Density and Wood
Shrinkage.
Tree Age
0.05m discs at the breast height from the bolts were sanded with sandpaper until the rings
became clearer to enable the rings to be counted. This was repeated for all bolts at their respective
positions along the tree. Clarke (2000) stated that the number of growth rings can be used to a
reasonable level to determine the age of the tree.
Determination of Wood Density

Test samples of 20mm x 20mm x 60mm were taken using the circular bench saw based on
ASTM D 2395-93 (ASTM, 1993). Five samples each were taken from the innerwood, centrewood and
outerwood at the base (10%), middle (50%) and top (90%), making total of 270 test samples for all the
0
six trees. The test samples were oven-dried to a constant weight at 103±2 C and the weights along
and across the boles were determined and recorded.
The formula used for the calculation of wood density is stated below Equation 1:
3
Density (kg/m ) (1)
Shrinkage Characteristics
The Standard Method of Testing small clear specimens of timber ASTM D 143-94 (ASTM,
1994) was used for this test. Five test samples of 20mm x 20mm x 60mm were gotten and were
soaked in water for 48 hours in order to get them conditioned to moisture above Fibre Saturated Point
(FSP). The test samples were removed and their dimensions measured from the three orthogonal
directions (radial, tangential and longitudinal). The samples were then oven-dried to a constant weight
0
at 103±2 C and their dimensions were also measured from the three orthogonal directions. The
following formula was used to calculate various dimensional changes.
For radial variation Equation 2,
(2)
where: Rt is the radial shrinkage, ro is the initial radial dimension, rt is the final radial dimension.
For tangential variation Equation 3,
(3)
where: to is the initial tangential thickness, tt is the final tangential thickness at the moment of
measurement.
For longitudinal variation Equation 4,

(4)
where: lo is the initial longitudinal dimension, tt is the final longitudinal dimension.
97
For volumetric variation Equation 5,

The volumetric shrinkage will be calculated from the data obtained from the shrinkage
determination. Volumetric shrinkage will be calculated from the summation of radial and tangential
shrinkage as stated by Kollmann and Cote (1968) and Dinwoodie (1989).
Its mathematical expression is given as:
Vs (%) = Vr + Vt (5)
where: Vs = Volumetric shrinkage

Vr = Shrinkage in the radial direction
Vt = Shrinkage in the tangential direction
3
The unit of density is kg/m
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Parts of samples selection. Computerized Universal Testing Machine.
Fig. 3.
Sartorius Moisture Analyser.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties that was tested for in this study include: Modulus of Rupture
(MOR), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Maximum Compressive Strength parallel to grain (CS//),
Maximum Shear Strength parallel to grain and Impact bending strength
98
Determination of Modulus of Rupture (MOR) and Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

Panshin and deZeeuw (1980) described MOR as the magnitude of load required to cause
failure in bending stresses. The sample dimension required for this test are clear samples of
dimension 20 × 20 × 300 mm. The MOR was calculated using equation below;
MOR = (6)
2
where: MOR was in N/mm
P = load at some point below the proportional limit (N)
L = distance between supports for the beam (mm)
b = beam width (mm)
d = thickness (depth) of the beam (mm)
Modulus of Elasticity is a measure of the resistance to bending, or stiffness of a beam or other

wood member. Is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and size after being stressed
(Pansin and Dezeeuw, 1980) Desch (1988) stated that the ability of a wood member to bend freely
and regain normal shape is called flexibility and the ability to resist bending is called stiffness. This
was calculated using the equation:
MOE = (7)
P = load at some point below the proportional limit (N)

L = distance between supports for the beam (mm)
b = beam width (mm)
d = thickness (depth) of the beam (mm)
∆ = deflection
Determination of Maximum Compressive Strength (MCS) parallel to grain

This is the ability of a material to resist a crushing force or stress applied on the body. The
compressive strength parallel to the grain test was carried out using wood samples of 20mm x 20mm
x 60mm. The values obtained was used to calculate the compressive strength using the equation
below.
2
N/mm (8)
2
MCS = Maximum Compressive Strength in N/mm
b = width in mm
d = depth in mm
P = Load in Newton
Determination of Impact bending strength (Impact work)

Impact bending strength is the ability of wood samples to resist suddenly applied load and one
of the criteria for measuring toughness (Desch, 1988). Impact bending is generally or widely used as
an indication of toughness of wood material. This test was carried out using the sample of 20mm x
20mm x 300mm. The maximum distance of hammer drop was read and recorded directly from the
impact bending machine in meter, the workdone during this process was also determined and
recorded. The impact work was calculated using the equation below.
IBS (9)
2
where: IBS = Impact work (J/m )
W = Work-done
A = area of the samples
F = weight of the hammer
d = distance of hammer drop
b = width of sample
d = depth of sample
99
Determination of Maximum Shear Strength parallel to grain

The measure of ability of wood to resist internal slipping of one part upon another along the
grain is what is referred to as Shear strength. This was done parallel to the grain. Test samples of
20mm x 20mm x 20mm were used. The maximum Shear strength parallel to grain was calculated
using the equation below.
Shear = (10)
where: P = Load in Newton
b = width in mm
d = depth in mm
Table 2
Summary of mean values of selected physical properties of Lonchocarpus Sericeus at 12%
moisture content
Sampling height
Property Radial Base Middle (50%) Top Pooled Mean

position (10%) (90%)
a
Density Innerwood 864.00±53.33 871.67±39.67 823.33±54.02 851.67±49.01
3 b
(Kg/m ) Centrewood 861.33±41.33 863.67±42.67 783.67±68.23 836.22±50.74
b
Outerwood 854.67±35.67 831.67±59.33 775.67±73.19 820.67±56.06
a a b
Pooled Mean 860.00±43.44 855.67±47.22 794.22±65.15 836.63±51.94
c
Radial shrinkage Innerwood 2.56±0.70 1.92±0.88 2.01±0.94 2.16±0.84
b
(%) Centrewood 2.81±0.60 2.56±1.19 2.20±1.03 2.53±0.98
a
Outerwood 3.31±1.67 2.64±0.94 2.47±0.95 2.81±1.26
a b b
Pooled Mean 2.89±1.12 2.37±1.04 2.23±0.94 2.50±1.07
b
Tangential Innerwood 2.98±1.36 3.99±3.00 3.94±1.60 3.64±1.99
b
shrinkage Centrewood 3.38±0.71 4.24±1.49 4.11±2.37 3.91±1.52
a
(%) Outerwood 4.20±1.40 4.60±1.25 4.43±1.60 4.41±1.42
b a a
Pooled Mean 3.52±1.16 4.28±1.91 4.16±1.86 3.99±1.64
b
Longitudinal Innerwood 0.58±0.32 0.50±0.35 0.81±0.41 0.62±0.36
b
a
(%) Outerwood 0.78±0.38 0.91±0.35 1.08±0.30 0.92±0.34
b b a
Pooled Mean 0.69±0.34 0.71±0.30 0.94±0.37 0.78±0.34
c
Volumetric Innerwood 4.98±1.38 5.86±1.60 5.59±1.26 5.48±1.41
b
a
(%) Outerwood 6.47±1.28 7.24±1.35 8.14±2.63 7.28±1.75
c b a
Pooled Mean 5.65±1.44 6.56±1.45 6.88±1.91 6.36±1.60
Table 3
Mean values for Age Determination
Tree No Age estimation Merchantable Diameter (m) Total Height (m)

Height (MH) (m)
Lonchocarpus s.
1 32 9.71 1.92 14.72
2 28 8.32 1.72 12.26
3 29 8.95 1.59 15.90
Discussion
Age: The results in Table 1 showed the age estimation of three stands of Lonchocarpus
sericeus to be 32 years, 28 years and 29 years. At this age range, wood were considered to be
matured as timber with good wood quality. Wood maturity is to enhance complete formation of all the
wood properties (Adejoba, 2010). Age is one of the most important factors that affect and determine
wood properties. Matured trees give better wood than juvenile wood. The merchantable height ranges
100
from 8.32m to 9.71m which indicated that 3 to 4 logs can be obtained from the standing trees making
them to produce good numbers of logs. Also the diameter ranges from 1.59m to 1.92m. Hence,
species can produce large number of planks. The total height of Lonchocarpus sericeus ranges from
12.26m to 15.90m.
3
Density: The average mean density of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood was 836.63kg/m .
According to FAO (1985), timber should be graded hard, intermediate or soft, corresponding to high,
3
medium and low densities. The technical limits between the grades are: High density above 500kg/m ,
3 3
Medium density between 500 and 350kg/m while low density less than 350kg/m and added that only
high density timbers are allowed for structural purposes. These values showed that Lonchocarpus
sericeus wood belong to the high density wood category and can be graded as hardwood. Economic
wood species such as Lophira Lanceolata, Vitellaria paradoxa, Bridelia ferruginea, Anogeissus
leiocarpus, Parkia biglobosa, Gardenia ternifolia, Hymenocardia acida, Lophira alata, Milicia excelsia,
Erythropleum spp, Afzelia Africana, etc are of the same grade to the species under study. The result in
Table 2 showed a decrease in wood density of Lonchocarpus sericeus from the base to the top along
the sampling height and also decreases from the innerwood to the outerwood across the radial
position. Decrease in wood density of Lonchocarpus sericeus agreed with the findings of Hashemi and
Kord (2011) who found that wood density of Cupressus sempervirens decrease from the base to the
top and also the findings of Harvald and Olesen (1987) on the variation of density within juvenile wood
of Sitlca spruce. The decrease of wood density of Lonchocarpus sericeus and Ficus vallis-choudac
from the base to the top was also in accordance with the findings of Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on the
variation of wood density of Nauclea diderichii grown in the plantation. Similar findings were reported
by Izekor (2010), Ogunleye (2014) and Ojo (2016) on Tectona grandis, Ricinodendron heudelotti and
Borassus aethiopum respectively. Akachukwu (1982) reported that variation in density within trees do
occur as a result of changes in cell size and cell wall thickness that are associated with annual and
periodic growth cycles and the increasing age of the cambium. The decrease in wood density axially
agrees with the auxin gradient theory (Larson 1973). The theory states that endogenous auxin arising
in the apical regions of growing shoots stimulates cambial division and xylem differentiation and
formation of juvenile wood. Hence, high production of earlywood towards the tree crown results in low
density. The increase in density of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood from the outerwood to the innerwood
or corewood was in accordance with the findings of Bielczyk (1956), Burger (1950), Benic (1957) and
Zeeuw and Gray (1972) on oak, beech, Fraxinum angustifolia and Gmelina respectively. The
decrease in wood density of Lonchocarpus sericeus from the innerwood to the ourterwood negate the
findings of Ogunsanwo (2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Izekor (2011) on Teak,
Ogunleye (2014) on Ricinodendron heudelotti and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopum. The
inconsistent pattern of variation across the radial sampling positions experienced in Ficus vallis-
choudac was in accordance with the findings of Ogunsanwo (2000), Fuwape and Izekor (2011) and
Ojo (2016).
Radial Shrinkage: Radial Shrinkage decreased from the base (10%) through the middle
(50%) to the top (90%) and increased from the innerwood to the outerwood as showed in Table 2.
This pattern of variation was in line with the findings on Ogunsanwo and Onilude (2000), Aguda
(2007), Adejoba (2008) and Izekor (2010) on Triplochiton scleroxylon Termilania superba, Ficus
mucuso and Tectona grandis respectively. The increase in radial shrinkage of Lonchocarpus sericeus
wood from the innerwood through centrewood to outerwood was also reported by Ogunsanwo (2000)
on Triplochiton scleroxylon and this negated the report of Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopum.
Tangential Shrinkage: The percentage tangential shrinkage was 3.99%. Ogunsanwo and Ojo
(2011) obtained 3.84% for Borassus aethiopum. Poku, et al (2001) recorded 4.4%, 6.8% and 4.0% for
Alstonia boonei, Petersianthus macrocarpus and Ricinodendrron heudelotti respectively, Izekor (2010)
recorded 7.24%, 5.04% and 2.89% for 15yrs, 20yrs and 25yrs old Tectona grandis respectively. The
percentage tangential shrinkage of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood increases from the base to the
middle and decreased to the top which showed no consistent pattern of variation. Radially, tangential
shrinkage gradually increases from the innerwood to the outerwood. The inconsistent pattern of
variations observed axially on tangential shrinkage of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood was in accordance
with Young et al (1995), Lausberg et al (1995) and Adejoba (2008) on Pinus radiate, Pseudotsuga
menziensil and Ficus mucuso respectively. Poku, et al (2001) also recorded similar pattern of variation
in Peterslanthus macrocarpus from Ghana. They concluded that the innerwood shrinks less than
outerwood as a result of greater amount of extractives in the innerwood. Ogunsanwo (2000) stated
that suitability of wood for end uses has been linked with the ratio of tangential/raidial T/R shrinkage.
101
Low value of T/R is synonymous with high suitability of wood for end uses (Panshin and Dezeeuw,
1980). The T/R shrinkage ratio of 1.60 for Lonchocarpus sericeus and 1.01 for Ficus vallis-choudac
indicate their suitability for utilization.
Longitudinal Shrinkage: The longitudinal shrinkage of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood was

0.78%. The mean value of longitudinal shrinkage of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood increased from the
base to the top and also increased from the innerwood to the outerwood. This consistent pattern of
variations is in accordance with the findings of Ali (2011) on Ncurri, Ntholo and Metil lessern known
wood species from Mozambique.
Volumetric Shrinkage: Volumetric shrinkage was 6.36%. The mean increased along the
sampling height from the base to the top and also increased across the radial sampling position from
the innerwood to the outerwood as showed in Table 2. This pattern of variations of Lonchocarpus
sericeus wood is in accordance with the report of Kuobaa et al (1998), Ogunsanwo (2000), Mottonen
and Luostarinen (2006), Seralde (2006), Adejoba (2008), Izekor (2010) and Ojo (2016). Their studies
revealed that innerwood shrink less than the outerwood and they all concluded that this may be due to
the presence of extractives in the innerwood region which tend to inhibit normal shrinkage by bulking
the armorphous regions in the cell wall substance.
Table 4
Summary of mean values of selected mechanical properties of Lonchocarpus sericeus
Sampling height
Property Radial Base Middle (50%) Top Pooled Mean

position (10%) (90%)
a
Impact bending Innerwood 33.50±6.29 29.70±6.22 22.42±8.53 28.54±8.35
2 b
(N/mm ) Centrewood 28.04±8.02 23.83±5.07 20.04±8.24 23.97±7.82
c
Outerwood 23.69±6.43 20.99±5.97 15.06±5.64 19.92±6.92
a b c
Pooled Mean 28.41±7.92 24.84±6.73 19.17±8.03 24.14±8.44
a
Modulus of Innerwood 143.18±26.61 125.63±25.64 109.47±24.81 126.09±28.71
b
Rupture Centrewood 127.65±26.52 117.23±25.44 100.35±26.80 115.08±28.07
2 c
(N/mm ) Outerwood 122.55±30.48 96.34±23.37 85.28±32.70 101.39±32.55
a b c
Pooled Mean 131.13±28.70 113.06±27.27 98.36±29.44 114.18±31.31
a
Modulus of Innerwood 13062±4015 13210±5732 11191±3453 12488±4499
b
Elasticity Centrewood 12566±4742 11270±3070 9744±2415 11193±3656
2 c
(N/mm ) Outerwood 11671±4063 10117±3122 8651±3524 10146±3723
a b c
Pooled Mean 12433±4228 11533±4269 9862±3272 11276±4063
a
Max Shear Innerwood 16.07±0.90 13.78±2.65 11.67±1.26 13.84±2.51
b
Strength Centrewood 14.50±1.24 12.67±1.23 11.12±0.78 12.76±1.77
2
(N/mm )
c
Outerwood 13.32±0.54 11.72±0.97 10.02±1.05 11.68±1.61
a b c
Pooled Mean 14.63±1.46 12.72±1.93 10.93±1.24 12.76±2.17
a
Max compression Innerwood 51.75±2.17 49.67±2.49 47.02±4.28 49.48±3.62
b
strength parallel Centrewood 49.80±2.82 48.17±4.13 43.82±4.53 47.27±4.58
2 c
to grain (N/mm ) Outerwood 47.21±2.76 44.62±4.90 42.35±6.01 44.73±5.06
a b c
Pooled Mean 49.59±3.16 47.49±4.43 44.40±5.27 47.16±4.84
Impact Bending Strength: Impact Bending Strength of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood was
2
24.14N/mm . This decrease from the base to the top along the sampling height and decrease from the
innerwood to the centrewood across the radial sampling position as shown in Table 2. This pattern of
variations in Lonchocarpus sericeus along the sampling height agrees with the findings of Ogunsanwo
(2000), Adedipe (2004), Aguda et al (2012), Aguda et al (2015), Adejoba (2016) and Ojo (2016) on
Triplochiton scleroxylon, Gmelina arborea, Chrysophyllum albidum, Staudtia stipitata, Elaeis
guineensis and Borassus aethiopum respectively. This finding is contrary to the reports of Ajala (2005)
on Anningeria robusta which showed inconsistent pattern of variation. Adejoba (2008) also reported
the same value of impact bending strength at the base, middle and top on Ficus mucuso and Aguda et
al (2014) on Funtumia elastic. The decrease in the impact bending strength of both species from the
innerwood to the outerwood is in line with the report of Aguda et al (2012) on Chrysopyllum albidum,
Aguda et al (2015) on Staudtia stipitata and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopum. The decrease in
impact bending strength of Lonchocarpus sericeus negate the reports of Ogunsanwo (2000) on
102
Triplochiton scleroxylon, Adedipe (2004) 0n Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso,
Aguda et al (2014) on Funtumia elastic, Adejoba (2016) on Elaeis guineensis. Green et al, 1999
concluded this pattern of variation is as a result of the fact that wood is a natural material and tree is
subjected to many constant changing influences, hence wood properties vary considerably.
Modulus of Rupture: The Modulus of Rupture (MOR) obtained for Lonchocarpus sericeus
2 2
wood was 114.18N/mm . FPRL (1966) recorded a mean value of 83.3N/mm for Milicia excelsa,
2 2 2
76.3N/mm for Mitragyma spp, 95.5N/mm for Khaya senegalensis and 39.9N/mm for Antiaris
2 2 2
Africana. Izekor (2010) recorded mean values of 76.86N/mm , 103.95N/mm and 134.69N/mm for 15
years, 20 years and 25 years old Tectona grandis wood respectively. Aguda et al (2012) recorded
2 2
154.3N/mm for Staudtia stipitata and Adejoba (2016) reported 66.33N/mm for Elaeis guineensis. The
MOR values obtained for Lonchocarpus sericeus compares well with the economic species already
used for structural applications. The Modulus of Rupture of Lonchocarpus sericeus decreases from
the base to the top along the sampling height and also decreases from the innerwood to the
outerwood. The decrease in Modulus of Rupture from the base to the top for both species is in
agreement with the reports of Hughes and Esan (1969) on Gmelina arborea, Ogunsanwo (2000) on
Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii, Adedipe (2004) 0n Gmelina
arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Izekor (2010) on Tectona grandis, Aguda et al (2014) on
Funtumia elastic, Adejoba (2016) on Elaeis guineensis and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopu. The
decrease in MOR from the base to the top differ with the reports of Aguda et al (2012) on
Chrysopyllum albidum and Aguda et al (2015) on Staudtia stipitata. The decrease in MOR of both
species from the innerwood to the outerwood in this study disagree with Ogunsanwo (2000) on
Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii, Adedipe (2004) 0n Gmelina
arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Izekor (2010) on Tectona grandis, Aguda et al (2014) on
Funtumia elastic, Adejoba (2016) on Elaeis guineensis and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopu. The
decrease in the MOR from the innerwood to the outerwood may be due to growth ring formation, the
growth ring at the innerwood is older than the centrewood and outerwood and age is one of the factors
that determine the strength properties of wood. This may also be due to the presence of extractives in
the innerwood region which tend to increase the weight carrying capacity of the wood.
2
Modulus of Elasticity: The Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) was 11276N/mm . The MOE
obtained decrease from the base top the top and also decrease from the innerwood to the outerwood.
The decrease in MOE from the base to the top recorded for both Lonchocarpus sericeus wood is in
line with the findings of Ogunsanwo (2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on
Nauclea diderichii, Adedipe (2004) 0n Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Izekor
(2010) on Tectona grandis, Aguda et al (2012, 2014 and 2015) on Chrysophyllum albidum, Funtumia
elastic and Staudtia stipitata, Adejoba (2016) on Elaeis guineensis and Ojo (2016) on Borassus
aethiopum. The decrease in MOE from the innerwood to the outerwood vary with the reports of
Ogunsanwo (2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii,
Adedipe (2004) 0n Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Izekor (2010) on Tectona
grandis, Aguda et al (2012, 2014 and 2015) on Chrysophyllum albidum, Funtumia elastic and Staudtia
stipitata, Adejoba (2016) on Elaeis guineensis and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopum. The decrease
in the MOE from the innerwood to the outerwood may be due to growth ring formation, the growth ring
at the innerwood is older than the centrewood and outerwood and age is one of the factors that
determine the strength properties of wood.
Maximum Shear strength parallel to grain: The maximum shear strength parallel to the
2
grain of Lonchocarpus sericeus wood was 12.76N/mm . The shear strength decreases from the base
to the top along the sampling height and also decreases from the innerwood to the outerwood across
the radial sampling position. The decrease in the shear strength parallel to the grain from the base to
the top and also from the innerwood to the outerwood conforms with the findings of Ogunsanwo
(2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii, Adedipe (2004)
0n Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Aguda et al (2014; 2015) on Funtumia elastic
and Staudtia stipitata. The decrease in the shear strength parallel to the grain from the innerwood to
the outerwood for both Lonchocarpus sericeus and ficus vallis-choudac is in line with the findings
Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii, on Ficus mucuso, Aguda et al (2014; 2015) on
Funtumia elastic and Staudtia stipitata. This pattern of variation across the radial sampling positions
disagree with the reports of Ogunsanwo (2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Adedipe (2004) 0n
Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso.
103
Maximum Compression Strength parallel to grain: The maximum compression strength

2
parallel to grain was 47.16N/mm . The maximum compression strength parallel to grain of
Lonchocarpus sericeus wood decreases from the base to the top along the sampling heights and
decreases from the innerwood to the outerwood across the radial sampling positions. EPRL (1966)
2 2 2
recorded 16.94N/mm for H. barteri, 30.45N/mm for A. Africana, 34.44N/mm for Daniellia oliveri,
2
Akira (1978), reported 16N/mm for B. aethiopum sample in Ghana, Adejoba (2008) reported
2 2 2 2
13.7N/mm for Ficus mucuso, Izekor (2010) reported 43.74N/mm , 58.47N/mm and 75.36N/mm for
15 years, 20 years and 25 years old Tectona grandis, Aguda et al (2012; 2014; 2015) recorded
2 2 2
45.55N/mm , 20.41N/mm and 45.87N/mm for Chrysophyllum albidum, Funtumia elastic and Staudtia
stipitata respectively. This shows that the values obtained from this study is in line with range values
obtained for economic wood species that are already popular in structural applications. The decrease
in maximum compression strength parallel to grain from the base to the top recorded for both
Lonchocarpus sericeus and Ficus vallis-choudac wood is in line with the findings of Ogunsanwo
(2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii, Adedipe (2004)
0n Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Izekor (2010) on Tectona grandis, Aguda et al
(2012, 2014 and 2015) on Chrysophyllum albidum, Funtumia elastic and Staudtia stipitata, Adejoba
(2016) on Elaeis guineensis and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopum. The decrease in maximum
compression strength parallel to grain from the innerwood to the outerwood disagree with the reports
of Ogunsanwo (2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon, Fuwape and Fabiyi (2003) on Nauclea diderichii,
Adedipe (2004) 0n Gmelina arborea, Adejoba (2008) on Ficus mucuso, Izekor (2010) on Tectona
grandis, Aguda et al (2012, 2014 and 2015) on Chrysophyllum albidum, Funtumia elastic and Staudtia
stipitata, Adejoba (2016) on Elaeis guineensis and Ojo (2016) on Borassus aethiopum.
CONCLUSIONS
This research work has provided fundamental information physical and mechanical properties
of Lonchocarpus sericeus as lesser utilized wood species found in Nigeria with the provision of
information in the area of possible utilization.
3
The density of Lonchocarpus sericeus was 836.63kg/m and it can be regarded as high/very heavy
density wood based on the classification of Bradon, (2005). He classified wood based on their density
as follow:
3
 Exceptionally light – under 300kg/m
3
 Light – 300 to 450kg/m
3
 Medium – 450 to 650kg/m
3
 Heavy – 650 to 800kg/m
3
 Very heavy – 800 to 1000+kg/m
The density of this species decreases from the base to the top and also decreases from the
innerwood to the outerwood. The variation of wood density along and across the sampling positions
does not affect their utilization though heavier and better wood would be acquired at the base and at
the innerwood based on the pattern of variations. Based on the density results obtained for this
species, it can be used for heavy construction, furniture making and panel products but the suitability
of it in pulp and paper industry is not guaranteed based on their high density since the preferred range
3
for wood density in pulp and paper industry is between 400–600kg/m .
The radial shrinkage, tangential shrinkage and volumetric shrinkage increases from the base to the
top and also increase from the innerwood to the outerwood. The shrinkage values obtained indicate
that both Lonchocarpus sericeus is dimensionally stabled.
The impact bending strength, Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Maximum
shear strength parallel to grain and Maximum compressive strength parallel to grain of Lonchocarpus
sericeus decrease from the base to the top and also decrease from the innerwood to the outerwood.
Comparison of the strength values obtained with other economic tree species shows that
Lonchocarpus sericeus compare well with Albizia zygia, Anogeissus leiocarpos, Afromosia laxifloral,
Distemonathus bonthmianus, piptadeniastrum africanum, Nesogordonia papaverifera, Guarea
cedrata, Mansonia altissima, the strength values higher than Milicia excelsia, Gmelina arborea, Khaya
ivorensis, Tryplochiton scleroxylon, Terminalia ivorensis and lower than Celtis zenkari, Lophira alata,
Scottellia coriacea, Cylicodiscus gabumensis, Nauclea diderrichii and Sterculia oblonga. This shows
that any part of wood of Lonchocarpus sericeus can be use for heavy construction, structural work and
furniture. Lonchocarpus sericeus can serve as substitutes to the economic species that are already
endangered.
104
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106
ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF TROPICAL WOODS USED IN MARIMBA BARS

Ginevra MANZO
Zemědělská 1/1665, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Tel: 00420 545134545, E-mail: ginevra.manzo@mendelu.cz
Abstract
Marimba is an idiophone musical instrument. The most frequently used species for marimba
bars are the tropical ones, such as Palissandre, Padouk, Wengé (etc...). The reasons rest on
particular values of mechanical and acoustic properties needed for idiophone instruments, such as
density, stiffness, hardness, dimensional stability, damping, radiation and acoustic conversion
efficiency etc. This paper present experimental evaluation of main properties as well as relations
between the properties. The vibro-acoustic properties were measured in bending based on the first
vibration mode, so that the free-free vibration method was involved. The species implicated were
Padouk, Jatobá and Merbau; 45 specimens were used for each wood species. The results evinced
particular high values of damping, but still in the limits shown in literature. Merbau got the best MOE
value. ACEs were precisely inside the range of literature. A direct relation between damping and
density wasn't found; yet, a linear regression of Young's modulus of elasticity and tanγ (in Merbau)
was reached with a r2 of 0.353. Eventually, Kruskal Wallis Anova evinced that MOEB assumed
significant reduction with a damping over 0.007.
Key words: tropical hardwoods; damping; modulus of elasticity in bending; marimba.
INTRODUCTION
In musical instruments, the function of wood may be wide, and depending by the production of
sound different categories of instruments are classified. The typologies of instruments based on the
function of wood and the making of sound are: aerophone, chordophone and idiophone. Marimba is a
musical instrument that belongs to idiophones and wood is the main vibrating body that is excited
mostly by mallets or hammers. The vibrating frame consists of a row of wooden bars arranged in the
way of piano's keyboard. Marimba is bigger than a xylophone and is equipped with longer pipes under
the frame to amplify the sound through the use of resonant air columns; these pipes are named
resonators. The main difference between xylophone and marimba is the tuning of the keyboard. The
underneath of a marimba bar is carefully shaped, so that each bar has a more defined pitch with a
larger graduation of frequencies than xylophone. From the fundamental note frequency (f0), marimba
frame is tuned till two octaves (4 f0) and even the third mode (octave) might be tuned (10 f0).
Conversely, xylophone is tuned in a range of an octave plus a fifth (3 f0) from the fundamental
tone, and not all bars are tuned (Suits 2001). Consequently, xylophone has pitches not well defined; it
is played with hard rubber or timber hammers and the sound produced has high frequency modes.
Marimba bars are struck by mallet wrapped in felt that decreases the high tones to lower frequency
modes. Due to his mellower sound, marimba is more involved in orchestras and a solo instrument as
well. Bars for marimba have to be oriented with radial direction in the orthogonal section, and
longitudinal continuity among the longer dimension. If the long dimension is on the x-axis, the width on
z-axis and thickness along y-axis, the bars must be struck on the plane x-z (Suits 2001).
The requested qualities for idiophone instruments, therefore even for marimba, are linked to
the density, modulus of elasticity in bending (MOEB), hardness, and dimensional stability correlated
with moisture content (Brémaud 2012). Acoustic properties and the factors correlated to internal
friction (tanγ), radiation (or acoustic constant) and acoustic conversion efficiency (ACE) are the major
parameters to define the qualities of acoustics of wood in idiophones (Baar et al. 2016; Sedik et al.
2010). Durability, low tendency to crack, to split and to twist are needed too (Straze et al. 2015).
Thanks to Wegst (2006) it is possible to define the range values of some acoustic properties
requested for idiophone bars (defined "xylophone" in her article): high density (between 810-980 kg•m-
3
). High stiffness from 15 to 20 GPa (Danihelová et al. 2015, Holz 1996). Low loss coefficient with
values between 0.0025 and 0.0055 (Hase 1987) and even more restricted by Wegst (2006) with a
range between 0.0034 and 0.0045. Low average sound radiation coefficient: between 3.8 and 4.9
m4kg-1s-1 (Wegst 2006). ACE has to show high values, but still less than resonance spruce for
soundboard (Brémaud 2012). These criteria are well performed by tropical species, so that the most
107
wood species used in marimba are Rosewood (Dalbergia sp), Padouk (Pterocarpus sp) etc. (Holz
1996).

OBJECTIVE
Thanks to the literature, it is possible to define mechanical and vibroacoustic properties to
get good qualities of marimba bars. High values of density and low values of internal friction (damping)
are desirable. Hence, we have asked in this article if there were relations between mechanical and
vibroacoustic properties. Consequently, density, damping, stiffness, and acoustic conversion
efficiency were calculated to complete set data of vibro-acoustic properties on selected wood species.

Table 1 specifies the tropical wood species involved in this manuscript: their common name,
botanical name and the origin. The dimensions of specimens were 300x15x5 mm3. 45 specimens
were utilized for each wood species.

Table 1
Trade name, scientific name and origin of boards
Trade name Scientific name Region of origin
Padouk Prerocarpus soyauxii Tropical Africa
Jatobá Hymenae courbaril South America
Merbau Intsia sp South-East Asia
The samples were kept under controlled condition for one month at 19±1°C and 60±1% of
relative humidity (long term conditioning).
The first step was to measure the density of each specimen. In this research the method of
transitory excitation (also known as the free-free support method or resonance method) was used.
This method has used a microphone AUDIX TM1PLUS that captured the sound produced by vibrating
specimen after the hitting by a soft hammer. Thus, the signal was elaborated through a fire Wire Audio
Capture EDIROL FA-101; the acoustic resolution of the fire Wire was 194 kHz at 24 bit. The system
was linked to a software analysis based on the Fast Fourier Transform to process the impulse on the
frequency domain. Specifically, the software was Fast Fourier Vibration analyzer, free product of
Fakopp Enterprise. The frequency range of spectra was settled between 0 and 2204 Hz. The normal A
tone frequency was set to 442 Hz. With the transitory excitation method, it was possible to achieve the
Young's modulus in bending and with the internal friction measuring the fundamental frequency of
bending in the first mode (Hassan et al. 2013).
The specimens were positioned on two foam rubber supports at nodal point (0.2 and 0.8 of
length of the specimens). This free condition provides the best precise support conditions reachable
(Haines and Leban 1997), and also a closer reproduction of real marimba bars' vibration. The mallet
used was in rubber, and the bars were struck at the half of the longitudinal length with microphone
kept close to it, as Figure 1 and 2 show.

2
3
1
Fig. 1.
Transitory excitation method in bending
1: sample; 2: microphone; 3: mallet.
108
Fig. 2.
Microphone AUDIX TM1PLUS used to capture the beating of samples, rubber mallet and a
Padouk specimen.
Thanks to measuring the first bending natural frequency and the logarithmic decrement of
damping (LDD), it was possible to calculate the modulus of elasticity in bending (MOEB) and the
internal friction, also known as damping (tanγ), respectively as in the following equations 1 (Giordano
1981) and 2 (Buksnowitz et al. 2007).
2
 f  l2 
MOE B     [GPa] (1)
 3,56  r 
 
where: f is the first frequency mode in bending in Hz
l is the length of samples in m
ρ is the density in kg•m-3
r is the radius of inertia in m
LDD
tan   [/] (2)

where: LDD is the logarithmic damping decrement
The Acoustic Conversion Efficiency (ACE) was calculated with the equation number 3
(Brémaud 2012):
MOE B /  3
ACE  [m4kg-1s-1] (3)
tan 
where: MOEB is the modulus of elasticity in bending calculated on the first mode
ρ is the density in kg•m-3
tanγ is the internal friction

In Figure 3, a comparison of time domain (top of pictures) and frequency domain (bottom of
pictures) is shown, measured for each species. The range of frequency was set up between 0 and
2204 Hz. The first peak in the frequency domain corresponded to the first bending vibration mode.
109
Fig. 3.
Examples of time domain and frequency domain signal of Padouk, Merbau and Jatoba
samples, respectively (from left to right side).
The results of measurements are shown in the table 2. Mean, standard deviation (σ) and
coefficient of variation (CV) of the acoustic properties are divided per each species.

Table 2
Acoustic properties of 3 selected species
ρ [kgm-3] tanγ [/] MOEB [GPa] ACE [m4kg-1s-1]

Species Mean σ CV Mean σ CV Mean σ CV Mean σ CV
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Padouk 699 108 15 0.0076 0.0080 11 13.02 2.17 17 839 163 19
Jatobá 1034 396 38 0.0080 0.0012 15 21.19 8.54 40 589 173 29
Merbau 769 67 9 0.0083 0.0020 24 15.14 14.75 22 739 697 28
Jatobá was the species with higher values of variation coefficient in every property, except for
damping factor which showed the highest variability in Merbau.
All density values are out of the range determined by West (2006): 810-980 kg•m-3. Yet,
Brémaud’s contribution (2012) affirmed that density trend changes between different native countries
in tuned idiophone. She distinguished wood density values from Africa (Padouk), South America
(Jatobá) and South-Est Asia/Oceania (Merbau) respectively: 700-900, 750-1.150 and 450-900 kg•m-3.
Hence, our density data were included in these ranges, except for Padouk that resulted lightly under
the lower value (with mean value 699 kg•m-3). The reached internal friction had major values if
compared with those from oldest data literature (Wegst 2006; Holz 1996). Though, if we consider
Brémaud data (2012), the damping range is between 0.0029- 0.0085. Consequently, our data were
tending to high values but still acceptable in the range. In the case of Young's modulus, Merbau fixed
precisely with values given by Danihelová et al. (2015) and Holz (1996) suggested, but Padouk had
less modulus of elasticity. Jatobá has shown the highest value of MOE. Yet, Holz (1996)
mentionedthat values of MOE higher than 20 GPa were suitable if density exceeded 1.100 kg•m-3.
Because of Jatobá had Young’s modulus of 21,2 GPa and density 1.034 kg•m-3, the result of MOE is
acceptable. Acoustic conversion efficiency showed high values as requested by literature and they
were perfectly included in the range suggested by Brémaud (2012) for tuned idiophone bars: 550-
1.650 m4kg-1s-1.
Correlation analysis was the first statistical processing of data and it was made for each
species. To have a 0.05 level of significance with 45 sample, r had to be > ±0.288. Consequently, we
observed a tight negative correlation between Young's modulus in bending and damping in Merbau (r
= -0.586). Due to a coefficient value > ±0.372, it was possible to affirm that the level of the correlation
significance was even 0.01. The reason of this result could be due to the equation to carry out the
Young’s modulus. As the formula number 3 shows, the modulus of elasticity is calculated through the
frequency. Consequently, we supposed that the MOE had a relation even with the internal friction
measured on the frequency. Other interesting correlations were not found. Thus, we could not define a
relation between the other vibroacoustic properties.
Because of these first results, the second processing of data was focused on a linear
regression between modulus of elasticity and damping of Merbau (Figure 4).
110
Fig. 4.
Linear regression between modulus of elasticity in bending and damping of Merbau.
The value of the determination coefficient was 0.353. As the figure 4 shows, the higher the
Young's modulus in bending, the less the damping of the first bending mode was. Therefore, there
was a negative relation between these two properties.
A third elaboration was still focused on the relation between Modulus of elasticity in bending
and internal friction of Merbau. The MOEB values were divided in three groups based on damping’s
ranges: 0.005-0.007, 0.007-0.008 and 0.008-0.013. The distribution of the three MOEB groups was not
normal (p- value less than 0.05). Afterwards, Kruskal Wallis Anova (box plot, figure 5) was reached,
and differences between first and second group and first and third group were proved. Thanks to this
result, we could affirm that a notable influence of internal friction on modulus of elasticity in bending
was observable when damping is over 0.007.

Fig. 5.
Box plot of Kruskal Wallis Anova of MOEB according to internal friction ranges.
The last data processing involved ANOVA analysis and was carried out between damping and
acoustic conversion efficiency of Merbau (divided in three groups based on the same ranges of
damping used for the previous elaboration). The reason of the ANOVA elaboration was because of the
normal distribution of ACE values. The results showed p- values < 0.05, hence significant differences
between each group (Tukey test). We confirmed that the more the damping increased, the more the
ACE decreased. This result was predictable due to the acoustic conversion efficiency equation, which
has damping on denominator.
CONCLUSIONS
The three species analyzed showed density values close to the literature of Brémaud (2012).
The values of internal friction tended to high values. Padouk got the lowest values of MOEB and
Merbau exactly those suggested by the literature (Danihelová et al. 2015, Holz 1996). Values of ACE
were totally acceptable if compared to Brémaud (2012). The higher variability was shown for MOEB of
Jatobá with 40%.
The most interesting relation between factors was in Merbau through modulus of elasticity
according to internal friction with significance level of 0.01. The determination coefficient r2 was 0.353,
thus the equation between these two properties could suggest the calculation of damping according to
111
MOEB. Probably, this result was due to a connection between damping factor and vibrating frequency
present in the Young’s modulus equation. With increasing of Young's modulus in bending, damping
decreased. Through Kruskal Wallis Anova, it was possible to identify an interesting value of damping
(0.007) of Merbau wood: when internal friction was > 0.007, MOEB assumed significant reductions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This manuscript was supported by the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology of Mendel
University in Brno, through the Internal Grant Agency (grant No.: LDF_VP_2019012) Project funded
by the state budget of the Czech Republic.
REFERENCES
Baar J, Tippner J, Gryc V (2016) Wood anatomy and acoustic properties of selected tropical
hardwoods. International Association of Wood Anatomists 37(1):69-83.
Brémaud I (2012) Acoustical properties of wood in string instruments soundboards and tuned
idiophones: Biological and cultural diversity. Acoustical Society of America 131(1):807-818.
Buksnowitz C, Teischinger A, Müller U, Pahler A, Evans R (2007) Resonance wood [Picea abies (L.)
Karst.] – evaluation and prediction of violin makers’ quality-grading. Acoustical Society of America
121(4):2384–2395.
Danihelová A, Čulik M, Němec M, Gejdoš M, Danihelová Z (2015) Modified Wood of Black Locust –
Alternative to Honduran Rosewood in the Production of Xylophones. ACTA Physica Polonica A
127(1):106-109.
Giordano G (1981) Tecnologia del legno. Vol.1, Edn. Hoepli, Milano p 314.
Haines DW, Leban JM (1997) Evaluation of the MOE of Norway spruce by the Resonance Flexure
Method. Forest Products Journal 47:91–93.
Hase N (1987) A comparison between acoustic physical factors of Honduras rosewood for marimbas
and xylophones and a sensory evaluation of these instruments (in Japanese). Mokuzai Gakkaishi 33:
762–768.
Hassan KTS, Horaček P, Tippner J (2013) Evaluation of Stiffness and Strength of Scots Pine Wood
Using Resonance Frequency and Ultrasonic Techniques. BioResources 8(2):1634-1645.
Holz D (1996) Acoustically important properties of xylophone-bar materials: Can tropical woods be
replaced by European species? ACUSTICA Acta acustica 82:878-884.
Sedik Y, Hamdan S, Jusoh I, Hasan M (2010) Acoustic Properties of Selected Tropical Wood Species.
Journal Nondestructive Evaluation 29:38–42.
Straže A, Mitkovski B, Tippner J, Čufar K, Gorišek Ž (2015) Structural and acoustic properties of
African padouk (Pterocarpus soyauxii) wood for xylophones. European Journal of Wood Production
73:235–243.
Suits BH (2001) Basic physics of xylophone and marimba bars. American Journal of Physics
69(7):743-750.
Wegst GK (2006) Wood for sound. American Journal of Botany 93(10):1439–1448.
112
DETERMINATION OF A WOOD DAMAGE ASSESSMENT SYSTEM BY

MATHEMATICAL METHODS AND MINIMALLY INVASIVE MECHANICAL TESTS
Constantin Ștefan IONESCU
Transilvania University of Brașov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
Bulevardul Eroilor 29, 500036 Brașov, Romania
Phone number: 0040 741 485 550
E-mail: restaurareionescu@gmail.com
Aurel LUNGULEASA
E-mail: lunga@unitbv.ro
Cosmin SPÎRCHEZ
E-mail: cosmin.spirchez@unitbv.ro
Anamaria AVRAM
Laboratory of Restoration and Research “Restaurare Ionescu Constantin”
Henri Coandă 12, 550234 Sibiu, Romania
E-mail: avram.anamaria19@yahoo.com
Abstract
This research aims to present methods for determining wood fragility as well as an original
alternative method as a minimally invasive technical solution and the adaptation of a measuring device
to determine damaged wood’s hardness from cultural heritage. The high degree of novelty contributes
to: 1. the adaptation and realization of a measuring device; 2. the elaboration of the method of
measurement (for Mark 10 apparatus) of the hardness of the wood from the damaged works of art; 3.
determining the hardness of degraded wood leads to accurate diagnosis; developing a hierarchy of
levels of multi-stage deterioration of old wood allows the degree of intervention in the restoration of
cultural goods to be assessed and provides the opportunity to evaluate the efficiency of consolidation
treatment; 4. as far as we know, this type of determination is not used in any other laboratory by this
date. We consider the development of this research to be innovative, and the authors argue that the
proposed method is completely original. The conclusion of the paper highlights the strengths of the
alternative methods researched, experimented and presented by us in order to determine the level of
degradation of the wooden supports of the cultural heritage.
Key words: hardness; porosity; wood; degradation; measurement.
INTRODUCTION
Wood degradation can be defined as the loss of its attributes by the action of physiological-
biological agents or by long-term use in an inappropriate environment, developed individually or
cumulatively, and can be interpreted according to what causes it, by finding out the consequences and
depending on the use of wood. Physico -chemical factors such as temperature, humidity, etc. may be
the most harmful, causing chemical reactions, causing physical degradation of the wood (Moldoveanu
2010) and/or the installation and development of biological pests, micro, macromics, insects etc.
Moisture (UR%) and temperature (T °C) are important factors both in terms of dimensional stability
and insect development and activity. Mustaţă et al. (2013) show that normal insect activity occurs at
temperatures between 5-40°C and that depending on the temperature, the ratio of their development
is inversely proportional.
It is difficult to evaluate and develop a hierarchy of degradation levels, interpreted as natural
defects or produced by endogenous or exogenous factors. The level of degradation practically
expresses a degree of deterioration as a percentage of the initial value of a healthy wood.
The need to investigate and scientifically determine the parameters that determine the degree
of wood damage (support for art objects) is due to the desire to save an artwork by establishing a
correct diagnosis and, based on it, a restoration project and quantification with specific devices, the
113
effectiveness of the treatment (Ionescu et al. 2019). An important element of the investigation is
determining the level of loss of physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the wood which has
suffered a severe biological attack (rot, xylophagic attack etc.), causing deterioration on the artistic
creation which represents values of the national and/or world cultural heritage (Bedate et al. 2004).
Particular attention should be paid to the mechanical properties of the wood, which, due to the
additional porosity produced by xylophagus attack, loses its anatomical, mechanical strength and
mass. Excessive porosity due to holes and insect galleries leads to excessive moisture absorption,
which substantially changes the density and mechanical properties. With increasing humidity, the
value of the flow limit decreases and that increases the size of deformations (Curtu and Ghelmeziu
1984). The mechanical properties of healthy and defective wood, such as elasticity or hardness,
depend on many factors, such as anatomical features, apparent density, late wood percentage,
natural porosity, etc. (Ionescu et al. 2019). Apparent density is interpreted by the ratio between mass
and volume and the volume varies with the bound water content and the mass based on the total
water content (Pescăruş 1978).
Wood hardness is one of the properties that can assess the degree of fragility and is
understood as the opposition of wood to the penetration of a body, expressed by resistance to
mechanical action that tends to modify its surface. There are several procedures to test the hardness
of wood, but in the present paper we will refer to a conventional (commonly used) principle and to a
process proposed by us.
In this study, we present two methods to determine the fragility of wood:
1. Determining the excessive porosity of wood caused by holes and insect galleries.
2. Comparative determination of the values obtained for healthy wood with the degradation by
the Brinell method (standardized method) and that proposed by us, the XAAAL method, as a minimal
destructive alternative.
OBJECTIVE
Obtaining methods for determining the fragility of wood, for heritage goods, and art objects
with wooden support. Research, development and use of an original alternative device and method to
determine the hardness of damaged wood in art objects showing lower destruction values inferior to
the Brinell method.

Healthy and/or degraded lime wood specimens (Tilia cordata Mill.) were used for this study.
The samples had square sections (thicknesses) of 20x20mm and 50x50mm, with different lengths for
Brinell and XAAAL tests. These were subjected to the two types of testing, i.e. Brinell hardness and
XAAAL hardness (Fig.1). Measurements were made on three types of samples, degraded wood
without treatment, new and healthy wood and wood with consolidation treatment, specific to the
restoration field.
Fig. 1.
Determination (comparative) of puncture force (HX) and Brinell hardness (HB) on new,
healthy wood sample.
Separately, hardness determinations were performed only with the XAAAL method, as well as
determinations regarding the degradation caused by xylophagic attack, by the excessive porosity
method, on degraded panels of several art objects in the restoration stages.
114
Method of determining excessive porosity

This work restrains the area of discussion of the biological factors harmful to wood from
heritage objects, where we found the action of xylophage insects from the coleopteran family (the
family Anobiidae) as the main degradation factor (Filipovici 1964) and the production of excessive
porosity in art objects.
The evaluation of the degradation has been done so far by determining the number of openings
2 2
per unit area, 1dm , with current values of 40-200 holes/1dm , being often specified by the majority of the
researchers (Bucsa and Bucsa 2014); we consider that this approach is a simplistic one.
Our research brings an improvement in this respect, and extends the evaluation of the
degradation produced by xylophagic attack, taking into account the diameter, surface and volume of
the holes, this being determined by the fact that the diameter of the flight holes is variable, with
significant differences between them. In order to obtain a consistent method, it is recommended first to
take a visible and significant surface from the patrimony object, we recommend a square with the side
2
of 10cm (area 100cm ) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
2
Marking and counting of the flight holes on dm .
On this known surface not only the number of flight holes is determined, but also an average
diameter. In general, degradation intensity is determined as the ratio between the surface of the insect
holes and the area taken into account. Considering the characteristics of the flight holes (number and
average diameter), the Equation (1) is obtained. For a more accurate estimation, depending on the
size of the panel, several reporting surfaces can be produced to reach a reference average for the
entire panel.
(1)
where:
Pe – excessive porosity expressed in %
Ao – hole flight area, determined with Equation (2).
n – number of holes on the whole surface (average);
l1, l2 – dimensional plane dimensions of the calculated area, in mm
(2)
Since the equation (1) expresses a percentage of the orifices of the whole surface (that is, a
percentage porosity), based on this, the volume of these holes in the wood support with the
Equation (3) can be determined, which must then be filled with synthetic resins for consolidation
(Paraloid B72, Regalrez 1126 etc.) during wood restoration operations.
(3)
where we have:
3
Vg – void volume caused by the flight holes in m ;
Ao – area of the flight opening
n – number of holes on the whole surface (average);
3
Vp – the volume of the wood floor, in m .
115
Determination of damaged wood hardness by the Brinell and XAAAL method

Brinell Hardness Testing (EN 1534-2000) consists of using a 10mm diameter steel ball that is
pressed with a predetermined force of 100daN, maintaining pressures of approximately 25 ± 5 seconds.
The remaining fingerprint has a certain diameter, which is measured as the arithmetic mean of two
perpendicular diameters and, after obtaining its value, is calculated with relation (4), resulting in the
2
Brinell HB hardness, in N/mm .
(4)
where:
HB – Brinell hardness (Newton per square millimeters)
F – the pre-selectable push force in newtons
π – is the „pi” factor ≈ 3,14
D – diameter of the ball (10 mm)
d – diameter of the residual indentation
The Brinell method for determining and assessing the hardness of the wood (healthy or
damaged) is an invasive and destructive process even if the small fingerprint is about 4-8mm in
diameter and 1-2.5mm in depth. Although these traces are very small and testing can be done on the
back of the patrimony object, we argue that the Brinell method destroys part of the outer surface of
heritage objects, and this is undesirable. Moreover, this test method is disadvantageous in that the
stand is fixed and robust, being suitable for testing small dimensional samples; the inconvenience of
its use in restoration is the impossibility of extracting test specimens from the cultural good. It should
be noted that the polychrome panels vary dimensionally and in shape, and the distribution of the
degradations is not constant (Ionescu et al. 2019).
The XAAAL Test Method (with Mark 10) is based on the penetration into the wood of a
cylindrical body with a conical tip with a diameter of 1.34mm and a length of 6mm (Fig. 3), with a
pushing force indicated on the digital screen of dynamometer, expressed in [N].
Fig. 3.
The shape and size of the Mark 10 penetrator.
The calculation formula designed by the authors with relation (5) determines the total lateral
surface or the surface of the remaining hole in the wood resulting from the penetration of the tip, and
the puncture resistance (hereinafter referred to as "XAAAL hardness" (HX) is determined as the ratio
of the force puncture and total penetrating area (Ionescu et al. 2019).
(5)
where:
2
HX – hardness marking in N/mm
F – The force read on the Mark 10 dynamometer, in N
Al – the total lateral surface of the peak penetrator, determined as a sum of the cylindrical and conical
2
part (21,28 mm ).
The Mark-10 (M3-200) digital machine measures forces in N in a range of 0-1000 N, and is
designed to test compression and traction for various applications (including wood support) using tips
of various shapes (Fig. 4).
The device consists of: stand with columns, rack, centering and fixing plate, drive lever,
dynamometer, and penetrator (puncture tip).
116
Fig. 4.
Device with dynamometer Mark 10: 1 - dynamometer displacement columns; 2 - drive
lever; 3 - dynamometer support plate; 4 - dynamometer; 5 - fingertip dial; 6 - current
compression and traction peaks of the dynamometer.
The degree of brittleness (Fd) of wood is determined by measuring the HX hardness with the
Mark 10 device as a percentage of the loss of degraded wood properties compared to the initial value
of healthy wood. In this respect, the authors formulated the calculation Equation (6).
(6)
where:
Fd - is the degree of fragility in %;
2
HXs - the wood hardness determined with Mark 10 in N/mm
2
HXd - the hardness of the damaged wood determined by Mark 10 in N/mm
As for the method of measuring the hardness, one cannot speak of novelty, but our research
brings an original contribution by the alternative of adapting and using a versatile device (Mark 10) and
a method of calculating the force required for the penetration of a steel tip with a diameter of 1.34mm
in a wooden panel. Comparison of compression or traction forces indicates the deterioration of wood
panels that have reached various degrees of degradation due to multiple reasons: aging of the
material, loss of anatomical elements of the wood as well as physical and mechanical properties or
biological attack and xylophages). Fig. 5 graphically presents the imprint of the two types of
penetration and the difference in destruction. (Ionescu et al. 2019)
a. b.
Fig. 5.
Graphic examples of standard hardness print types
a. print type for Brinell hardness; b. XAAAL hardness, type print.
117

The number of holes and their diameter (∅ 1,4 ÷ 3,6mm) influence the resistance of the wood
and increases the degree of fragility. According to Table 1, a xylophage attack of more than 100
2
holes/dm , with 2.5mm apertures reduces resistance to 60%.
Table 1
Influence of the number of flight holes (mean 2.5mm) on the XAAAL hardness
Number of Penetrating force Resistance XAAAL hardness

2
holes/dm medium values reduction
2
[N] % [N/mm ]
0-15 210 ≤2 19.73
20-25 168 16 15.78
30-50 132 34 12.40
70-100 87 66 8.17
142-170 26 87 2.44
200 7 ≥97 0.65
We wanted to correlate the results obtained by using the XAAAL method with one of the
standardized procedures (presented in this study), namely the Brinell method, as an accepted method.
Our proposal wanted to provide similar answers, according to Table 2, but with lower destruction than
the benchmark.
For this study 30 specimens were tested. Other 30 values were obtained in determining the
assessment of degraded wood.
Table 2
Mark and Brinell hardness, on two types of samples, new and healthy wood and degraded wood
2 2 Fragility degree, %
Epruv. No. HB, N/mm HM, N/mm
of HB of HM
1 18.36 19.07 0 (neutral) 0 (neutral)
2 17.35 17.95 0 (neutral) 0 (neutral)
TD4, New and un-
3 15.11 13.43 0 (neutral) 0 (neutral)
treated wood
4 17.45 17.00 0 (neutral) 0 (neutral)
5 16.95 16.62 0 (neutral) 0 (neutral)
Medium 17.20 16.81 0 (neutral) 0 (neutral)
1 4.14 2.91 77.4 84.7
2 4.56 3.85 73.7 78.5
TD9, Degraded and 3 5.30 7.51 64.9 44.0
un-treated wood 4 4.46 4.85 74.4 71.4
5 4.76 4.65 71.9 72.0
Medium 4.66 4.75 72.9 71.7
Thus, we can correlate the degree of fragility in Table 2 with Table 1, where we can deduce
the level of flight holes. For example, a frailty of 72% is equivalent to a xylophage attack intensity of
2
100 ÷ 142 holes/dm .
118
Fig. 6.
Comparative graphical representation of XAAAL and Brinell hardness.
CONCLUSIONS
2
The increased number of flight holes/dm reduces the penetration resistance of the tip. In this
2
respect, more than 60 flight holes/dm reduce the puncture resistance (in the case of the XAAAL
2
method) to 110N; at more than 100 holes/dm , the resistance drops to 40N and at more than 220
2
holes/dm , the force is reduced below 10N.
Correlation of the Brinell hardness measurement results with the wood resistance measured
with the MARK 10 test bench starts from the premise that puncture degradation is a less destructive
method than the Brinell method.
The original methods presented may offer advantages in the field of polychrome wood
restoration. Thus, the method of determining excessive porosity (PE) is beneficial for determining the
level of damage of a wooden panel. From the principle of this method, a calculation model has been
developed for the need for the consolidation solution needed for that degraded panel.
The XAAAL hardness determination method - in addition to determining the degree of damage -
can also determine the efficiency of the consolidation treatment the panel has been subjected to.
REFERENCES
Bedate A, Herrero L C, Sanz J A (2004) Economic valuation of the cultural heritage: application to four
case studies in Spain. J. Cult. Herit. 5:101–111.
Bucșa L, Bucșa C (2014) Biological degradation of wood structures at historical monuments in
Romania (in Romanian), Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu. Online at:
http://www.transsylvanianostra.eu/download/05_livia _bucsa_degr_biologice_str_lemn.pdf
Curtu I, Ghelmeziu N (1984) Mechanics of wood and wood-based materials (in Romanian). Ed.
Tehnică, București.
European Standard EN 1534-2000 (March 2000) Wood and parquet flooring – Determination of
resistance to indentation (Brinell) – Test method
Filipovici J (1964) Study of wood (in Romanian), vol. I. Ed. Didactica si Pedagogica, București
Ionescu CȘ, Lunguleasa A, Spîrchez C, Avram A (2019) Alternative method for minimally invasive
determination of the wood fragility from cultural heritage assets. Presented in the 2019 MSE
th
Conference at Sibiu, will be published on the 15 of July online at https://www.webofconferences.org
Moldoveanu A (2010) Preventive conservation of cultural goods (in Romanian), 5th edition, Ed.
Cetatea de scaun, Târgoviște.
Mustață M, Mustață Gh, Ungurean B, Moșneagu M, Gămălie G, Axinte L (2013) Etiopathology of the
work of art (in Romanian). Ed. Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, București.
Pescăruș P (1978) Physical properties of wood and wood-based materials. Technology of
woodworking 1 (in Romanian), under Râmbu I, Florescu I. Ed. Tehnică: 64-89, București.
119
FLOORING STRUCTURES DESIGNED FOR SPORTS-HALLS AND

INVESTIGATED FOR THE BALL REBOUND TEST
Olimpia-Minerva ȚURCAȘ (DIACONU)

Str. Universității nr.1, 500068 Brașov, Romania
E-mail: minerva2013diaconu@gmail.com
Adriana FOTIN
Tel: 0040 268 419581, Fax: 0040 268 419581, E-mail: adrianafotin@yahoo.com@unitbv.ro
Camelia COȘEREANU
Tel: 0040 268 419581, Fax: 0040 268 419581, E-mail: cboieriu@unitbv.ro
Abstract
This work presents the results of the experiments conducted on the of beech flooring
structures designed for sports-halls. These structures (named by the authors D1 type) are compared
to the limits imposed by SR EN 12235: 2014 standard for the determination of vertical ball behaviour.
By attaching shock pads to the flooring structure in various positions, several variants have been
obtained and investigated.A S-TPS-3 experimental stand was designed and executed for conducting
the tests where the ball bouncing height was measured and compared to the imposed limits for sports
flooring structures. The results of the presented researches are part of the PHD thesis entitled
”Contributions to the modeling of parquet-type wooden flooring designed for sports-halls, impacting on
ball response effect”.
Key words: wooden floorings; sport floorings; rebound; ball; testing stand.
INTRODUCTION
Wood, due to its qualities, has remained one of the materials successfully used in the field of
flooring construction (Cismaru 2006, Cismaru et al. 2015). Over time, due to the fact that the wood
flooring industry has been constantly changed, researchers' concerns have generally been related to
improving and optimizing the properties of wood used to manufacture wood flooring (Gasparik and
Gaff 2013, Dömény et al. 2014, Dömény et al. 2018).
A special category refers to the wooden floors dedicated to the spaces where sports activities
take place. The floors designed to these spaces are special due to their "behavior" in response to the
athletes movements, when sports activities are carried out on their surface (Cismaru et al. 2015).
The specialists’ concern in the field of sports flooring is to optimize the structures of the floors in
terms of their flexibility and rigidity and to reduce the unevenness of the support layer in order to
obtain flat surfaces. Also, through an optimal balance between the rigidity and flexibility of these
structures, the aim is in fact to reduce extra effort from the athletes side and to avoid any risk for them
to suffer injuries or accidents during the sporting activities (Floors Magazine 17). This is the main
reason that the specialists in the field have focused on the support structures of the sports floors,
developing a wide variety of structures, starting from the traditional systems to the most innovative
ones, taking into account both possibilities and performance levels aimed for the sports activities
carried out on them.
Even if many innovative materials have appeared in recent years, wooden floors for sports halls
such as basketball, squash or dance are preferred due to the fact that in these sports the elasticity of
the floor has to be extended on large areas, and not punctual, as provided by rubber floors
(kineticsport.ro, section "products", category "gyms", position "sports surface wood", accessed on
9.11.15 / h 13.41).
As Kolitzus H. J. (2012) pointed out, testing in the world of sports and recreational games is a
scientific process that requires high-level expertise. For this reason, a number of research centers in
this field have appeared and developed in the last decade. Del Tec from the Netherlands
(deltecequipment.com), is one of the leading developers and manufacturers of special (mobile) testing
equipment for sports flooring.
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Demker I. (2009) conducted a study on 51 different flooring materials, after which he

recommended the development by SIS of a global standard for measuring mechanical comfort for all
types of flooring, both in situ and in the laboratory. Their test methods are presented in the standards
EN 14808 and EN 14809.
At the international academic level, there are few studies and published results of research in
the field of sports flooring. For this reason, the tests of the wooden floors proposed in this work will be
compared to the regulations imposed by the dedicated Standards and Sports Forums (European &
International Standards. Surfaces for sports areas. A short guide. 2014).
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this study is to design and execute wooden flooring structures that
present a high level of performance at the national level and at the same time to be competitive ones.
The study will investigate the variation of the rebounds of the basketball ball on the wooden structures
of type D1 and compare them with those obtained on the standard surface, which is made from
concrete. This method verifies whether the structure designed and executed meets the requirements
imposed by Sports Forums and National and International Standards for the sports halls.

In order to design suitable structures for wooden floors for spaces where sports activities take
place, preliminary tests were performed on specimens made of native steamed beech wood to
observe their behavior when bending perpendicular to fibers. The specimens had different lengths
(300, 350, 400, 450mm), widths (30, 40, 50, 60mm) and thicknesses (15, 20, 25, 30mm). Following
the analysis of the preliminary bending tests, the dimensions of the strips proposed for testing were
500 x 50 x 20mm. The strips were arranged in panels according to the English model. Both the
parquet friezes and the structures of the panels were executed in the frame of the Faculty of Wood
Engineering at Transilvania University of Brasov.
According to SR EN 12235 standard, the minimum area for testing the floors shall be at least
1,00m x 1,00m. In the present research, all tested floor structures had the area of 1.00m x 1.00m.
JOWACOLL 103.05 adhesive was used for gluing the panel strips. The floor strips glued in a panel
structure were afterwards mounted on a grid of joists and noggins (Table 1), on which shock pads
made from beech wood and rubber respectively have been attached at the bottom side, in different
points of the grid structure (except structure D1-a). Figure 1 presents the design of the investigated
flooring structure named in our research D1-a.
Table 1
Characteristics of basic flooring structure
D1-a structure (1,00 m x 1,00 m)
Wood flooring boards Joists
Thickness Width Length Amount Thickness Width Length Amount
mm mm mm pcs. mm mm mm pcs.
20 50 500 30 20 40 1000 5
20 50 250 20 Noggins
20 40 1040 5
Fig. 1.
Basic flooring structure (D1-a); 1 – parquet strips; 2 – joists; 3 – noggins; 4 – concrete
foundation.
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The structures D1-type consist of grids made from resinous wood joists and noggins arranged
at a distance of 250 mm and half jointed, being fastened with wood screws of 3.5mm diameter and
length of 30mm (Fig. 1). The joists and noggins have dimensions of 1000mm x 40mm x 20mm and
1040mm x 40mm x 20mm, respectively. The flooring panel is mounted on the support grid with screws
of 6mm diameter and 6 mm length.
When mounting beech wood shock pads with sizes of 60mm x 40mm x10mm at mid distance
between two grid nodes, D1-b1 structure was obtained (Fig. 2 and Table 2). When mounting beech
wood shock pads with sizes of 60mm x 40mm x10mm at the bottom of grid nodes, D1-c1 structure
was obtained (Fig. 3 and Table 3). All these flooring panels were mounted on the support grid with ∅ 6
x 65mm screws.
Table 2
Characteristics of D1-b1 flooring structure
D1-b1 structure (1,00 m x 1,00 m)
mm mm mm pcs mm mm mm pcs
20 50 500 30 20 40 1000 5
20 50 250 20 Noggins
Wooden shock pads 20 40 1040 5
10 40 60 40
Fig. 2.
Structure of wooden flooring D1-b1 type; 1 – parquet strips; 2 – joists; 3 – noggins; 4 –
concrete foundation.
Table 3
Characteristics of D1-c1 flooring structure
D1-c1 structure (1,00 m x 1,00 m)
mm mm mm pcs mm mm mm pcs
20 50 500 30 20 40 1000 5
20 50 250 20 Noggins
Wooden shock pads 20 40 1040 5
10 40 60 25
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Fig. 3.
Structure of wooden flooring D1-c1 type; 1– parquet strips; 2 – joists; 3 – noggins; 4 – wooden
shock pads; 5 - concrete foundation.
As a support layer for the tested structures, a reinforced concrete floor was used. A special fast
primer for non-absorbent substrates (Super Grund from BAUMIT) was applied afterwards. In order to
ensure the flatness of the support layer, a 2-3mm layer of self-leveling screed was poured. (Nivello
Duo de la BAUMIT).
The method of testing the bounce height of the ball was in accordance with SR EN 12235,
which provides that the height of the ball rebound on the sports surface is calculated with equation (1):
(1)
where:
R% - bounce heght of the ball, in %;
Rs – bounce height of the ball tested on the wooden flooring surface, in m;
Rc - bounce height of the ball tested on the concrete floor surface, in m;
Fig. 4.
Testing stand S-TPS-3 and official Molten basketball ball used for experiment.
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In order to comply with the provisions of the standard SR EN 12235, as well as with those of the
General Regulation for the organization of basketball competitions 2016-2017 (RGOCB) regarding the
testing of wooden floors, an experimental stand was designed and executed in the frame of the
Faculty of Wood Engineering of the Transilvania University of Brasov (Fig.4). The operating principle
of the stand consists of fixing the ball (RGOCB) inside a 3-element (2 fixed and one with mechanical
retraction) band-ring and releasing it from a height of 1.80m + 0.01m (according to SR EN 12235
standard requirements). Using an ultrasonic device - Distance Sensor Einstein ™ - (*** Distance
Sensor DT020-1), the height to which the ball rebounds after falling on the floor was measured. MiLAB
software calculated the height of the ball bounce height. It was installed on a special digital tablet,
which allows data collection, display and analysis, transforming ball movements into relevant graphic
representations.
A MOLTEN 7 basketball (Fig.4) was used for the test. This type of ball is also used in
competitions organized under the aegis of FRB (Romanian Federation of Basketball). This ball is
considered to be the official one according to RGOCB. MOLTEN 7 basketball ball was inflated to the
pressure of 0.7 bar

In the experiments, five measurements of the basketball ball bounce height were made in nine
different points of the flooring structure, as seen in Fig. 5. According to the requirements of SR EN
12235, the ball must fall from the height of 1,80 + 0,01m. The vertical bounce height of the ball after
the impact with the floor should be at least 90% of the reference value, which is the bounce height of
the ball when it is tested on the concrete floor. According to the standard EN 12235, this reference
height is 1,204m.
Fig. 5.
The points of bounce height measurements on the floor (Țurcaș-Diaconu et al. 2018).
The results obtained for D1-a flooring structures in the nine points are presented in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6.
Ball bounce height measured in the nine points for basic D1-a structure
(Țurcaș-Diaconu et al. 2018).
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In the case of the D1-a type wood panel, the value of the maximum bounce height is 1.085m,
with a response of 90.13% compared to the reference value (1.204m). This type of panel is
recommended for the halls where this type of sporting activity takes place.
The graph in Fig. 7 presents the results obtained for the 9-point test of the wooden flooring D1-
b1 type.
Fig. 7.
Ball bounce height measured in the nine points for D1-b1 structure.
In the case of the wooden panel type D1-b1, the value of the maximum bounce height is 1.115
m, with a response of 92.63%, exceeding by 2.63% the reference value (1.204m). This type of flooring
is also recommended for the halls where basketball activity takes place.
In the graph in Fig. 8 the results obtained for the wooden flooring panel D1-c1 type are
presented.
Fig. 8.
Ball bounce height measured in the nine points for D1-c1 structure.
Fig. 9.
D1-a, D1-b1, D1-c1 response at the rebound basketbal ball test.
125
In the case of the D1-c1 type flooring structure, the value of the maximum bounce height is
1.141m, with a response of 94.80%, exceeding by 4.80% the reference value (1.204m). This type of
panel is also recommended in the spaces where sports activities of basketball type take place.
The graph in Fig. 9 presents the comparison between the standard reference value and the
responses of the D1-type structures.
The comparison between the three tested structures related to their response at the rebound
ball test is presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Comparison between performances of the tested flooring surfaces
Ball bounce height, in

Structure Picture Increases
m/ Repulsion, in %
D1-b1 compared to D1-a
Basic D1-a 1,085 m 90,13 %
+0,030 m +2,50%
D1-c1 compared to D1-a

D1-b1 1,115 m 92,63 %
+0,056 m +4,67%
D1-c1 compared to D1-b1

D1-c1 1,141 m 94,80 % +0,026 m +2,17%
CONCLUSIONS
All the structures were tested with the MOLTEN 7 basketball ball, inflated to the pressure of 0.7
bar. The reference value of bounce height was considered to be 1.204m, which is the bounce height
of the ball falling down on the standard concrete floor.
Following the results of the tests performed on the D1-a type flooring structures consisting of
strips with sizes of 500mm x 50mm x 15mm and arranged according to the English model and
supported on grids formed from joists and noggins, it was found that they responded with 90.13%
compared to 90% of the minimum bounce heights limits allowed for sports floorings (1.204m). This
result recommends the above mentioned structure for the basketball hall floorings.
In case of D1-b1 flooring structure, for which beech wood shock pads were attached under the
support grid, and at the midpoint between two consecutive grid nodes, 92.63% of the minimum
bounce heights limits allowed for sports floorings was reached. For D1-c1 structure, which was
supported by beech shock pads applied at each node of the grid, 94.80% of the minimum bounce
heights limits allowed for sports floorings was reached, recording thus the best performance.
All D1-type structures are recommended to be used for floorings in the spaces where basketball
activities take place, but attaching beech wood shock pads with sizes of 60mm x 40mm x 10mm under
the grid nodes, the flooring performance is the best one.
REFERENCES
Cismaru I (2006) Pardoseli din lemn (Wooden Floorings), Editura Universității Transilvania Brașov.
Cismaru I, Filipașcu M, Țurcaș OM, Fotin A (2015) Pardoseli din lemn – între prezent și viitor (Wooden
Flooring – Between Present and Future), Revista ProLigno 11(2):39-50.
Demker I (2009) Determination of mechanical comfort properties of floor coverings, SP Technical
Research Institute of Sweden, Chemistry and Materials Technology, SP Report 2009:04, Borås,
Sweden.
Dömény J, Koiš V, Zapletal M (2014) Application of microwave treatment for the plasticisation of
beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) and its densification for flooring system purposes,“Microwave wood
plasticisation”, BioResources 9(4):7519-7528.
126
Dömény J, Čermák P, Koiš V, Tippner J, Rousek R (2018) Density profile and microstructural analysis
of densified beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) plasticized by microwave treatment, European Journal of
Wood and Wood Products Volume: 76, Issue: 1, Pages: 105-111, Published: Jan 2018.
Gašparík M, Gaff M (2013) Changes in temperature and moisture content in beech wood plasticized
by microwave heating, BioResources 8(3), 3372-3384. DOI: 10.15376/biores.8.3.3372-3384
Kolitzus HJ (2012) Scrutiny of Advanced Artificial Athlete (AAA), ISSS Technical Conference
Shanghai.
Țurcaș (Diaconu) OM, Fotin A (2017) The evolution and the characteristics of wooden flooring for gym
and sport courts, PRO LIGNO Journal Vol. 13(3):37-44
http://www.proligno.ro/ro/articles/2017/3/turcas.pdf
Țurcaș (Diaconu) OM, Fotin A, Coșereanu C (2018) Surfaces of floorings conceived for gymnasiums,
d-type and tested to the ”ball bounce” requirement, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
on Processing Technologies for the Forest and Biobased Products Industries - PTF BPI 2018,
Sept.20-21,Freising/Munich,Germany - pag. 272-278, http://ptfbpi.fh-salzburg.ac.at/program.html
***Distance Sensor DT020-1
***EN 14808:2005 – Surfaces for sports areas – Determination of shock absorption
***EN 14809:2005 – Surfaces for sports areas – Determination of vertical deformation
***European & International Standards. Surfaces for sports areas. A short guide, versie 2014, NBN,
Jozef II-straat 40, B-1000 Brussel
***kineticsport.ro, secțiunea „produse", categoria „săli de sport", poziția „suprafață sportivă lemn",
accesat în 9.11.15/h 13.41
***Regulament general de organizare al competițiilor de baschet 2016-2017
***Revista Pardoseli Magazin 17/2013: 38-41
***SR EN 12235:2014 – Suprafețe pentru activități sportive – Determinarea comportamentului pe
direcția verticală a mingii/balonului – Surfaces for sports areas – Determination of vertical ball
behaviour
http://www.deltecequipment.com (20.05.15/h 8:41)
127
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF QUERCUS AEGILOPS L. TENSION WOOD TREES

Abdulrazzak ALSULAIMAN
Faculty of Forestry Department - College of Agriculture
and Forestry - Mosul University, Iraq
E-mail: abdulrazakalmalah@yahoo.com
Shahin ALJALABY
Faculty of Forestry Department – College of Agriculture
Karkuk University, Iraq
Sabah YOUSIF
Ministry of Commerce and Industry Irbil, Kurdistan, Iraq
E-mail: Siay_65@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study was conducted to show the effect of tension wood on Some physical characteristics
of oak Quercus aegilops L. trees growing naturally at Erbil-shaqlawa provenance in northern of Iraq.
The study included the different effect between leaning and vertical stems (standing trees), three
levels of stem height, heartwood and sapwood, tension wood and opposite wood.
Specific gravity for leaning trees have the highest value compared with standing trees٫ The
highest value of volume swelling percent for all immersion periods in water (2 ٫ 6 ٫ 24 ٫ 48 hours) were
in standing trees except 48 hours immersion in water which show higher volume swelling percent in
leaning trees, while thickness swelling percent after 2 ٫ 6 ٫ 24 ٫ 48 hours were highest in leaning trees
for all period except 6 hours period which show standing trees highest value. Volume shrinkage٫
thickness shrinkage, absorption and water loss percent showed the highest average value for all
characteristics in leaning trees except absorption percent 24 ، 48 hours which was the highest in
standing trees but without significant effect.
It was noticed that there was a decrease in most physical characteristics values from the first
height level (stem base) to the top level, the highest values were at base level then it decreased
gradually by increasing height levels and it reached lower value at the middle height level and then it
increased slightly in the top height level. For this reason, the eccentric pith was highest at the base of
the leaning trees ,and it decreased as stem height level increased.
Also it was found that most physical characteristics studied have slightly higher mean values in
opposite wood٫ compared to tension wood except specific gravity which showed significant value in
tension wood compared with opposite wood. Also, Sapwood have higher values than heartwood in
most physical characteristics except volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 48 hours,
thickness swelling percent after immersion in water for 6, 24 and 48 hours, volumetric and thickness
shrinkage percent.
Key words: Quercus aegilops L.; tension wood; specific gravity.
INTRODUCTION
Oak trees are considered one of the most important vegetation cover growing naturally in the
northern part of Iraq at elevation between 600-1900 meters above sea level. There are three important
species of oak, Quercus aegilops L. Quercus infectoria Oliv. and Quercus libany Oliv, these species
are slow growth, need light, but they didn't resist very high temperature (Daood 1979, Abdulla 1988).
Unnatural wood may be formed in tree stem called reaction wood, which formed as a reaction
due to the unusual growth conditions of the tree such as leaning stems and branches by wind or by
growing trees on slopping hillside forming un normal wood tissue called reaction wood (Kasir et al.
1985). Reaction wood in the stem of hardwood leaning trees is called (tension wood). It was formed
at the upper side of leaning or curved stems or at trees growing on hill side (Haygreen and Bower
1982). Tension wood can be recognized through the eccentric of growth rings present in the leaning
stems especially on hill slopes.
Tension wood is present on stem side with wider annual ring with lighter color. Microscopically,
tension wood differs from normal wood in fiber constituent by which cell wall of tension wood is very
thick and it may fill all cell lumen or reduce lumen size which may appear as longtudinal crack. The
inner layer of these thick walls appear as gelatinous layer (G-layer), for this reason it was called
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gelatinous fiber. Tension wood may cause abnormal shrinkage, cracking, twisting and other wood
distortion during manufacturing. Also it will reduce paper pulp strength (however, tension wood
produce more pulp compared to normal wood) due to the differences in its anatomical, chemical and
physical structure compared to normal wood (Kasir et al.1985).
Tension wood characteristics were studied by many researchers. Th. Hartig at the end of 19th
century was considered as the first who discovered the G-layer in tension wood. This layer which
appears as gelatinous fibers have special chemical structure, named as cellulosic layer. Some studies
showed that the presence of G-layer is a sign of tension wood formation in most hard wood species
(Clair et al. 2006).
Badia et al. (2005) mentioned that tension wood in populus ssp. was lighter in color than normal
wood and more distinct in stems bases for the newly sawn stems and exposed to short time of drying.
Also, protruding fiber may appear after wood sawing. Boyd et al. (1977) mentioned that there are
many reasons that contribute to formation of tension wood such as light, gravity, plant auxin, stresses,
wind, one or more reason may refer to the formation of tension wood. Also, it was found that plant
hormones may lead to tension wood formation on the upper side of Prunes spachiana branches.
Physically, tension wood differs from normal wood, since tension wood have specific gravity and
longitudinal shrinkage percent higher than normal wood. The increase in specific gravity (5-10%) may
refer to the increase in gelatinous fiber cell wall. It is difficult to explain the abnormal increase of
longitudinal shrinkage percent which may reach as much as 1.5% (normal wood shrinkage percent is
about 0.01%), thus it was believed that this abnormality may be related to the chemical constituent of
the cell wall more than its relation to the physical properties (Kasir et al. 1985). Also, physical
properties alteration may be linked to fiber structure alteration (Rowell et al. 2000).
According to honeycombed texture of gelatinous layer, it was assumed that the higher percent
of swelling and shrinkage of tension wood may be a result of swelling and shrinkage of homogenous
materials present between cellulosic chain such as carbohydrate and sugars, since any transverse
changing in size of these materials will cause longitudinal swelling and shrinkage in tension wood
fibers (Kasir et al. 1985). Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin have different moisture content.
Hemicellulose moisture content is higher than cellulose, and lignin moisture content is lower than
cellulose. Moisture absorption is related to hydrogen bonds between water molecules and hydroxyl
group in cell wall polymer, but not all water molecules are linked to hydroxyl groups, 60% of hydroxyl
groups are liked with water in pine wood while 53% are liked in Betula sp. wood. the crystalline
surfaces and amorphous regions are responsible for water absorption in cell wall (Browning 1967),
while shrinkage after drying in the lignocellulosic cell wall is due to moisture loss when it becomes
lower than fiber saturation point (stamm 1964). Rowell et al. (1986) found that the carbohydrates
present in wood are responsible for moisture absorption in amount greater than lignin.
Tension wood may have lower or higher strength compared to normal wood depending on type
of directed power. It was found that the samples of beech wood samples containing tension wood
were very weak in resisting pressure parallel to grain, but the resistance is higher in tension strength
parallel to the grain (Kasir et al. 1985).
OBJECTIVES
The aim of this study is to find the differences in some physical properties between tension
wood and normal wood such as swelling percent in volume and thickness after immersion in water for
2, 6, 24 and 48 hours, and shrinkage percent in volume and thickness and water absorption percent
after immersion in water for 24 and 48 hours and moisture loss percent after drying as most of these
properties were not previously studied.

Quercus aegilops L. trees were selected to study tension wood and compare it to normal wood
since there were natural forest of this species present in Shaklawa region. Studying samples were
collected in march (2014) from shaklawa forest trees (Lower Agoban village) growing naturally at
- = - =
(1031-1061) meters elevation over sea level and in closer ages at 21˚ 36 44 latitude and 44˚ 26 40
altitude, annual rainfall were (950-600) mm. with rainy and moist winter and hot dry summer (Weather
station dept. Shaklawa Agriculture Directorate. 2016).
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Six Quercus aegilops L. trees were fallen from mountain slop at closer elevation and ages.
Three leaning trees at 60˚ angle (±2˚) with the horizon, also three trees with straight and vertical stems
were fallen for control treatment, they were unaffected from any diseases or insects, the horizontal
angle of mountain slop was about (32˚). Each stem was sectioned into 3 equal parts, and 3 discs with
st
5 cm thickness were taken from each stem. The 1 disc was taken from the top part of top section, the
nd rd
2 disc was taken from middle of the second middle section, and the 3 disc was cut from the base of
the third base section (over the stump) (Fig. 2) in order to measure the physical properties tests.
Tension wood was determined from opposite wood, and sapwood was determined from heartwood
according to Donaldson et al. (2004). Discs taken from vertical trees were determined into two equal
samples and called (first half and second half) due to the lack of reaction wood. All discs were placed
in well ventilated room for two month for drying the samples, moisture contents was measured once
each two weeks until stabilization of moisture content to 6-10%. Test wood samples were cut into
2x2x3 cm dimensions from the middle portion of sapwood and heartwood from both tension and
opposite wood for the three heights levels of each tree (leaning and vertical trees) (Fig. 1).
Methods used to measure physical properties percent:

1- Water absorption percent: calculated according to the following equation: (Ozmen 2007).
Water absorption (%) = [(weight after immersion - weight before immersion) / weight before
immersion] x 100.
2- Volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 2, 6, 24 and 48 hours: calculated
according to the following equation: (Anonymous 1982).
Volumetric swelling (%) = [(volume after immersion - volume before immersion) / volume before
immersion] x 100.
3- Thickness swelling percent after immersion in water for 2, 6, 24 and 48 hours: calculated
according to the following equation: (Anonymous 1982).
Thickness swelling (%) = [(Thickness after immersion - Thickness before immersion) / Thickness
before immersion] x 100.
4- Volumetric shrinkage percent after immersion in water for 48 hours and drying in electric oven at
105˚C for 24 hours: calculated according to the following equation: (Anonymous 1982).
Volumetric shrinkage (%) = [(volume before drying - volume after drying) / volume before drying]
x 100.
5- thickness shrinkage percent after immersion in water for 48 hours and drying in electric oven at
105˚C for 24 hours : calculated according to the following equation: (Anonymous 1982).
thickness shrinkage (%) = [(thickness before drying - thickness after drying) / thickness before
drying] x 100.
6- water loss percent after immersion in water for 48 hours and drying in electric oven at 105˚C for
24 hours:
water loss (%) = [(weight after immersion - weight after drying) / weight after immersion] x 100.
Statistical analysis:
Complete Randomized Design (CRD) (Cochran and Cox 1957) was used to analyze research
data which contain the following factors:
1- tree condition in two levels (leaning trees , standing trees)
2- stem height in three levels (base, middle, top)
3- wood location in two levels (heartwood, sapwood)
4- wood type in two levels (tension wood, opposite wood)
Total experimental units are 2x3x2x2 which gave 48 experimental units and by adding 3
replications to each experimental units, the total observations were 144. Since it was difficult to find
trees of the same ages, the data were adjusted according to specific gravity by using Covariance
analysis (Alrawy 1980). Since specific gravity (which represent wood mass) have a direct relation to
the studied characteristics, it was used as a depending factor to correct the data. Statistical Analysis
System (SAS 2002) were used to determine the significant differences between the means of studied
physical properties by using Duncan Multiple rang Method (Duncan 1955).
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Upper disc (first)
Upper section
middle disc (second)
Middle section
base section
base disc (third)
Fig. 1.
Three stem sections and disc sample preparation used for laboratory tests.
Sapwood
Heartwood
opposite wood tension wood
Heartwood (tension) Sapwood (tension)
Cross section of wood sample disc

determine the location of the test
Sapwood (opposite) Heartwood (opposite)
samples
Fig. 2.
Physical samples test preparation.

Tree condition: Duncan analysis of means (table. 1) shows that leaning trees were significantly
better in specific gravity (0.680) than standing trees (0.661), this result may related to the increase of
cellulose percent and the decrease of lignin percent in leaning trees due to the presence of gelatinous
layer compared to standing trees, since wood density is affected by cell wall thickness, cell
diameter, percent of late wood to early wood and chemical constituents of the wood (Cave and
Walker 1994). This result was identical to the study of Kasir et al. (1985) who mentioned that tension
wood is clearly different physically from normal wood, since tension wood have specific gravity and
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longitudinal shrinkage percent higher than normal wood. Also, the table indicated that volumetric
swelling percent of standing and leaning trees increase by increasing immersion period, volumetric
swelling percent of standing tree after immersion in water for 2 and 6 hours (5.583, 9.224)%
respectively, is significantly higher compared to leaning trees (3.732, 6.314)% respectively, but this
increase was not significant after immersion in water for 24 hours of standing trees (12.909)%
compared to leaning trees (11.282)%.
The reason for non-significance may be related to water absorption percent in the beginning of
immersion in water for 2 and 6 hours that was high then the significance decreased by increasing
immersion period to 24 hours and volumetric swelling percent increased gradually by increasing
immersion period, since cellulose percent in gelatinous layer of tension wood in leaning trees is higher
than standing trees, therefore absorption percent in the standing trees is lower compared to leaning
trees during these two periods. After 48 hours, the wood tissues became saturated with water with
volumetric swelling percent higher in leaning trees compared to standing trees. This may related to
increase in specific gravity of leaning trees wood compared to standing trees.
The same as above, thickness swelling percent after immersion in water for 2, 6, 24 hours, table
(1) show that thickness swelling percent of standing trees wood after immersion in water for 2 hours
(2.411%) was less compared to leaning trees (2.435%), but it became higher after 6 hours immersion
in water for standing trees (4.093%) compared to leaning trees (3.706%), however, these differences
was not significant. This result may refer to the same reasons mentioned above about the effect tree
condition on volumetric swelling percent. Also, these results were similar to Kasir et al. (1985)
explanation which related to honey combed texture of gelatinous layer since high swelling and
shrinkage percent comes due to swelling and shrinkage of homogenous property materials presented
between cellulosic chain such as (carbohydrates and saccharides), any change in the volume of these
substances in transverse direction will lead to longitudinal swelling or shrinkage in tension wood fibers.
Also, Rowell (1989) found that the lignocellulosic materials specially hygroscopic materials containing
polymers in wood cell wall will absorb the moisture leading to swelling in cell wall polymers. Roger et
al. (2009) indicated that cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are responsible for most physical and
chemical properties when moisture content changes. Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contain
moisture at different levels. Hemicellulose is have more moisture than cellulose which is have more
moisture than lignin and moisture absorption may related to hydrogen bonding between water
molecules and hydroxyl group (OH) in cell wall polymers. Not all hydroxyl groups are bounded to
water, but 60% of hydroxyl groups are bounded to water in pine wood and 53% in Betula wood.
The crystalline surfaces and amorphous regions of the cellulose are responsible for water
absorption in the cell wall (Browning, 1967). Table (1) show that thickness swelling percent was
increased after immersion in water for 24 and 48 hours in leaning trees (6.096, 6.873)% respectively,
compared to standing trees (5.408, 6.625)% respectively, but it was not significant, this may related to
the same reason mentioned about the effect of tree condition on volumetric swelling percent after
immersion in water for 48 hours.
These results are similar to Ruelle et al. (2007) study about physical and mechanical properties
of tension and opposite wood in ten tropical trees. They found that tangential shrinkage was higher in
tension wood except for Eperua falcate species by which tangential and transverse shrinkage were
very small. Also, they found large differences in longitudinal shrinkage between tension and opposite
wood that was about 4-7 times higher in opposite wood for seven kinds of the studied trees. Also, the
result above was similar to tree condition effects on volumetric and thickness shrinkage percent, table
(1) shows that volumetric and thickness shrinkage percent of leaning trees were higher compared to
standing trees, this result may related to same reasons mentioned above. Also, table (1) indicate that
absorption percent of standing trees after immersion in water for 24 hours (59.008)% was little higher
than leaning trees (54.711)% and there were no significant differences between them, the reason may
be due to fact that a complete absorption was not reached during 24 hours. Since leaning trees
contain high percent of tension wood which composed of high percent of cellulosic gelatinous layer
compared to standing trees, therefor absorption percent in standing trees were little higher and un
significant, while absorption percent after 48 hours immersion was increased in both leaning and
standing trees (67.32, 67.595)% respectively, and became with closer values and un significant. Also,
table (1) shows that leaning trees were significantly superior in water loss percent after drying
132
(41.753)% compared to standing trees (32.560)%, the reason may related to higher specific gravity of
leaning tree compared to standing trees.
Height levels: table (1) indicate that specific gravity in stem base have the highest values
(0.673)% then it reduced in the middle of the stem (0.668)% and increased slightly at top levels
(0.670)% without significant differences between height levels. The reasons may related to the fact
that tension wood percent at base level of the leaning trees was higher than middle or top levels,
Panshin and De Zeeuw (1980) explain that tension wood fiber increase the density more than normal
wood. This percent reduced from base up to top then it increased slightly at top level. These results
were similar to Almalah and Aldozaky (2009) study which they found that compression wood of Pinus
brutia Den. trees was at higher percent at stem base then it reduced gradually as high level increased.
Table (1) also, shows that volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 2 hours at stem
base level was higher 5.563)% than at middle of the stem (4.505)%, and the middle level is higher
than top level (3.904)% since swelling percent increased by increasing tension wood percent (Kasir
et. al. 1985). According to these results it can be concluded that the eccentric of pith phenomenon at
stem base will be at a higher value, and it decrease gradually as stem level increase to top level until
pith will become centric at stem top position of leaning trees (Fig. 3). These results was similar to
Almalah and Aldozaky study (2009) which they found that the eccentric pith of Pinus brutia leaning
stems decreased by increasing stem level to the top.
The table also indicate that volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 6, 24 and 48
hours at stem base (8.888, 13.304, 17.356)% respectively, was greater than middle level (7.119,
10.788, 14.154)% respectively, then it increased slightly at top level (7.299, 12.185, 17.054)%
respectively, without significant differences. The reason may be related to the slight increase of
specific gravity at top level compared to the middle. Thickness swelling percent after immersion in
water for 2 and 6 hours at base level (2.792, 4.241)% respectively, was the highest then it decreased
at middle level (1.976, 3.385)% respectively, and increased slightly at top level (2.502, 4.072)%
respectively, without significant differences, this result may related to the effect of specific gravity as it
mentioned in volumetric swelling percent above. Thickness swelling percent after immersion in water
for 24 and 48 hours were at highest value at stem base level (6.411, 7.807)% respectively, then it
decrease at stem middle level (6.273, 6.502)% respectively, then it became at lowest value at top level
(5.581, 5.939)% respectively, without significant differences. Table (1) also shows that highest
volumetric shrinkage percent was at stem base level (16.243)% then it decreased slightly at middle
and top levels (16.208, 15.582)% respectively, without significant differences. Similarly, the effects of
height levels on thickness shrinkage percent was identical, since the highest value of thickness
shrinkage percent was at stem base level (7.038)% then it decreased at middle level (6.685)% and
increased slightly at top level (6.707)%.
Table (1) also indicate that the highest absorption percent after immersion in water for 24 and
48 hours (58.789, 71.324)% respectively, and water loss percent after drying (39.286)% was at stem
base level, then these values decreased at middle level 58.666, 70.433, 38.380)% respectively, and
continue decreasing to the top level (53.123, 64.796, 33.803)% respectively. These results may refer
to the same reasons concerning the effect of specific gravity and tension wood presented at base,
middle and top levels on volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 2 hours.
Wood location: Table (1) shows that the specific gravity of sapwood (0.673)% was slightly
higher than heartwood (0.668) without significant differences. This result may be related to the
increase the mean of fiber diameter and wall fiber thickness in tension wood of sapwood compared to
heartwood which lead to increase specific gravity of sapwood compared to heartwood. The same
results were indicated by Washusen et al. (2005b) who found that tension wood in sapwood have high
fiber percent which increase wood density, also, they found that there were positive correlation
between density and tension fiber percent. These results was similar to Almalah and Aldozaky (2009)
study concerning the effect of wood type on compression wood of Pinus brutia leaning trees. The
effect of wood location on volumetric swelling percent presented in table (1) which shows that
volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 2, 6 and 24 hours of sapwood (5.192, 8.488,
12.292)% respectively, was higher than heartwood (4.123, 7.046, 11.899)% respectively, and it was
significant after immersion in water for 2 and 6 hours. While volumetric swelling percent after
immersion in water for 48 hours was higher in heartwood (17.072)% compared to sapwood (15.303)%,
and this result was similar to wood type effect on volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water
for 48 hours and was related to the same reasons mentioned above.
133
The table also shows that the differences in thickness swelling percent after immersion in water
for 2 hours between heartwood (20357)% and sapwood (2.490)% was very small and un significant,
but after 6, 24, and 48 hours it began to increase by time with superiority of heartwood (3.995, 7.094,
7.244)% respectively, compared to sapwood (3.803, 4.781, 6.254)% respectively. Also, volumetric and
thickness shrinkage percent of heartwood (17.301, 7.183)% respectively, were significantly greater
compared to sapwood (14.900, 6.437)% respectively. The reasons of volumetric swelling percent
increase for sapwood compared to heartwood related to the same reasons mentioned above about
wood type effect on volumetric swelling percent. The reason of volumetric and thickness shrinkage
percent increase of heartwood compared to sapwood may related to the gradual increase of the
diameter and fiber wall thickness from pith to bark. Almeheesin (1979) indicated that Pinus brutia
tracheid diameter increased by increasing the distance from pith to bark, also, Kininmouth and
Whitehouse (1991) found that the diameter of compression wood tracheid increased from pith to bark.
The results of the effect of sapwood on water absorption percent after 24 and 48 hours (63.995,
77.837)% respectively, and moisture loss percent after drying (40.656)% indicated the significant
superiority of sapwood compared to heartwood (49.723, 59.865, 33.657)% respectively. These results
support the result of wood location effect on volumetric percent after immersion in water for 2, 6 and
24 hours since sapwood gave the highest value in this characteristic compared to heartwood which
related to the increase of sapwood water absorption percent therefore volumetric percent was
increased.
Wood type: Table (1) shows that the specific gravity of tension wood (0.678) was slightly higher
than opposite wood (0.663). This results is identical to Kasir et al. (1985) finding which show that
tension wood have specific gravity and longitudinal shrinkage percent higher than normal wood. Wood
density is the most important character which affect the physical properties of the wood (De Guth,
1980). Wood density is affected by cell wall thickness, cell diameter. Moreover, Panshin and De
zeeuw (1980) explain that the thick gelatinous layer in tension wood fiber increase the density about
3% more than normal wood. Volume swelling percent after immersion in water for 2, 6, and 24 hours
of opposite wood (4.759, 7.975, 12.788)% respectively, was slightly higher and un significant
compared to tension wood (4.556, 7.563, 11.402)% respectively, recently, the were no research
available relates the effect of tension wood on volume and shrinkage percent but there were research
concerning the effect of tension wood on longitudinal and tangential shrinkage percent. The study of
Panshin and De zeeuw (1980) explained that width shrinkage of tension wood theoretically should be
less compared to normal wood, because longitudinal shrinkage increase in tension wood compared to
normal wood. However, the wood tests explained that tangential and radial shrinkage of Betula
deltiodes tension wood were higher than normal wood, while tangential and radial shrinkage of Acer
saccharum tension wood were less than normal wood (Skaar 1988). Therefore, these results need
more investigations. These results are similar to Ishigar et al. (2012) study whom they found that
longitudinal shrinkage of five tree species was higher significantly than opposite wood, while C.
crenata and A. crataegifolium species have higher values in tension wood compared to opposite
wood. While tangential shrinkage for the rest of species didn't show any significant differences
between tension and opposite wood. The reason of volumetric swelling percent increase of opposite
wood compared to tension wood in immersion periods for 2, 6, 24 hours may be related to fact that
moisture did not reach all wood tissues during these periods, this results indicate that volume and
thickness swelling percent after immersion in water for 48 hours of tension wood (16.281, 7.008)%
respectively, become slightly higher than opposite wood (16.093, 6.490)% respectively.
Table (1) indicate that thickness swelling percent of opposite wood after immersion in water for
2, 6, 24 hours (2.570, 4.146, 6.340)% respectively, were slightly higher and un significant compared
to tension wood (2.277, 3.652, 5.004)% respectively. Also, volumetric and thickness shrinkage percent
after drying of opposite wood (16.449, 6.965)% respectively, were slightly higher than tension wood
(15.752, 6.654)% respectively. More over water absorption percent after immersion in water for 24 and
48 hours and moisture loss percent after drying of opposite wood (58.216, 69.500, 38.278)%
respectively, were slightly higher than tension wood (55.502, 68.202, 36.036)% respectively, and un
significant, the reason may refer to the same reasons mentioned above concerning the effect of
tension and opposite wood on volumetric swelling percent after immersion in water for 2, 6 and 24
hours. Many studies pointed that there was differences in the effect of tension wood and opposite
wood on shrinkage percent, since Ruell et al. (2007) explained that the physical and mechanical
properties of tension and opposite wood in ten species of tropical trees. They found that there was
largedifferences in longitudinal shrinkage between tension and opposite wood for about 4-7 times
higher in tension wood in seven species from total of ten species. While it was less than 2 times higher
in tension wood for the other three species. Also, they found that tangential shrinkage was higher in
134
tension wood except the species Eperua falcate which have very small tangential and transverse
shrinkage. Also, Panshin and De zeeuw (1980) show that there were differences in tension wood
effect on tangential and radial shrinkage percent, and it may be higher or lower percent according to
tree species which have tension wood.
135
Table 1
Effect of studied main factors in some physical properties according to Duncan test
physical properties
factors
% % % % % %
% %
% water water % % thickness thickness volume volume volume volume
thickness thickness specific
moisture absorption absorption thickness volume swelling swelling swelling swelling swelling swelling
swelling swelling gravity
loss after 48 h. after 24 h. shrinkage shrinkage after 48 after 24 after 48 after 24 after 6 after 2
after 6 h. after 2 h.
h. h. h. h. h. h.
41.753 67.32 54.711 7.046 17.009 6.873 6.096 3.706 2.435 17.727 11.282 6.314 3.732 0.680
a a a a a a a a a a a b b a
leaning
32.560 67.595 59.008 6.573 15.192 6.625 5.408 4.093 2.411 14.647 12.909 9.224 5.583 0.661
tree
b a a a b a a a a b a a a b
standing condition
33.803 64٫796 53.123 6.707 15.582 5.939 5.581 4.072 2.502 17.054 12.185 7.299 3.904 0.670
a a a a a b a a a a a b b a
top
38.380 70.433 58.666 6.685 16.208 6.502 6.273 3.385 1.976 14.154 10.788 7.119 4.505 0.668 height
middle
a a a a a ab a a a b b b b a levels
39.286 71.324 58.789 7.038 16.243 7.807 6.411 4.241 2.792 17.356 13.304 8.888 5.563 0.673
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
base
33.657 59٫865 49.723 7.183 17.301 7.244 7.094 3.995 2.357 17.072 11.899 7.049 4.123 0.668
b b b a a a a a a a a b b a
heartwood
40.656 77.837 63.995 6.437 14.900 6.254 4.781 3.803 2.490 15.303 12.292 8.488 5.192 0.673
wood
a a a b b a a a a a a a a a
sapwood location
36.036 68.202 55.502 6.654 15.752 7.008 5.004 3.652 2.277 16.281 11.402 7.563 4.556 0.678 tension
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a wood wood
38.278 69.50 58.216 6.965 16.449 6.490 6.340 4.146 2.570 16.093 12.788 7.975 4.759 0.663 opposite type
a a a a a a a a a a a a a b wood
Means with the same letter for each factor are not significantly different at 0.05.
136
pith
Tension
wood Opposite
wood
Leaning stem of hardwood tree
Fig. 3.
The eccentric pith in Quercus aegilops L. leaning stems.
CONCLUSION
This study provides evidence that standing trees have better physical wood properties than
leaning trees. As a result of higher specific gravity, volumetric swelling percent after immersion in
water for 2 hours and volumetric shrinkage percent at the base of leaning trees and there values
reduced from base to the stem top, the eccentricity of pith was higher at stem base, then it decreased
with stem height. Standing tree stem may be free of tension wood, when presented, it will be in small
quantity, hence it has better physical and anatomical properties than leaning trees. Leaning trees
contain higher percent of cellulose which act as tension threads along the upper part of the stem to
prevent tree full down due to earth gravity. Since there was a higher percent of holocellulose at stem
base, and it reduced from base to stem top in reverse of lignin percent (Almalah et al. 2018), it can be
concluded that the eccentric of the pith is the highest at stem base and it reduced gradually to top
stem level at which pith become centric. Therefore, leaning trees woods (specially at top position) can
be used for some wood industry such as wood boards used for boxes manufacturing and for door
filling. Stem base of these trees can be used for pulp manufacturing due to the presence of high
cellulose percent compared to stem top position.
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138
SECTION 2.
WOOD DRYING
AND HEAT
TREATMENTS
A NOVEL METHOD FOR ASSEMBLING A WOOD DRYING SCHEDULE BASED

ON DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
Bogdan BEDELEAN
Tel: 0040 268 419581, Fax: 0040 268 419581, E-mail: bedelean@unitbv.ro
Daniela ȘOVA
Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
B-dul Eroilor nr. 29, 500036, Brasov, Romania
E-mail: sova.d@unitbv.ro
Abstract
The aim of this study was to find the optimal values of air parameters during each step of a
drying schedule for wood using the response surface methodology, which has been widely applied to
drying optimization of food and drugs. The moisture content based schedule consisted in five steps,
namely, 60 to 30% (step 1), 30-25% (step 2), 25 – 20% (step 3), 20 – 15% (step 4) and 15-10% (step
5). It was assembled for spruce boards of 38 mm thickness. The drying process was simulated in a
drying kiln using TORKSIM software, which was validated experimentally in a laboratory kiln. The
optimal combination of air parameters (temperature, relative humidity and velocity) was found using
the desirability function approach, one of the most widely used methods in industry for the optimization
of multiple response processes. The optimization criteria were short time, low drying cost and high
quality of end products. The results showed that for each step of the schedule the optimum
combination of air parameters is different. The results obtained using the proposed method were
compared with those obtained using ten various methods (six from literature and four from industry)
applied to develop wood drying schedules. The proposed method has both advantages (high quality)
and disadvantages (long time and high cost) compared with various options that currently are used to
assembly a drying schedule for spruce. However, further research is needed in order to adjust and
implement the proposed method at industrial level.
Key words: wood drying; spruce; drying schedule; optimisation; simulation.
INTRODUCTION
The drying process control is accomplished according to a drying schedule. A wood drying
schedule can be developed through various methods (Bedelean 2018). Each method has its own
algorithm. Since there are differences in the temperature and relative humidity in each step of the
drying schedule, there are differences in the kiln performance (time, quality, energy consumption and
cost), if different drying schedules are applied.
Currently, the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) has been widely applied to drying
optimization (Sova et al. 2016). RSM is a collection of statistical and mathematical techniques useful
for developing, improving and optimizing processes. RSM implies the use of Box-Wilson Central
Composite Design (CCD) (Georgescu et al. 2019). In this design, the two-level factorial design points
estimate the first-order and two-factor interactions. These points take into account all possible
combinations of the low (-1) and high (+1) levels of analyzed factors. In this study, there were three
factors, namely, air temperature, air relative humidity and air velocity, and each was analyzed at two
levels (-1, +1). The center points are needed in the experimental design to estimate the experimental
error, meaning that each factor has to be analyzed at the center value (0). The axial points (- α, +α)
allow the estimation of the pure quadratic effects. Two factors are analyzed at the center value (0) and
the third one has the value of alpha.
Based on the applied experimental design, the following regression equation is figured out
(Eq.1)
(1)
where:
Y represents the response (output);
Xi are the main effects (inputs);
141
XiXj are variables interactions;

2
X are quadratic effects;
b are coefficients.
The magnitude of coefficient values shows their importance; high values indicate great
importance and low values, little importance. Also, a positive coefficient denotes that the response
increases with increasing variable and a negative coefficient denotes that the response increases with
decreasing variable.
The regression analysis and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) are performed for coefficients’
assessment and for the determination of the significance of model parameters regarding each
variable.The effects that are not significant can be excluded from the models in order to obtain a better
fit of the model.
The optimization of the process that was analyzed is performed by using the desirability
function approach, one of the most widely used methods in industry for the optimization of multiple
response processes (NIST/SEMATECH 2013). This optimization method finds operation conditions X
that provide the most desirable response values (Y). For each response Yi(X), a desirability function
di(Yi) assigns numbers between 0 and 1, zero representing a completely undesirable value and one
representing a completely desirable or ideal response value.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to assess if response surface methodology
can be used to find the optimal combination of air parameters during each step of a wood drying
schedule. Moreover, the research aimed to compare the RSM with other methods used to develop
drying schedules. The simulation of the drying process was performed with Torksim software
(SPTratek, Sweden), which it is industrially used for drying schedule optimization and process
improvement.

Ten moisture content based drying schedules for spruce (Picea abies) were assembled or
collected from manufacturers of drying kilns. The initial data needed to develop a drying schedule
were board thickness (38 mm), green moisture content (60%) and target moisture content (10%). The
drying schedules were simulated with Torksim software in order to figure out the time needed to reach
the target moisture content (10%), the energy consumption, the quality of the dried material (relative
surface stress, moisture content gradient and slicing test gap) and the drying cost.
The eleventh drying schedule (Table 1) was developed using the Response Surface
Methodology. The independent variables were the temperature of air (range: 55-90°C), the relative
humidity of air (range: 45-85%) and the air velocity (range: 1.3-3m/s). The responses (dependent
3
variables) were the drying time, the energy consumption per cubic meter of wood (kWh/m ), the
relative surface stress, the casehardening degree (slicing test) and drying the cost.
Table 1
The structure of the RSM drying schedule
Desirability
Drying phase MC (%) T (°C) RH (%) v (m/s)
coefficient
Heating 60 77 90 3 -
60-30 77 85 3 0.86
30-25 90 78 1.33 0.90
Drying
25-20 71 78 1.80 0.57
(RSM optimization)
20-15 90 78 2.1 0.86
15-10 90 70 3 0.74
Conditioning 10 80 78 3 -
Cooling 10 30 - - -
142
The Box-Wilson Central Composite Experimental Design was generated using Design-Expert
V9 (Stat-Ease, Inc.) software. The experimental plan included 20 runs (combinations of air
parameters) for each step of the drying schedule. These combinations were used in Torksim
simulations in order to obtain the responses (outputs).
The equations that were used to find the optimum value of air temperature, relative humidity
and air velocity are presented in Tables 2 –7.
Table 2
Equations in coded forms that were used to find the optimal values of input variables
MC Drying time, hours
>30 Y=16.35 - 6.20*X1+13.70*X2-6.10*X3-3.62*X1X2+1.63*X1X3 4.12*X2X3+0.86*X12+7.36*X22+1.36*X32
30 - 25 Y =4.76-2.30*X11+1.30*X2-0.60*X3-0.62*X1X2+0.38*X1X3-0.37*X2X3+0.59*X12+0.59*X22+0.091*X32
25 - 20 Y =10.78-6.60*X1+3.80*X2-0.90*X3-2.25*X1X2+0.25*X1X3-0.50*X2X3+1.55*X12+1.55*X22+0.045*X32
20 - 15 Y=14.24-17.71*X1+16.80*X2-1.40*X3-13.25*X1X2+0.75*X1X3-0.75*X2X3+5.41*X12+8.91*X22+1.91*X32
15 - 10 Y=25.25-7.90*X1+14.70*X2-1.50*X3
Table 3
MC Energy consumption, kWh/m3
>30 Y=370.89-17.60*X1-13.40*X2-4.80*X3+3.38*X1X2+0.88*X1X3-4.12*X2X3+1.27*X12+12.27*X22+4.27*X32
30 - 25 Y=61.31-10.61*X1-15.90*X2+0.70*X3+4.50*X1X2+4.75*X1X3-3.00*X2X3+2.73*X12+2.23*X22+8.23*X32
25 - 20 Y=70.49-4.30*X1-12.00*X2-9.80*X3+15.25*X1X2-8.75-X1X3-6.00*X2X3+1.77*X12+16.27*X22+4.27*X32
20 - 15 Y=79.62-12.90*X1-10.70*X2-2.40*X3-2.25*X1X2-0.25*X1X3+3.126E-014*X2X3+2.95*X12+14.95*X22+2.45*X32
15 - 10 Y=95.80-2.10*X1-16.90*X2-1.60*X3+23.38*X1X2-0.37*X1X3-0.62*X2X3
Table 4
MC Moisture content gradient, %
>30 Y=2.43+0.28*X1-0.94*X2+0.30*X3-0.13*X1X2+0.055*X1X3+0.023*X2X3+0.11*X12-0.36*X22-0.058*X32
30 - 25 Y=2.57+0.14*X1-0.71*X2+0.19*X3-0.059*X1X2+0.074*X1X3-0.054*X2X3+0.18*X12-0.070*X22-0.080*X32
25 - 20 Y=5.86+1.00*X1-2.99*X2+0.27*X3-0.35*X1X2+0.023*X1X3-0.10*X2X3
20 - 15 Y=5.86+1.11*X1-3.43*X2+0.17*X3+0.053*X1X2+0.050*X1X3-0.057*X2X3+0.16*X12-0.54*X22-0.059*X32
15 - 10 Y=2.42+0.48*X1-2.42*X2+0.081*X3-0.44*X1X2+0.019*X1X3-0.059*X2X3+0.087*X12+0.41*X22-0.098*X32
Table 5
MC Relative stress
>30 Y=0.18-0.034*X1-0.17*X2+0.041*X3
30 - 25 Y=0.31-0.055*X1-0.065*X2+9.200E-003*X3+7.750E-003*X1X2-3.750E-003*X1X3+2.500E-003*X2X3
25 - 20 Y=0.30-0.051*X1-0.068*X2+0.010*X3+0.011*X1X2-4.625E-003*X1X3+1.125E-003*X2X3
20 - 15 Y=0.27*0.038*X1-0.070*X2+8.000E-003*X3+9.250E-003*X1X2-1.500E-003*X1X3-2.500E-004*X2X3
15 - 10 Y=0.21-0.029*X1-0.074*X2+6.200E-003*X3+0.019*X1X2-1.750E-003*X1X3+7.375E-017*X2X3
Table 6
MC Slicing test, mm
>30 Y=0.057-6.000E-003*X1-0.21*X2+0.11*X3-1.250E-003*X1X2-0.014*X1X3-0.12*X2X3-0.046*X12+0.20*X22-0.016*X3
30 - 25 Y=1.92-0.037*X1-1.29*X2+0.24*X3
25 - 20 Y=4.02+0.11*X1-1.69*X2+0.13*X3+0.10*X1X2-0.035*X1X3-7.500E-003*X2X3-0.22*X12-0.22*X22-0.052*X32
20 - 15 Y=3.57+0.45*X1-1.71*X2+0.11*X3+0.14*X1X2+0.019*X1X3-0.016*X2X3+0.055*X12-0.38*X22-0.030*X32
15 - 10 Y=1.80+0.23*X1-1.41*X2+0.056*X3
143
Table 7
MC Drying cost, EUR / % of evaporated water
>30 Y=0.20-0.088*X1+0.14*X2-0.060*X3-0.041*X1X2+0.016*X1X3-0.059*X2X3+0.014*X12+0.094*X22+0.014*X32
30 - 25 Y=0.28-0.18*X1+0.12*X2-0.023*X3-0.061*X1X2+0.014*X1X3-0.011*X2X3+0.049*X12+0.034*X22+8.636E-
003*X32
25 - 20 Y=0.62-0.58*X1+0.50*X2-0.040*X3-0.33*X1X2+0.015*X1X3-0.030*X2X3+0.15*X12+0.23*X22+0.022*X32
20 - 15 Y=0.83-2.50X1+2.67*X2-0.076*X3-2.48*X1X2+0.053*X1X3-0.063*X2X3+0.79*X12+1.55*X22+0.48*X32
15 - 10 Y=2.63-3.56*X1+7.38*X2-0.25*X3-3.21*X11X2+0.073*X1X3-0.27*X2X3-0.84*X12+7.96*X22-1.84*X32
The comparison among methods was firstly performed based on a single criterion, namely:
• drying rate;
• drying cost;
• moisture content gradient;
• slicing test gap;
• energy consumption;
• maximum relative stress.
Secondly, the comparison among methods was performed based on a multiple-criteria
analysis:
• short time (high drying rate);
• low drying cost;
• high quality (low moisture content gradient, low casehardening degree and low relative
stress);
The minimum difference detected by the design during the analysis is presented in Table 8.
Table 8
Criterion and minimum difference to be detected by the Design Expert software
Criterion Difference to detect

Drying rate, %/h 0.1
3
Drying cost, EUR / m 1
Casehardening degree, mm 0.5
Moisture content gradient, % 0.5

The relative humidity of air that was revealed by RSM is higher than for all other classical
methods when the moisture content of wood (MC) is below 35% (Fig. 1). Also, one can observe that
RSM proposes the use of a high relative humidity of air for wood with green moisture content.
Regarding the temperature of air (Fig. 2), one can observe that the temperature of air indicated by
RSM is in the same range with the temperature recommended by other methods when MC is below
50% and higher than the temperature proposed by other methods when the moisture content of wood
is above 50%.
The moisture content evolution in the case of the drying schedule developed by means of
RSM is in range with the other methods when MC is higher than 25% and is outside the range when
the MC is lower than 25% (Fig.3). Therefore, a longer drying time is obtained compared to other
methods.
The cost of drying process is in range with that obtained from other methods when MC is
higher than 30% (Fig.4) and higher than that obtained from other methods when the MC is below 30%.
144
Fig. 1.
Evolution of air relative humidity according to various methods used to develop a drying
schedule.
Fig. 2.
Evolution of air temperature according to various methods used to develop a drying schedule.
Fig. 3.
Evolution of moisture content of wood according to various approaches used to develop a
drying schedule.
145
Fig. 4.
Evolution of drying cost of wood according to various approaches used to develop a drying
schedule.
According to the single criterion comparison method, the drying schedule developed by means
of RSM has the lowest drying rate (the longest drying time), as shown in Fig.5. Regarding the energy
consumption it can be observed that the drying schedule developed by means of RSM led to an
energy consumption that is in the range with that obtained from other methods (Fig. 6).
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Drying rate of wood according to various Energy consumption according to various
approaches used to develop a drying schedule. approaches used to develop a drying
schedule.
Also, a lower MC gradient could be obtained at the end of the drying process when the drying
schedule is developed by means of RSM (Fig. 7). However, in practice it is almost improbably to
achieve it. Moreover, one can observe that the RSM assures a relative stress that is in the range with
that given by other methods (Fig. 8). Therefore, drying based on a schedule developed by RSM will
not cause surface checks due to the fact that the relative stress is below 0.33, which is a threshold
value in Torksim. In addition, the RSM allowed the obtaining a lower casehardening degree,
comparative to other methods (Fig. 9).
Drying according to a RSM drying schedule is the most expensive comparative to other
methods. This is in agreement with the high drying time and high quality we obtained. However, this is
not desirable in practice.
According to the multiple-criteria analysis, RSM could not simultaneously fulfill all the criteria
that were imposed (Fig.11). The desirability coefficient has in this case the lowest value. However,
none of the analyzed methods had the maximum desirability coefficient (D=1). Therefore, more
research is required in order to optimize the drying process according to industrial needs.
146
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Moisture content gradient according to Relative stress according to various
various approaches used to develop a approaches used to develop a drying schedule.
drying schedule.
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

Slicing test values according to various Drying cost according to various approaches
approaches used to develop a drying schedule. used to develop a drying schedule.
Fig. 11.
The desirability coefficient according to various approaches used to develop a drying
schedule.
147
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained within the present research demonstrated that
• drying with RSM is not economically viable;
• assembling a drying schedule with RSM is time consuming;
• RSM ensures high quality of dried wood;
Future research is needed to find a method that fulfils all optimization criteria. Narrower ranges
of air parameters and wood moisture contents can be considered in developing future drying
schedules.
REFERENCES
Bedelean B (2017) Optimisation techniques to compare various selected drying schedules for larch
timber. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 75(6):939-948.
Georgescu S, Varodi AM, Racasan S, Bedelean B (2019) Effect of the Dowel Length, Dowel
Diameter, and Adhesive Consumption on Bending Moment Capacity of Heat-treated Wood Dowel
Joints. BioResources 14(3):6619-6632.
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date. (Last updated: 10/30/2013).
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wood drying conditions in a pilot-scale kiln. Baltic Forestry 22 (2):348-356.
148
CHANGING THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THERMO-MODIFIED HORNBEAM

AND ASH WOOD DEPENDING ON PROCESSING SCHEDULES
Olena PINCHEVSKA
Doctor of Sci. (Engineering), Prof. – University of Life & Environmental Sciences of Ukraine
Address: Silskogospodarski prov., 4, 03041 Kyiv, Ukraine
E-mail: olenapinchevska@nubip.edu.ua
Oleksandra HORBACHOVA, Andriy SPIROCHKIN, Olha BARANOVA*

Ph. D. – University of Life & Environmental Sciences of Ukraine
Address: Silskogospodarski prov., 4, 03041 Kyiv, Ukraine
E-mail: gorbachova.sasha@ukr.net, a.spirochkin@gmail.com, olhabaranovaa@gmail.com
Abstract
The work determines the influence of the heat treatment schedule parameters on the change of
some physical properties of ash and hornbeam wood. The material treated at the temperatures of 160
and 220°C for 10 and 20 hours was studied. The reducing of the material density, increasing the sizes
stability of the sizes due to the decrease of moisture absorption and the coefficient of shrinkage and
improvement of appearance, which contributes to the expansion use of the different wood species.
Key words: ash; hornbeam; physical properties; scope of use; thermal modification.
INTRODUCTION
Wood, as a building and decoration material, has many undeniable advantages and positive
features, but there are some negative aspects. It is used in the open air, which accompanied by the
potential risk of adverse weather conditions (shrinkage, swelling) and biological destroyers. Thermal
modification of wood is one of the ways to improve its characteristics. Under the influence of high
temperatures, the equilibrium moisture content of the material (Jämsä and Viitaniemi 2001, Gosselink
et al. 2004, Metsä-Kortelainen et al. 2006) decreases, dimensional stability improves and lifetime
increases (Kollmann and Schneider 1963, Boonstra et al. 1998, Bourgois et al. 1998, Tjeerdsma et al.
1998, Epmeier et al. 2001, Militz 2002, Wang and Cooper 2005); the color changes throughout the
entire cross section (Menezzi et al. 2009, Chen et al. 2012, Mitani and Barboutis 2013, Lovrić et al.
2014).
First years of the thermomodified wood production the darkening was considered as
disadvantage. Nowaday this is one of the main arguments of using thermodiffication. Therefore, not
only those species, which don’t have commercial value in Ukraine (for example, hornbeam), find new
use as a result of thermomodification, but also with a clearly expressed texture (beech, ash) acquire
even more saturated color and aesthetic appearance. Take into account all this positive
characteristics, the scope of application of the material is expanding, which is attractive for the
manufacture of external products (facing of facades, garden furniture, terrace cover).
The growing demand and the reduction of stocks of valuable industrial wood in many countries
require the introduction of less-demand speciesas substitutes. Accordingly, in many countries, the
processing of less common species is encouraged (Shupe et al. 2005, Smith et al. 2005).
In Ukraine, hornbeam is slightly used, because this wood is heavy, prone to gutting, parts of
products change shape and size in a humid environment, and lags are rarely straightforward.
Traditionally, small parts of products, folk crafts, charcoal etc. were made from hornbeam.
Using thermal modification for valuable species is conditioned by the possibility of reducing the
volume, which is increasing the products lifetime.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study is assessment the influence of the heat treatment schedule
parameters on some physical properties of hornbeam and ash wood.

The samples from untreated and thermomodified at the temperature of 160 and 220°C for 10
and 20 hours hornbeam and ash wood were used for the study. Sample sizes were standardized in
149
quantities according to the standard requirements: 20×20×30mm – for determination of density and
weight loss; 20×20×10 mm - moisture absorption; 20×5×300mm – for color.
The change in the physical properties of the material obtained is determined according to
3
standard methods: basic density (ρбаз, кг/м ) (GOST 16483.1-84 1985), shrinkage indicators (βV, %)
(GOST 16483.37-88 1990), moisture absorption rate (Uп, %) (GOST 16483.19-72* 1974).

Weight loss
Weight loss of wood during heat treatment is one of the most important features of the process
and characterizes the degree of material modification. It has been established that with increasing
processing temperature, weight loss (Fig. 1) increases, and the characters of the changes are different
for the studied species of wood.
120 ash 160 °С ash 220 °С hornbeam 160 °С hornbeam 220 °С
110
Weight, g
100
90
80
70
0 10 20
Time, h.
Fig. 1.
Weight loss of wood samples from different species during thermomodification.
It is difficult to generalize and compare the data of various studies because different processes,
time and temperature of processing, species and initial moisture content were investigated at different
times.
Similar results are obtained (Alén et al. 2002, Mazela et al. 2003), when they determine the
influence of processing schedules on fir wood and pine wood. Some authors, who studying the weight
loss during heat treatment, came to the conclusion that it depends on the species of wood, the
temperature and the length of the process.
Density
The process of thermal modification is associated with changing the density of wood. During the
experiment, it was recorded that temperature is more significant schedule parameter for changing the
density than the time. Decreasing the density of ash wood during processing at the temperature of
160°C – 4.43% for 10 hours of treatment and 5.75% for 20 hours, and for 220°C this data increased
almost 2 times. For hornbeam, this value was less than 2 times for 160°C, 1.5 times for 220°C
compared with ash (Fig. 2).
0 h. 10 h. 20 h.
820
800
Basic density, kg/m3
780
760
740
720
700
680
660
ash 160 °С ash 220 °С hornbeam 160 °С hornbeam 220 °С
Species and temperatures
Fig. 2.
Influence of the thermal modification schedules on change of wood density.
150
A similar decreasing the density of ash wood at different temperatures and duration of
modification was described by Molinsky et al. (2016) and Andor, Lagaňa (2018). The most noticeable
indicator – 12% – was recorded during 12-hour treatment at 200°C. Such changes can be explained
by the decomposition of hemicellulose to volatile substances that evaporate during heat treatment.
Moisture absorption
Destruction of hemicelluloses under the influence of high temperature on wood leads
decreasing of it hygroscopicity (Korkutet et al. 2012). The value of the absorbed moisture from the
environment by ash and hornbeam heat-treated wood samples are shown in Tab. 1.
Table 1
Increase in the samples mass of heat-treated wood during keeping in a humid environment
Schedule Change in the samples mass (g) while keeping in a humid
Species parameters environment, days
t, °С τ, h. dry 1 2 3 6 9 13 20
control 2,99 3,23 3,32 3,37 3,44 3,48 3,52 3,62
10 2,78 2,97 3,03 3,07 3,15 3,19 3,23 3,26
160
Ash 20 2,85 3,05 3,12 3,16 3,25 3,28 3,32 3,36
10 2,58 2,68 2,73 2,76 2,79 2,82 2,84 2,86
220
20 2,63 2,73 2,77 2,79 2 83 2,85 2,87 2,89
control 3,65 3,92 4,01 4,06 4,15 4,20 4,25 4,32
10 3,68 3,93 4,01 4,06 4,15 4,20 4,24 4,30
160
Hornbeam 20 3,47 3,67 3,75 3,81 3,87 3,91 3,95 4,01
10 2,87 2,97 2,99 3,03 3,08 3,13 3,14 3,16
220
20 3,01 3,12 3,16 3,18 3,21 3,23 3,24 3,27
In percentage terms for both species of wood similar results were obtained. The moisture
absorption of wood modified at 160°C decreased by 18%, and at 220°C by 50% was compared to
untreated wood.
Shrinkage coefficient
Form resistance and dimensions stability of heat-treated wood in the event of changes in the
environment climatic parameters of operation can be expressed through the shrinkage coefficient, the
decrease of which indicates an improvement in the stability of the sizes (Yildiz 2002, Esteves et al.
2007a, Kaygin et al. 2009, Akyildiz et al. 2009). The value of the shrinkage was determined as the
volume change of the linear dimensions of ash and hornbeam thermomodified wood samples after
drying in a chamber at a the temperature of 103 ± 2°С (Fig. 3).
16
14
ash
12
Shrinkage, %
10 hornbeam
8
6
4
2
0
10 20 10 20 – duration, h.
control 160 220 – temperature, °С

Modification's schedule
Fig. 3.
The shrinkage coefficient dependence on the schedule processing parameters.
There was similarity of the results for both investigated species during heat treatment for 10
hours. So at the temperature of 160°С the shrinkage indicators decreased by 0.42% for ash and by
151
1.4% for hornbeam; at the temperature of 220°С – by 33.57% and 35.35% respectively. An increase in
the modification duration up to 20 hours showed a significant difference for hornbeam wood.
Color
Spectrophotometric color measurements show that thermal treatment results change in all color
parameters for all species of wood (Esteves et al. 2008, Srinivas and Pandey 2012). The greatest
influence on the overall color has an increasing of temperature treatment – Tab. 2.
Table 2
Correlation of processing temperature and heat-treated wood color
Thermal modification schedule parameters

Color
Species 160 °С 220 °С
coordinate control
10 h. 20 h. 10 h. 20 h.
Visually
Ash L 59.1 48.2 53.4 21.0 19.3

a 10.3 12.1 11.2 4.2 4.3
b 13.2 16.9 16.1 2.1 1.9
ΔЕ – 10.9 6.7 40.2 42.1
Visually
Hornbeam L 58.4 46.0 48.4 14.4 13.8

a 12.0 17.6 14.4 4.8 4.4
b 16.4 18.8 17.4 2.8 2.2
ΔЕ – 13.9 10.5 46.6 47.5
The important characteristic of the color changing ΔE is reduction of the «lightness» parameter
L. It is clear that the color of ash and hornbeam has changed significantly, comparing with the natural
light tone, and the character of the change is quite similar. The length of the treatment practically
hasn’t affect on the color change. For ash it is 5.2 units (at 160°С) and 1.6 units (220°С), for hornbeam
wood – 3.4 units and 0.9 units in accordance. However, if we compare the effect of temperature during
heat treatment on the color deviation, the difference between the indicators for both species is
weightier – an average of 33 units.
CONCLUSION
The conducted studies made possible to determine the directions of thermomodified wood
using. First of all, as the replacement of exotic species by obtaining a more aesthetic appearance
under the influence of heat. In addition, the improvement of the shape and dimensions stability in
medium with variable temperature and humidity parameters made possible to use this material in the
manufacture of products, which are operated on the adjacent territory of the building (terraced
covering and facade arrangement, garden architectural constructions).
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secondary wood manufacturing. Forest Product Journal 55(4):71-74.
153
Srinivas K., Pandey K.K. (2012) Photodegradation of thermally modified wood. Journal of
Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 117:140-145.
Tjeerdsma B, Boonstra M, Pizzi A, Tekely P, Militz H (1998) Characterisation of thermally modified
wood: molecular reasons for wood performance improvement. Holz Roh Werkst 56:149-153.
Wang J, Cooper P (2005) Effect of oil type, temperature and time on moisture properties of hot oil-
treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst 63:417-422.
Yildiz S (2002) Effect of heat treatment on water repellence and anti-swelling efficiency of beech. The
International Research Group On Wood Preservation, Document No: IRG/WP 02-40222.
154
DRYING CHESTNUT SAWN TIMBER IN CENTRAL GREECE
Professor Michalis SKARVELIS

University of Thessaly, Department of Forestry, Wood Science and Design,
V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: skarvelis@teilar.gr
Dr. Dimitrios KOUTSIANITIS

V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: dkoutsianitis@teilar.gr
Dr. Andromachi MITANI

V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: amitani@teilar.gr
Professor George NTALOS

V. Griva nr.11, 43100 Karditsa, Greece E-mail: gntalos@teilar.gr
Abstract
Sawn timber of chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill) wood, 50mm thick, was used for kiln drying
and air drying, in Central Greece (Karditsa). Drying schedules used for kiln drying showed a good
performance. In air drying, it is possible to obtain wood moisture content from around 70% to less than
20%, in a rather short period (3 months) during summer. On the contrary, during winter time air drying
is slow and moisture content below 18% can’t be achieved before mid of May. Based on the quality
assessment of kiln and air dried sawn timber, only minor defects were observed. Ring shakes and
discoloration were absent, while case-hardening and a little honeycombing were observed. The overall
conclusion of this research is that chestnut wood is suitable for any outdoor and indoor use after being
kiln- and/or air-dried.
Key words: sawn timber drying; chestnut; kiln-drying; air drying; timber quality.
INTRODUCTION
Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is a forest species widespread in about 15 Mediterranean and
Central European countries with a total cover of more than 2 million hectares (Fig. 1). Chestnut timber
possesses a pleasant appearance, high durability and good mechanical properties. Because of this
characteristics, chestnut wood is a valuable raw material in wood manufacturing. It is one of the most
versatile and appreciated woods growing in Europe (Fonti et al. 2002; Kakavas et al. 2018).
Chestnut wood is particularly suitable for external use, thanks to its natural high tannin content
that acts as a protection against decay (Conedera et al. 2016). Chestnut wood is mainly used to
produce sawn and hewing timber (in the past), which is intended for building, especially in outdoor
uses. Chestnut poles have been used intensively in the past as mining timber, because of the shape
of the thin log piles and its longlasting natural durability. After mimosa (Acacia mollissima) and
quebracho (Schinopsis spp.) extracts, chestnut extracts of the bark and timber are the third most
important vegetable tannin used for leather production. The primary component is castalagin, along
with smaller amounts of vescalagin, castalin, and vescalin (Krisper et al. 1992).
Chestnut is found in the Greek mountains where it covers an area of about 39,081 Ha (0.5%
of the total Greek area). Its stands are mainly managed as coppice with short rotation times (20 to 30
years). The timber produced is a valuable source of strong and durable poles, stakes and sawn timber
(Koukos 1997). However, little information is available on properties of chestnut wood grown in
Greece, while the available literature on the properties of chestnut wood in foreign countries is also
limited. Tables 1 and 2 present results on physical and mechanical properties of chestnut wood
(Castanea sativa Mill), on samples coming from four different natural representative populations, from
north and central Greece (Athos, Arnaia, Pieria, Ossa). The studied properties were mean width of
annual rings (GRW), density, shrinkage (axial, radial, tangential, volumetric), hardness, static bending,
longitudinal and cross-sectional compression, shear, cleavage and impact strength (Rousodimos and
Paraskevopoulou 1996; Skarvelis 2019a). Chestnut wood has a coefficient of anisotropy of 1,78, it is
classified as specie with little anisotropy and is characterized as good to moderate stability wood.
155
Fig. 1.
Distribution map of Chestnut (Castanea sativa) (EUFORGEN 2009).
Table 1
Physical properties of wood (Rousodimos and Paraskevopoulou 1996; Skarvelis 2019a)
3
Origin GRW (mm) Dens.(dry)g/cm ShrAx % ShrRad % ShrTan % Shr. Vol %
1
Athos 4,633 0,532 (46) 0,311 (42) 3,613 (42) 6,980 (42) 10,619 (42)
Arnaia 4,146 0,564 (35) 0,244 (35) 3,401 (35) 6,332 (35) 9,746 (35)
Pieria 6,174 0,534 (38) 0,557 (35) 3,873 (36) 6,004 (36) 10,052 (36)
Ossa 2,672 0,505 (39) 0,130 (38) 3,728 (38) 6,061 (38) 9,676 (38)
Average 4,406 0,534 0,311 3,654 6,344 10,023
1
: In parenthesis the number of used specimens is given
Table 2
Mechanical properties of chestnut wood (Rousodimos and Paraskevopoulou 1996; Skarvelis
2019a)
Bending, Hardness, ComStrPar, ComStrVert, Shear, Impact, Cleavage,
Origin 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm
Athos 89,651 2.680,5 49,243 7,404 10,978 50,324 15,346
Arnaia 92,120 3.024,4 49,937 7,766 12,777 54,669 14,903
Pieria 86,450 2.671,3 47,181 7,332 12,370 40,813 14,111
Ossa 83,479 2.438,9 44,128 6,931 11,113 36,803 12,372
Average 87,925 2703,8 47,622 7,358 11,810 45,652 14,183
Regarding the forest production in Greece, chestnut wood is in the fourth place between
3
broadleaves species, after oak, beech and poplar (Fig. 2). Its annual production is just over 20.000 m
for the period from 1990 to 2009, according to data from the General Secretariat of Forests and
Natural Environment of Greece (Skarvelis 2019b). The highest amount of chestnut production is
forwarded for structural uses and to a much lesser extent for furniture, with a ratio of about 2:1
compared to fuelwood (no industrial timber is mentioned). The average total production of chestnut
wood of private forests in Greece, slightly exceeds the average production of the public forests (mean
3 3
11.100m compared to 9.400m of public forests).
The appearance of ring shakes in logs, a defect occurring as a detachment of wood between
growth rings, is a disadvantage that negatively affects the utilisation of chestnut wood and decreases
the timber value (Birbilis 2010; Fonti and Macchioni 2003; Kakavas et al. 2018; Macchioni 1995).
Furthermore, high quality uses of chestnut timber are in some cases limited due to this susceptibility of
ring-shake (Conedera et al. 2016). For this reason, chestnut wood tends to be a largely neglected
natural renewable resource, leading other countries to consider it unattractive (Fonti et al. 2002). On
the contrary, in Greece chestnut wood is appreciated for exterior constructions, but its low availability
limits the consumption around its production areas (Chalkidiki, Thrace, Larissa, Pelion).
Greece is a country with a dry-warm climate, at least in the summer months, which makes it
possible to produce dry wood with a moisture content less than 10%, in almost all regions in the
156
summer. While, in central Europe, a moisture content of 16% is considered satisfactory after a
minimum of one year of waiting in natural drying areas (Skarvelis et al. 2015). Wood drying is an area
for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the
world. Up to date, the available literature on drying of chestnut wood is limited. Skarvelis et al. (2015)
studied the kiln drying and air drying of beech and chestnut wood in the region of West Thessaly
(Karditsa). Ünsal and Kantay (2009), studied various drying schedules based on lumber thickness of
chestnut wood (C. sativa and C. dentate).
Fig. 2.
3
Annual total production (in m ) of main hardwood species from Greek forests 1990-2009
(Skarvelis 2019b).
In addition, the use of an appropriate wood drying schedule for control of the wood drying
process is an inevitable issue. Dry kiln schedules have been listed for many commercial woods
worldwide. The following Table 3 shows the British standard schedule for kiln-drying of chestnut wood
(Boone et al. 1988; Stevens and Pratt 1952).
Table 3
British standard kiln-drying schedule for chestnut (Castanea sativa) wood (Boone et al. 1988;
Stevens and Pratt 1952)
o o
Moisture Temperature C Temperature C Relative humidity (%)
content (%) (Dry-bulb) (Wet-bulb) (approximate)
Green 40 37,5 85
60 40 36,5 80
40 40 35 70
35 45 37,5 60
30 45 35 50
25 50 36,5 40
20 60 40,5 30
15 65 44 30
OBJECTIVE
Besides the relatively small production, chestnut wood is of great importance in Greece. There
is a great concern for its use in both internal and external constructions, due to its high physical
duration. The main objective of the present research was to study the drying process of kiln-drying and
air-drying of chestnut wood, according to standard drying schedules. Another objective of this work
was to evaluate the quality characteristics of the chestnut timber after it is kiln dried in a chamber
using different drying schedules and air-dried outdoors.

In the conventional drying chamber of the Department of Forestry, Wood Science and Design
in Central Greece (Karditsa), 3 stacks of chestnut wood were dried in 3 different drying cycles, in the
years 2014, 2017 and 2018, respectively. In the same place, 3 stacks of chestnut wood were placed
under the air-drying shed for natural drying, in the years 2014, 2017 and 2018, respectively. Timber in
all cases was 50mm thick and 120-250mm wide. Timber length ranged from 2,5 to 3,0m. Chestnut
wood (Castanea sativa) originated from Mount Athos in Chalkidiki (Fig. 4). The data (wood moisture
content, chamber and ambient temperatures, relative humidity and ambient humidity, equilibrium
157
moisture content) of each drying cycle were recorded electronically. On each cycle, approximately 2-
3 3
3m of timber were used for kiln drying and a smaller quantity of 2m for air-drying. Furthermore,
control samples were placed on each stack for monitoring the process of kiln and air-drying.
Fig. 4.
Distribution map of Chestnut (Castanea sativa) in Greece
(the yellow color shows the main production areas).
The kiln-drying schedule used for the 3 drying cycles comes from the chamber’s library.
However, the kiln-drying schedule in the 3rd cycle was slightly different, as there was an intervention
by the researchers for a slightly milder drying (lower moisture content rate). The researchers observed
that some planks were prone to appear fissures and also some planks (about 15% of total quantity)
were of greater thickness, apr. 65mm. So, it was decided to use a more “slow” drying schedule. The
kiln-drying schedules are given in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 4
Kiln-drying schedule used in 1st and 2nd drying cycles, for chestnut wood
Min Moisture Temperature Emc (%) Drying Air
Drying o
Nr. duration content C gradient velocity
phase
(h) (%) (m/sec)
1 heating 6 - 45 13,5 - 1,6
2 conditioning 4 - 45 13,5 - 1,6
3 drying - 43 45 12,4 2,1 1,4
4 drying 20 32 50 12,0 2,5 1,4
5 drying 20 20,5 55 8,7 2,4 1,4
6 drying 15 9 60 4,3 2,6 1,4
7 conditioning 10 - 60 5,0 - 1,4
8 cooling - - 30 - - 1,4
Table 5
Drying schedule used in 3rd drying cycle, for chestnut wood
Min Moisture Temperature Emc (%) Drying Air
Drying o
Nr. duration content C gradient velocity
phase
(h) (%) (m/sec)
1 heating 6 - 45 15 - 1,6
2 conditioning 4 - 45 10 - 1,6
3 drying - 35 50 8,1 2,0 1,4
4 drying 20 30 - - 2,2 1,4
5 drying 20 24 55 7,6 2,1 1,4
6 drying 15 9 60 5,2 2,3 1,4
7 conditioning 10 - 60 4,9 - 1,4
8 cooling - - 30 - - 1,4
158

st
The 3 cycles of chestnut wood kiln-drying were performed in winter. The 1 started on
nd
19/12/2014 and ended on 17/02/2015, with total duration 61 days. The 2 started, on 07/12/2017 and
ended on 30/01/2017, with total duration 54 days. Kiln-drying in cycle 3, was completed in 63 days
(started on 28/11/2018 and ended on 29/01/2019). In air-drying, moisture content dropped at 8,9% (at
st nd rd
the end of August) in 1 and 2 cycle, after 240 days and 256 days, respectively. Air-drying in 3
cycle after 6 months was on a moisture content of 17,5% (end of May) and is not expected to drop
below 10% before end of June. The data and results of each drying cycle are shown in Table 6. The
drying process is also shown in Fig. 5.
Table 6
Results of kiln and air drying of chestnut wood, in Karditsa area, Thessaly
Starting Initial Final Duration
Drying date Moisture Moisture (days)
cycle content content
(%) (%)
Chestnut 1
19/12/2014 89,3 9,35 61
(kiln-drying)
Chestnut 1
19/12/2014 95 8,9 240
(air-drying)
Chestnut 2
7/12/2017 67,5 9,45 54
(kiln-drying)
Chestnut 2
7/12/2017 75 8,9 256
(kiln-drying)
Chestnut 3
28/11/2018 85,7 9,23 63
(kiln-drying)
Chestnut 3
28/11/2018 110,2 17,5 184
(air-drying)
Fig. 5.
Duration of kiln and air drying of chestnut wood, in a winter and a summer run.
st nd
Based on the wood quality assessment, in 1 and 2 drying cycle the defect of case-
hardening was observed at the end of drying. Applying a high relative humidity handling for 24 h, the
st
problem became much lower. In the beginning of 1 cycle, some installation mishandling didn’t permit
proper water spraying inside the kiln. It was repaired some days later and – in general – it didn’t affect
wood quality. However, after converting the planks (10 months later), a few slight cases of
honeycombing were observed, attributed to the specific kiln mishandling in the beginning. Other types
of defects (distortions) appeared least. Adding weight on top of the whole wood stack always helps in
159
lowering distortions. The protection of boards end grain (e.g. by not extending from the wood stack)
also helped in disappearing end cracks. In the 3rd cycle of kiln-drying, the defects were generally less
than the rest 2 cycles. This is attributed to the lower intensity of drying. Ring shakes, a defect which is
common for chestnut wood (Fonti et al. 2002) were not observed during the kiln-drying nor air-drying.
CONCLUSIONS
Drying schedules used for kiln drying chestnut sawn timber showed a good performance,
regarding the appearance of defects. In air drying, it is possible to obtain a wood moisture content
from around 70% to less than 20%, in a rather short period (3 months), if drying starts during spring.
On the contrary, during winter time air drying is slow and moisture content below 18% can’t be
achieved before mid of May in Central Greece. Based on the quality assessment of kiln and air dried
sawn timber, only minor defects were obtained. Ring shakes and discoloration were absent, while
case-hardening and some distortions were a little observed. The overall conclusion of this research is
that chestnut wood is suitable for outdoor and indoor uses after being kiln- and air-dried.
REFERENCES
Birbilis D (2010) Investigation of ring shakes occurrence on chestnut wood (castanea sativa mill.) and
its influence to timber quality. PhD, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, 162 p.
Boone RS, Kozlik CJ, Bois PJ, Wengert EM, (1988) Dry kiln schedules for commercial woods-
temperate and tropical. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-57. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 158 p.
Conedera M, Tinner W, Krebs P, De Rigo D, Caudullo G (2016) Castanea sativa in Europe:
distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, D. De Rigo, G. Caudullo, T. Houston
Durrant, & A. Mauri (Eds.), European atlas of forest tree species (pp. 78-79). Luxembourg: European
Union.
EUFORGEN (2009) Distribution map of Chestnut (Castanea sativa), www.euforgen.org.
Fonti P, Macchioni N (2003) Ring shake in chestnut: Anatomical description, extent and frequency of
failures. Ann. For. Sci. 60(5):403-408.
Fonti P, Macchioni N, Thibaut B (2002) Ring shake in chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.): State of the art.
Ann. For. Sci. 59:129-140.
Kakavas K, Chavenetidou M, Birbilis D (2018) Effect of ring shakes on mechanical properties of
chestnut wood from a Greek coppice forest. The Forestry Chronicle 94(1):61-67.
Koukos PK (1997) Some physical properties of sweet chestnut wood grown in Greece. Holz Roh-
Werkstoff 55:127-129.
Krisper P, Tišler V, Skubic V, Rupnik I, Kobal S (1992) The use of Tannin from Chestnut (Castanea
Vesca). Plant Polyphenols, Basic Life Sciences 59:1013-1019.
Macchioni N (1995) Mechanical strength and ring shake in chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.), For. Med.
16:67-73.
Rousodimos G, Paraskevopoulou A (1996) Chestnut wood (Castanea sativa Mill.). Scientific Yearbook
of the School of Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 39(1):149-164.
Skarvelis M (2019a) Physical and mechanical wood properties of Greek species. Forest Research
Institute of Athens (Unpublished research data).
Skarvelis M (2019b) Annual production of main hardwood species from Greek forests 1990-2009.
General Secretariat of Forests and Natural Environment (Unpublished research data).
Skarvelis M, Mousilopoulos K, Itsines K (2015) Drying of hardwood species in the region of West
Thessaly. Proceedings of the 17th Panhellenic Forestry Conference, Kefalonia, Greece, 268-275.
Stevens WC, Pratt GH (1952) Kiln Operator's Handbook. H.M.S.O. London, p.153.
Ünsal O, Kantay R (2009) Drying and using properties of chestnut wood. Acta Hortic. 815:179-184.
160
CONTRIBUTION OF THERMAL DEGRADATION PRODUCTS TO THE

HYDROXYL ACCESSIBLITY AND HYGROSCOPICITY OF THERMALLY
MODIFIED WOOD
Asghar TARMIAN
University of Tehran, Faculty of Natural Resources
Department of Wood and Paper Science & Technology, Tehran, Iran
Tel: 0098 2632249311, Fax: 0098 2632249311, E-mail: tarmian@ut.ac.ir
Emil Engelund THYBRING

ETH Zurich, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering (D-BAUG)
Institute for Building Materials, Wood Materials Science Group, Zurich, Switzerland
University of Copenhagen, Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management
Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Fredriksberg C, Denmark, E-mail: eet@ign.ku.dk
Abstract
The moisture exclusion efficiency of thermally modified wood is usually attributed to both
reversible and irreversible effects. The purpose of this study was to find whether the hydroxyl
accessibility contributes to the reversible effects of thermal modification on the hygroscopicity of wood.
First, untreated and modified Norway spruce wood specimens were successively extracted with
acetone/ethanol (2:1 v/v), hot water and N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF). Then, the hygroscopic
characteristics (i.e., fiber saturation point (FSP), equilibrium moisture content (EMC), moisture sorption
isotherms) and hydroxyl accessibility were measured. The hydroxyl accessibility (mmol hydroxyls/g
wood) was accurately determined by deuterium exchange technique. We found that the cell wall
bulking caused by the thermal degradation products has no significant impact on the hydroxyl
accessibility, whereas reduces the hygroscopic nature.
Key words: hydroxyl accessibility; hygroscopicity; Thermal degrdation products; Thermally modified
wood.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is a complex polymeric material with highly hygroscopic nature which is usually
attributed to the cell wall components containing hydroxyl (OH) groups; in particular hemicelluloses.
However, not all of the hydroxyl groups are accessible to the water vapor molecules. The
hygroscopicity of wood is responsible for many of the challenges of using wood as an engineering
material. Reduction in the hygroscopicity is possible through modification of the chemical structure of
wood components, for example by using more hydrophobic chemical groups replacing the OH-groups.
Thermal modification of wood is well known as a commercial environmental friendly method to reduce
its hygroscopicity and to obtain a more dimensionally stable material by reducing the moisture
sorption. It is believed that the heat treatment of wood degrades the cell wall components and reduces
its accessible hydroxyl groups, and the effect is more pronounced by increasing the exposure duration
and temperature. Consequently, the reduced hygroscopicity of thermally modified wood is often
related to its lower accessible hydroxyl groups (Jamsa and Viitaniemi 2001; Boonsta and Tjeerdsma
2006). However, a poor correlation between the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and the
accessibility of hydroxyl groups in thermally modified wood was reported, and it was concluded that
there has to be an additional mechanism to control the EMC in addition to hydroxyl group accessibility
(Rautkari et al. 2013). Hemicelluloses may be changed to less hygroscopic substances like furfural
polymers because of heat treatment of wood at very high temperatures over 200°C (Kamdem et al.
2002). In addition to the degradation of hemicelluloses, increase in cellulose crystallinity, the cell wall
bulking and cross linking in lignin caused by thermal modification were also suggested to be other
possible reasons for reducing the hygroscopic behavior of the modified wood (Boonsta and Tjeerdsma
2006; Esteves and Pereira 2009;Tarmian and Mastouri 2019).
Recent research results showed that the moisture exclusion efficiency and anti-swelling
efficiency of thermally modified wood is due to both reversible and irreversible effects (Cermak et al.
2015; Kranitz et al. 2016; Tarmian and Mastouri 2019). The efficiencies are mainly due to irreversible
chemical changes of the cell wall components and degradation of hemicelluloses. However, the
reversible changes in the hygroscopicity may also be due to the presence of thermal degradation
161
products, which reduce the wood porosity by occupying the nanopores of the cell walls (Endo et al.
2015; Kranitz et al. 2016; Tarmian and Mastouri 2019). Both cell wall bulking and annealing effects on
the hygroscopicity of thermally modified wood are fully disappeared by water soaking and leaching out
the degradation products (Obataya and Higashihara 2017; Tarmian & Mastouri 2019).
Wood extractives (terpenes, fats, phenols, fatty acids, tannins, etc.) are nonstructural
compounds of low molecular weight that can be removed from the wood with neutral, organic solvents
or water. Although extractives usually comprise only a few percent of wood (2-10%), they may have
an important influence on its properties. Most of extractives, such as resin acids disappear from the
wood with heat treatment (Nuopponen et al. 2003) but new compounds are formed due to the
degradation of cell wall components (Esteves et al. 2009). Therefore, complex polyaromatic
substances originating from the degradation products of carbohydrates can be extracted with acetone
from the heat-treated wood (Kamdem et al. 2002). Lignin also becomes partly acetone soluble after
0
heat treatment of wood at 180 C or greater (Nuopponen et al. 2004). It was reported that the removal
of extractives increases EMC, fiber saturation point (FSP) and dimensional changes of wood
(Hernández 2008) but the question that arises is if the cell wall bulking caused by thermal degradation
products reduces the moisture sorption of the modified wood by shielding the cell walls and reducing
the hydroxyl accessibility.
OBJECTIVE
The main purpose of this study was to find whether the hydroxyl accessibility contributes to
the reversible effects of thermal modification on the hygroscopicity of wood.

Sample Preparation and Thermal Modification
Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) boards with nominal thickness of 20mm were air dried to
about 30% MC. Thermal modification was performed inside a ThermoWood kiln, similar to Thermo-S
process developed by VTT in Finland (Anonymous 2003). For high temperature drying phase, the kiln
temperature was first raised to a level of about 100ºC. Then, the temperature was gradually increased
0 0
to 140 C. After drying, the temperature was increased to 180 C. The time of thermal modification at
the target temperature was 3 hours. Finally, cooling and conditioning were applied for 24h. The final
moisture content of boards was about 7%.
Removal of Extractives and Thermal Degradation Products

0
1mm thick samples dried in a vacuum oven (0 mbar, 65 C) for 24 h were first extracted with
acetone/ethanol (2:1 v/v) into a flask at room temperature. The flasks containing the samples and the
solvent were gently shaken to ensure complete wetting of the samples. The solvent was replaced with
the fresh one for 3 times over a period of 7 days. Then, the extracted samples were immersed into
0
glass vials containing distillated water and were kept inside an oven at 65 C for 7 days. Finally, they
were soaked in N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) using stoppered Erlenmeyer flasks. The solvent was
agitated by a magnetic stirrer at room temperature for 3 days.
Determination of Hydroxyl Accessibility

Hydroxyl accessibility (mmol hydroxyls/g wood) of control and thermally modified Norway
spruce was measured before and after the extraction. The accessibility was accurately determined by
deuterium exchange technique using advanced Dynamic Vapour Sorption equipment, DVS-ET1. This
equipment is able to measure mass changes of 1μg under controlled conditions of temperature and
vapour pressure. First, 6-8mg of each sample was sliced with razor blade and dried in the apparatus
0
at 60 C for 6h to obtain the initial dry mass. Then, deuteration of dried sample was carried out with
deuterium oxide (D2O, 99.9 atom % D, Sigma-Aldrich) vapour at 95% RH for 10h. Finally, the
0
deuterated sample was dried at 60 C for 6h to determine the final dry mass. The accessibility was
then calculated by Equation 1:
(1)
where: HA is hydroxyl accessibility, Mf is final dry mass (dry mass of deuterated sample) and Mi is
initial dry mass (dry mass of undeuterated sample).
162
Measuring hygroscopic properties

Fiber saturation point (FSP) was measured by thermoanalytical technique using differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC, model, Q 2000). Wood blocks with dimensions of 5 (L) × 10 (R) × 1 (T)
0
mm were cut by razor blade and dried in a vacuum oven (0 mbar, 60 C) for 24h. The dried specimens
were first put in a glass vessel, and initial vacuum of 0 mbar was applied for 30 minutes. Then,
distillated water was injected into the vessel by using syringe and the specimens remained submerged
at the atmospheric pressure for at least 24h. The saturated specimens were cut to fit into the hermetic
aluminum DSC pans and weighted using a balance with a precision of 0.01mg. The samples were first
0 0 0
frozen at -20 C and then melted by a continuous heating-up method from -20 C to 20 C with a heating
0 0
rate of 2 C/min and a nitrogen flow of 50ml/min. The temperature of -20 C was held for 5min. The
sequence was applied twice per sample. After the DSC measurements, several small holes were
made through the lids of the pans by means of syringe and the samples were dried in the vacuum
0
oven at 65 C for 24h to determine their moisture content. Finally, enthalpy of melting for each sample
was measured and FSP was calculated by Equation 2:
(2)
where: and are the green and dry mass of wood sample (g), is mass of
water (free water plus bound water) in wood, is enthalpy of melting the frozen free water in the
cell lumens (J/g) and is enthalpy of water (333.7J/g). Five replicates were used for each treatment
and a water-only DSC sample was also used for each treatment as a reference.
Automated determination of moisture adsorption isotherm of specimens was also carried out
using dynamic vapor sorption (DVS) method. Each test run was initiated by drying of 6-8mg of wood
0
specimens at 60 C for 6h and then the adsorption cycles started at 0% RH and increased up to 95%
0
RH in steps of 10% RH at the constant temperature of 25 C. The acquisition of mass change data was
0
carried out every 10s. The oven-dried specimens were also conditioned at 20 C and relative humidity
(RH) of 65% to measure the EMC.

Hydroxyl Accessibility
The dry mass increase of specimens due to the deuterium exchange completed within 5-10h
was less than 1% and ranged from 0.7 to 0.9%. The hydroxyl (-OH) accessibility of untreated Norway
-1
spruce ranged from 7.72 to 8.95 mmol.g , indicates that within-species variability in the hydroxyl
accessibility can be large. Removal of extractives had no significant effect on the OH accessibility
neither for untreated wood nor for the thermally modified wood (Fig.1). The modified wood had less
-1
accessible hydroxyl groups than untreated wood (untreated wood: 8.1 mmol. g ; modified wood: 7.1
-1
mmol.g ) which is in agreement with previous studies (Rautkari et al. 2013). Degradation of
hemicelluloses through thermal modification may be the main reason contributing to the reduction in
the accessible hydroxyl groups.
Fig. 1.
Effect of extractives removal on the hydroxyl accessibility of Norway spruce
(a) untreated wood; (b) thermally modified wood.
163
Sorption isotherm
Removal of extractive materials had no influence on the shape of sorption isotherms. For
untreated wood, the isotherms of extracted and unextracted wood were coincided along the whole
range of RH (from zero to 95%), whereas the extraction lowered the sorption isotherm of thermally
modified wood (Fig. 2). In the case of modified wood, a greater difference between isotherms of the
extracted and unextracted wood was observed at higher RH, and the difference was at a maximum
2.1% at RH of 95%. The different behavior of thermally modified wood can be due to the removal of
thermal degradation products in addition to the wood extractives itself. As expected, the thermally
modified wood showed a remarkable reduction in EMC compared with the untreated wood along the
whole range of RH, which is in agreement with the literature (Rautkari et al. 2013). The isotherm of
untreated wood at RH more than 80% increased more sharply compared to that of thermally modified
wood.
Fig. 2.
Effect of extractives removal on the moisture sorption isotherm of untreated and thermally
modified Norway spruce with their corresponding hydroxyl accessibility (HA).
Hydroxyl accessibility vs. sorption isotherm

Although the sorption isotherm of thermally modified wood increased by increasing the
hydroxyl accessibility, no changes occurred in that of untreated wood (Fig. 2). Leaching of thermal
degradation products of modified wood through the extraction procedure may explain the observed
differences. The reduced OH accessibility was reported to be in agreement with reduced EMC in
brown rot wood (Fackler and Schwanninger 2011). However, it was previously indicated that the role
of the accessibility of wood hydroxyl groups in relation to controlling the moisture content exclusively is
disputed (Rautkari et al. 2013). Although the accessibility of wood hydroxyl groups plays an important
role in the moisture sorption, additional mechanisms such as degradation of hemicelluloses, increase
in cellulose crystallinity and cross linking in lignin may contribute in the hygroscopic behavior of
thermally modified wood (Esteves and Pereira 2009). Our results also showed that the cell wall
bulking caused by thermal degradation products could be another reason for observing the lower
hygroscopicity.
EMC & FSP

Although it is believed that extractives lower the EMC of wood (Adamopoulos 2012; Popper et
al. 2006), our results showed that the removal of extractives does not always cause an increase in the
EMC (Fig. 3). No significant change occurred in the EMC of Norway spruce as a result of extractives
removal. In contrast to EMC, the FSP was significantly affected by the extractives removal (Fig. 4) and
the FSP of wood specimens was significantly increased after removal of extractives. The FSP of
thermally modified wood reduced more significantly than the FSP of unmodified wood which may
164
confirm the role of thermal degradation products in the maximum water holding capacity of the
modified wood. After extractives removal, the FSP of control and thermally modified Norway spruce
increased by 40.4 and 57.1%, respectively. Increase in FSP of wood either after hot water extraction
or after organic solvent extraction was also found in some previous studies (Choong and Achmadi
1991; Hernández 2007). The measured FSP of Norway spruce was close to its accepted range. Our
results showed that the DSC method does not always yield a high value of FSP, and the result may
dependent on the wood species. In contrast to our results, a higher value of 40-42% was reported for
the FSP of Norway spruce measured by pressure plate technique (Thygesen et al. 2014).
Fig. 3.
EMC of untreated and thermally modified wood before and after extractives removal.
Fig. 4.
FSP of untreated and thermally modified wood before and after extractives removal.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, we examined the role of extractives in controlling the OH accessibility and
hygroscopicity of untreated and thermally modified Norway spruce. The removal of extractives had no
significant effect on the OH accessibility, whereas the hygroscopicity was reduced. Thus, it can be
concluded that the role of OH accessibility in the reversible effects of cell wall bulking caused by the
thermal degradation products can be neglected. We found that thermal degradation products
significantly contribute to the maximum water holding capacity of the modified wood. The extraction
lowered the sorption isotherm of thermally modified wood and the reduction was more pronounced at
higher RH. The results of this study also confirm that the removal of Norway spruce extractives before
chemical modification cannot be efficient to access more OH groups. However, study on the
contribution of each type of extractives to the OH accessibility of extractive-rich woods is
recommended in future works.
165
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was conducted at ETH Zurich during a research stay. The authors gratefully thank
Prof. Ingo Burgert.
REFERENCES
Adamopoulos S (2012) Effect of hot-water extractives on water sorption and dimensional changes
of black locust wood. Wood research 57(1):69-78.
Anonymous (2003) ThermoWood Handbook, Finnish Thermowood Association, Helsinki, Finland.
Boonsta MJ, Tjeerdsma BF (2006) Chemical analysis of heat treated softwoods. Holz als Roh-und
Werkstoff 64:204-211.
Cermák P, Rautkari L, Horáček P, Saake B, Rademacher P, Sablík P (2015) Analysis of
dimensional stability of thermally modified wood affected by re-wetting cycles. BioResources
10(2):3242-3253.
Choong ET, Achmadi SS (1991) Effect of extractives on moisture sorption and shrinkage in tropical
woods. Wood and Fiber Science 23(2): 185-196.
Endo K, Obataya E, Zeniya N, Matsuo M (2016) Effects of heating humidity on the physical
properties of hydrothermally treated spruce wood. Wood Science and Technology 50(6):1161-
1179.
Esteves BM, Pereira HM (2009) Wood modification by heat treatment: a review. Bioresources
4(1):370-404.
Fackler K, Schwanninger M (2011).Accessibility of hydroxyl groups of brown-rot degraded spruce
wood to heavy water. Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy 19:359-368
Hernández RE (2007) Effects of extraneous substances, wood density and interlocked grain on
fiber saturation point of hardwoods. Wood Material Science & Engineering 2(1):45-53.
Jamsa S, Viitaniemi P (2001) Heat treatment of wood, Better durability without chemicals. In:
Proceedings of special seminar held in Antibes, France, city, 68p.
Kamdem DP, Pizzi A, Jermannaud A (2002) Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz als Roh-und
Werkstoff 60:1–6.
Kranitz K, Sonderegger W, Bues CT, Niemz P (2016) Effects of aging on wood: a literature review.
Wood Science and Technology 50:7-22
Nuopponen N, Vuorinen T, Jamsa S, Viitaniemi P (2003) The effects of a heat treatment on the
behavior of extractives in softwood studied by FTIR spectroscopic methods. Wood Science and
Technology 37:109–115.
Nuopponen N, Wikberg H,Vuorinen T, Maunu SL, Jamsa S, Viitaniemi P (2004) Heat-Treated
Softwood Exposed to Weathering. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 91: 2128–2134.
Obataya E, Higashihara T (2017) Reversible and irreversible dimensional changes of heat-treated
wood during alternate wetting and drying. Wood Science and Technology 51:739-749
Popper R, Niemz P, Torres M (2006) Influence of the extractives of selected extraneous woods on
the equilibrium moisture content. Holz Roh Werkst 64:491–496.
Rautkari L, Hill CAS, Curling S, Jalaludin Z, Ormondroyd G (2013) What is the role of the
accessibility of wood hydroxyl groups in controlling moisture content? Journal of Material Science
48:6352–6356
Tarmian A, Mastouri A (2019) Changes in moisture exclusion efficiency and crystallinity of
thermally modified wood with aging. iforest Biogeosciences and Forestry 12:92-97
Thygesen LG, Engelund ET, Hoffmeyer P (2010) Water sorption in wood and modified wood at
high values of relative humidity. Part I: Results for untreated, acetylated, and furfurylated Norway
spruce. Holzforschung 64:315–323.
166
SECTION 3.
CONSERVATION –
RESTORATION OF
WOODEN OBJECTS
SURFACE COATING PYROGRAPHY: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION WITH

UV ADDITIVES
Susan M MILLIS
Private artist, conservator and researcher in pyrography
Address: The Flat, 345A Desborough Avenue, High Wycombe HP11 2TH, UK
E-mail: smmillis@hotmail.com
Abstract
This paper presents the results of an experiment made to examine the photo-discolouration of
pyrography, after applying coatings containing UV inhibitors. Strips of wood material made of English
sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) were ‘scorched’ in a controlled manner at various temperatures to
produce different shades from light to dark. This method generated consistent and comparable colour
scales for testing purposes. In this test, a sample scale was coated with a 2% solution of Lignostab®
1198, a hindered amine light stabiliser (HALS) pre-treatment, followed by 10% Regalrez® 1126, in
white spirit, with a 40% solution of the same type as a topcoat. Both Regalrez® coatings contained
Tinuvin® 1130, a UV absorber. The sample was then exposed to natural light aging for 110
days/nights, and compared with uncoated, shellac coated, and oil coated samples. It was found that
significant colour changes took place. However, the coatings prevented the development of yellow
chromophores, in the wood molecules not affected by heat, leaving the surface brighter and more
vibrant than the other samples. Though the coating failed at 33 days, producing defects in the top
layer, it continued to protect the wood colour for the full 110 days. However, it did not protect the
pyrography.
Key words: pyrography; surface coatings; colour change; Tinuvin®; Lignostab®.
INTRODUCTION
Pyrography is undoubtedly one of the world’s oldest decorative techniques, yet so little has
been written about the chemistry of the reaction products forming the image, and the way these
molecules respond to surface coatings and light exposure. The longevity of every image relates
directly to the exact conditions and methods of formation, most importantly in this case the species
and cut of the wood, and the temperature at which it was made. This observation is supported by
Sandberg and Kutnar (2016) when discussing the recent developments in the manufacture of
thermally modified timber (TMT)… ‘The exact method of treatment can have a significant effect on the
properties of the modified wood’… Furthermore, while investigating wood charcoal, Labbé et al. (2006)
discovered that…‘The characteristics of the wood charcoal depend, not only on the wood species, but
also on the carbonisation temperature’… It is the temperature that determines whether aliphatic or
aromatic molecules are formed on the surface, and aromatic molecules are known to be more stable
(Daintith and Martin 2005). Today, it could be speculated that many of the electrically powered tools
developed and manufactured for the pyrographic artist, are far too delicate to make a truly lasting
impression on a wood surface, particularly if they are temperature regulated.
This was not so in the past. Some two hundred years ago, when pyrography probably gained
its highest stature as an art form, artists used simple metal tools, of various shapes and sizes, heated
in a charcoal burner, often with asbestos yarn bound handles (Pinto 1960). Thus, there was no heat
control as such; these artists had to depend on the length of time the tool was away from the heat
source, and work with speed. Consequently, experience was the key element to success. However,
there was also another method of working, which seems to have appeared sometime during the
1830s. This technique involved the artist charring the entire wood surface, perhaps to various depths
as suggested by Pinto (1960), with a blowlamp or oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), and then lifting out the
lighter parts of the image in relief, using chisels, gouges, knives, abrasive papers, and even fragments
of glass. The method was referred to as ‘xulopyrography’ in the Illustrated Cyclopaedia (sic) of The
Great Exhibition of 1851, where the work of Lieutenant Ralph Marshall was described (Anon 1852).
Some of Marshall’s work can be found in the Pinto Collection at the Birmingham Museum and Art
Gallery (https://www.birminghammuseums.org.uk/bmag). Thus, it is likely to be because of these
extreme methods of working that some of the pictures have survived to the present day.
Figure 1(a) shows a panel made with this technique, by an as yet unknown artist. It is after an
original painting by James Sant CVO, RA (1820-1916), which was then engraved in the mezzotint
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technique by Samuel Cousins RA (1801-1887). It is most likely that the artist worked directly from the
print, rather than the painting, and a copy is also shown here (Fig. 1(b)).
a b
Fig. 1.
(a), Pyrography panel by unknown artist, c.1855. Owned and photographed by Fraser
Cleminson. (b) ‘Speak Lord for thy servant hears’, mezzotint, by Samuel Cousins RA, c.1854,
© Collection of the Art Gallery of Greater Victoria (AGGV 2019).
In a previous paper (Millis 2013), the surface chemistry of pyrography was discussed, and it
was also shown that an unprotected surface supporting the decoration suffers extreme fading when
exposed to natural light aging for 110 days. Furthermore, a later paper (Millis 2017), indicated that two
traditional surface coatings, in this case shellac and linseed oil, could moderately retard this
o
deterioration, over a 110 day period, particularly when ‘scorched’ at temperatures of 375 C and above.
This trend has continued, and based on the results of many minor tests (unpublished data), the study
has moved forward to investigate an idea for a stabilised coating solution to be developed for
pyrography. This paper presents the results of a pilot test in natural light, which could be used as a
basis for further research in this area.
It is beyond the scope of this article to disclose and discuss fully the science and background
of UV inhibitors. For a comprehensive review of these, the author points the reader to the excellent
work by Evans et al. (2015).
The Products
The photo-oxidation of lignin has long been a hazard for people working in the wood and
paper industries. Therefore, it has received much study, but the observations in the area of timber
technology have usually related to exterior furnishings because of the phenomenon referred to as
‘weathering’. Thus, according to Dendy (2007), and at the time of her writing, much less work had
been achieved in the area for indoor woodwork.
Lignostab® 1198
This product, originally from the stable of Ciba® Speciality Chemicals’ ultraviolet technology
(now under the auspices of BASF), is purported to bind with lignin to prevent photo-oxidation, in light
coloured wood. The substance sold as orange flakes, which readily dissolve in water, should be
applied to bare wood in a 1-3% aqueous or aqueous/alcohol solution, as a pre-treatment before
coating. The company literature also states that Lignostab® can be successfully used to stabilise dye-
tinted or micronised pigment-stained wood (Ciba 2009). Figure 2, illustrates the chemical structure for
some commercial hindered amine light stabilisers (HALS) (Schaller and Rogez 2006).
170
Fig. 2.
The structure of some typical HALS products (Schaller and Rogez 2006).
Tinuvin®
Alongside this product, Ciba® developed a range of additives under the name of Tinuvin®.
The author became aware of Tinuvin® during the late 1980s and since then the product technology
has evolved extensively. It incorporates a network of ultraviolet inhibitors; some of which prevent the
surface coating from yellowing, cracking and generally deteriorating via ultraviolet radiation (HALS);
other types help to protect the surface colouration of the timber by absorbing the energy and releasing
it as heat (UVA). It has also been noted that there is a synergising effect achievable when combining
certain HALS with UVAs in one solution, offering further improved performance (Schaller and Rogez
2006, Shenoy and Marathe 2007).
Deller (1998) tested the possibility of adding Tinuvin® 292, a HALS additive, and Tinuvin®
328, an ultraviolet absorbing compound, to French polish. He concluded that Tinuvin® 328 inhibited
the orange fluorescence seen in shellac, which he felt was a desirable quality in the resin. Thereafter,
he continued to use Tinuvin® 292 alone. Dendy (2007) tested the effectiveness of Lignostab® 1198
applied to three species of timber. She found that the pre-treatment, in combination with a Tinuvin®
stabilised blonde shellac in ethanol, measurably decreased the amount of discolouration, particularly
in light coloured timber. In her research, the Tinuvin® products tested were 1130 and 327. Could this
be the way forward for pyrography?
Tinuvin® 1130
This is a liquid hydroxy phenol benzotriazole UV absorber, which has outstanding thermal-
permanence, good photo-permanence, and is also suitable for waterborne coatings. Figure 3,
illustrates the structure (BASF 2019).
Fig. 3.
The structure of Tinuvin® 1130 (BASF 2019).
Regalrez® 1126 and Kraton® G-1650

Piena (2001) explored the possibility of using a low-molecular weight hydrocarbon resin,
Regalrez 1094, as a wood finish, which is used in the conservation of easel paintings. To make it more
flexible he combined Kraton® G-1650, a clear copolymer based on styrene and ethylene/butylene with
a polystyrene content of 30% (Kraton Polymers 2007), and he stabilised it against ultraviolet radiation
with Tinuvin® 292. However, the resin made the coated object too tacky to handle, which might have
o
been caused by the low glass transition temperature (Tg.) of 33 C. Consequently, he tried Regalrez
o
1126, which has a higher Tg. of 65 C. This proved to be satisfactory. Piena (2001) also found that
Regalrez® can be covered with a more traditional material, such as shellac, or a polymer like Paraloid
B-72, as a topcoat. Consequently, manufacture of a coating, for the pilot experiment presented here,
was adapted from his work.
171
OBJECTIVES
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects that a coating solution
containing UV inhibitors has on the stability of pyrographic decoration, when exposed to a maximum of
110 days of natural light aging. As such, it offers a contribution to the available knowledge of
pyrographic surfaces, and an initial basis for further research.
METHOD, MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Wood samples
The term ‘samples’ in this case, refers to strips of wood material supporting surface colour
change as a direct result of heating with a hot tool. Samples made from English sycamore (Acer
pseudoplatanus) were examined in this project.
The sycamore wood was sawn into sheets averaging in size 405mm x 205 m x 1.2 m
(longitudinal by radial by tangential). They were abraded with P320 carbide paper, followed by 00
‘flour’ glass paper, to a smooth surface. Assessment was made by touch. Moisture content of 8.4%
was determined using the oven dry method as defined by BS EN 13183-1:2002, and density
3
calculated at 631kg/m , based on the oven dried material.
o o
Three wood strips per sheet were ‘scorched’ at a range of temperatures from 200 C to 450 C
o
with incremental changes of 25 C. The ‘scorching’ method was the process used in previous work that
utilised a temperature controlled stylus, which was driven from side to side in a smooth and linear
fashion at a uniform speed, leaving an impression on the surface. Each temperature segment was 40
mm wide and, a minimum of, 20mm deep. This method produced consistent and comparable gradient
scales for the various temperatures and one untreated section to act as a control. All samples were
stored in the testing environment to equilibrate with the conditions for 14 days. The scales were then
individually cut from the sheets and prepared for use (Millis 2013, Millis 2017).
Manufacture and application of coatings, Sample P. 1

Samples of two products, which were manufactured and distributed by Ciba® Speciality
Chemicals at the time, were provided for this experiment; Lignostab® 1198, and Tinuvin® 1130. A
sample of Kraton® G-1650 was supplied by Kraton Polymers UK Limited. A quantity of Regalrez®
1126 was purchased commercially.
Pre-treatment: 2 g of Lignostab® 1198 dissolved in 98 ml of distilled water. Undercoat: 10 g of
Regalrez® 1126, combined with 0.2 g of Kraton® G-1650 (2%) and 0.2 g of Tinuvin® 1130 (2%),
dissolved in 90 g of white spirit (GPR). Top coat: 40 g of Regalrez® 1126, combined with 4 g of
Kraton® G-1650 (10%) and 1.2 g of Tinuvin ®1130 (3%), dissolved in 55 g of white spirit. Using 10%
of Kraton® G-1650 was recommended to make the topcoat more scratch resistant (Piena 2001).
Six coats of the Lignostab® 1198 solution were brushed on sample P. 1, allowing each coat to
air-dry in between. Where ‘scorched’ at higher temperatures, the surface became increasingly
hydrophobic. Twelve coats of 10% Regalrez® solution, were brushed on the sample, allowing drying
after each application. No build-up was visible, with the naked eye, on the surface. Three coats of 40%
Regalrez® solution, were applied in the same way, as a top coat.
Earlier minor tests had indicated that the 40% solution was liable to soften on exposure to
heat. Therefore, the coated sample was placed in the freezer for two weeks, prior to exposure, as an
attempt to aid hardening (Scarlett 2009).
Figure 4, shows sample P.1, after coating and before exposure. In this image, each segment
of interest is marked with the temperature of execution, showing clearly the influence that heat has on
the colour of wood. The application of the Lignostab® pre-treatment noticeably darkened the wood
surface, affecting the control segment particularly.
Fig. 4.
Sample P. 1, after coating application, showing the effect of heating on wood colour.
172
Natural light aging

As the purpose of this test was to replicate the effects of light exposure on pyrographic
decoration in a usual interior situation, the term ‘natural light aging’ refers to exposing the samples day
and night, through window glass, on a south-westerly facing window sill for 110 days/nights. At
location 51.680, -0.802, and an altitude of 204.0m above mean sea level. Exposure took place
between April and October (Millis 2017).
Why use natural light?
Whereas it might be thought that using an accelerated aging process would produce faster
and more reproducible data, it is largely dependent upon the light source available. Searle (1994)
states quite clearly that…‘the type of light source used in durability testing significantly influences the
stability ranking of materials as well as the mechanisms and type of degradation’… Many tests were
conducted, during the overall research project, under a metal-halide UVA lamp
(https://www.hoenlegroup.com). However, these results were not comparable to those produced in
natural light (Millis 2017).
Exposure
In this case, the wood sample colour scale was divided into two even-width vertical strips, and
mounted on foam core board by covering the left side section with a foil sleeve lined with MT20
ultraviolet protective film (http://www.sun-x.co.uk/products/mt20-dark-neutral-uv-window-film), which
was secured in place over the sample with two brass tacks (Fig. 5). Then the right halves of the
sample were exposed to natural light aging for 110 days/nights. The left side of the sample acted as a
control only.
Fig. 5.
Natural light aging, sample preparation plan (Millis 2012).
Light exposure for the 110 day period was quantified in lux as 10,326,000, by monitoring an in
situ LightCheck® dosimeter, and was based on the results of four trials. No attempt was made to
measure UV radiation, and the control of temperature and relative humidity were beyond the scope of
the study (Millis 2013, Millis 2017).
Colour measurement
As the colour of pyrography is heterogeneous, for accurate colour comparison to be made, it
was essential to make sure that the colorimeter was sited at the same place each time a reading was
taken. This was because of the influence wood grain has on the surface colour. To aid in this, a
template was made from Perspex. It consisted of a shallow tray with built-up sides and was 45mm
wide in the centre, just large enough to insert the sample. Another piece of Perspex fitted closely
inside, into which three 22mm holes were bored; one to the left, another to the right, and a third in a
173
central position. These allowed enough room for the tip of the colorimeter to be sited flush with the
sample. Paper rulers were adhered to each rim of the template, which permitted pin-point accuracy to
be observed. Only readings made in the same position of the same sample were compared (Millis
2013, Millis 2017).
A Konica Minolta Chroma Meter CR-300, was used to monitor changes in the surface colour
of the ‘scorched’ samples. The measuring head of the instrument incorporated an 8 mm measuring
o
area, was index set to use D65 illumination and calibrated to a 2 observer angle. Calibration was
performed at the start of each measuring session. Measurements were taken from the left side, right
side and the centre section, making a total of 36 readings for each sample scale, covering the full
twelve segments of colour change. The colorimeter, fitted with a 22mm light protection tube (CR-
A33a) was index set to take three tristimulus measurements and then calculate a mathematical
average for the segment. The CIE L*a* b* (1976) colour space was selected for interpretation. For this
system L* represents lightness and is on a scale of 100, where L* = 100 is white and L* = 0 is black.
The a* measurement characterises the green (- a*) red (+ a*) axis and b* the blue (- b*) yellow (+ b*)
axis. All measurements taken were absolute. Total colour change was calculated from these
measurements by using equation (1) (for full method see BS EN ISO 105-J03:1997).
Before exposure began the colour parameters were determined for each segment, with
relevant examples presented in Table 1(a). Subsequent measurements were mathematically
compared to these data sets in order to gain an accurate insight to the photochemical stability of the
pyrographic image after surface coating with a UV stabilised finish. As the slight colour changes
o
developed at temperature settings from 325 C and below were reversed by the test, these segments
will not be mentioned further.
(1)
∆E *ab = (∆L*) + (∆a*) + (∆b*)
2 2 2
Where ∆L* = L *T − L * R
∆a* = a *T − a * R
∆b* = b *T − b * R
R = Reference sample (before exposure)

T = Test sample (after exposure)

The colour changes that took place in the samples were the direct result of exposure to
natural light aging, through window glass, for 110 days and nights. They are presented here in chart
form with the accompanying computational colour differences shown in Table 1(b). In these charts, 0
represents no change in colour at all. A difference of just CIEΔE*ab 3 has been determined to be the
minimum value of colour change that can be recognised by the human eye (Hon and Minemura 1991,
Sundqvist 2004, Millis 2013, Millis 2017).
Table 1
Colour parameters of selected segments, for sample P. 1, before exposure to natural
light aging, with colour difference values recorded after exposure (grey)
(a) (b)
Colour measurements Colour differences after
before exposure exposure
Sycamore Temperature
50 days 110 days
L* a* b* ΔE*ab ΔL* ΔE*ab ΔL*
P.1 Control 66.46 9.77 24.94 7.07 6.18 10.78 9.44
o
350 C 53.87 11.68 24.26 12.52 12.21 17.50 16.84
o
375 C 42.76 14.10 22.77 13.44 12.25 20.41 19.25
o
400 C 32.14 12.85 13.92 14.37 10.44 22.46 17.99
o
425 C 25.06 7.29 4.37 10.91 6.62 18.26 12.48
o
450 C 23.21 1.96 0.48 5.93 3.38 11.29 7.25
174
Examination of the data shows that significant colour change took place during exposure.
However, it is not until these data sets are compared with other samples that it becomes possible to
fully comprehend the results. The first chart, pictured in Fig. 6, represents the absolute colour
differences caused by exposure, at the end of the testing phase (ΔE*ab). In this chart, sample P. 1 is
presented alongside samples shown in previous work (Millis 2017); uncoated, shellac coated and
linseed oil coated sycamore. Colour coordinates for the latter samples are shown in Table 2(a), with
the differences thereof in Table 2(b). Starting with the control segment (not treated with heat), it can be
seen that major lightening of the wood surface took place in sample P. 1, which amounted to a
lightness difference of 9.44, and ultimately to an absolute colour change value of 10.78. Even though
there were large overall colour differences recorded for the uncoated, shellac coated and oil coated
control segments, these were caused by significant increases in yellowing (+b axis), and changes in
o
lightness were minimal. Colour differences continued to rise for segments ‘scorched’ at 350 C (ΔE*ab
o o
17.50) and 375 C (ΔE*ab 20.41), equalling the value for the uncoated sample at 375 C (ΔE*ab 20.64),
o
while the oil coated sample returned the lowest values. However, at 400 C, it is clear that the
stabilised segment returned the highest amount of colour change (ΔE*ab 22.46) for all four samples.
o o
Colour change began to drop slightly for the stabilised segments ‘scorched’ at 425 C and 450 C, but
continued to remain significant.
Fig. 6.
Overall colour differences for the samples, at the end of the testing phase.
Table 2
Colour parameters of selected segments, for comparison samples, before exposure to

natural light aging, with colour difference values recorded after exposure (grey)
(a) (b)
Colour measurements Colour differences after exposure
before exposure
Sycamore Temperature 50 days 110 days
L* a* b* ΔE*ab ΔL* ΔE*ab ΔL*
Uncoated Control 78.43 6.70 16.78 8.52 -1.43 11.94 -1.91
o
350 C 39.71 10.80 13.63 20.03 14.81 24.49 17.68
o
375 C 35.73 7.72 8.56 16.23 9.94 20.64 13.07
o
400 C 35.72 5.97 6.11 14.80 8.97 19.34 11.94
o
425 C 36.26 5.81 6.25 14.35 8.98 19.33 12.22
o
450 C 34.32 3.69 3.84 9.77 5.74 13.76 8.35
Shellac Control 73.78 7.59 22.48 6.0 0.57 9.28 1.25
o
350 C 36.81 12.22 16.28 22.86 17.01 27.39 20.42
o
375 C 30.83 9.27 9.23 19.60 11.73 24.35 15.02
o
400 C 28.81 6.68 5.62 15.19 8.51 19.94 11.78
o
425 C 28.38 5.53 5.22 14.02 8.07 17.88 10.44
o
450 C 26.73 1.89 1.42 8.52 3.74 11.87 6.30
Oil Control 75.81 8.90 26.57 6.35 -3.10 9.90 -3.18
o
350 C 31.78 9.22 8.40 14.88 8.84 19.14 11.39
o
375 C 28.24 4.42 2.93 11.01 5.50 14.21 7.31
o
400 C 27.94 1.88 0.73 5.57 1.82 9.25 3.76
o
425 C 27.85 2.53 1.08 6.31 2.34 10.20 3.94
o
450 C 29.22 3.34 1.56 8.09 2.97 12.32 5.11
175
To aid in the clarity of this investigation, the segments at two temperature settings were
o o
examined further, 375 C and 400 C. These were chosen because they reflect the colour shades often
preferred by a pyrographic artist working today, to give contrast to their work. Figure 7, highlights the
o
results for the segment ‘scorched’ at 375 C, featuring the four samples. In this chart, the absolute
colour difference values are shown at the lower benchmark of 50 days, alongside those realised at
110 days. Initial examination reveals that the largest portion of colour change occurred during the first
50 days of exposure, for all samples, after which the rate of change slowed. If the two data points
representing the uncoated sample, are taken as the ‘standard’ for colour change, meaning that without
a surface coating at all, the amount of difference expressed by these values would be equal to the
amount expected to be found in a pyrographic image subjected to 110 days of exposure to
unrestricted daylight, then a suitable coating solution must return lower amounts of colour change than
those shown here. The stabilised coating returned a lower amount of colour change during the first 50
days, nevertheless during the second part of the test, colour change increased to match the result for
the uncoated sample. The data points representing the shellac coated sample returned the highest
amount of colour change for that segment. However, this was thought to have been caused by
changes in the coating, as well as those occurring at the wood surface. Moving onward, observations
o
for the segment ‘scorched’ at 400 C, shown in Fig. 8, indicate an unequalled rise in colour change for
the stabilised segment, sample P. 1, when compared to the other three samples. The lowest amounts
of colour change, for both segments, were recorded by the oil coated sample.
Fig. 7.
o
Absolute colour differences for the segments, ‘scorched’ at 375 C, after 50 days, and at the
end of the testing phase.
Fig. 8.
o
Absolute colour differences for the segments, ‘scorched’ at 400 C, after 50 days, and at the
end of the testing phase.
Percentage change
The percentages of colour change after 50 days of exposure, for the four samples, are listed
o
in Table 3. For the segment ‘scorched’ at 375 C, the lowest percentage change was achieved by the
176
stabilised sample P. 1, at 66%, with the uncoated sample at 79%, the shellac coated sample 80%, and
o
the oil coated sample 77%. For the 400 C segment, they were 64%, 76% 76% and 60%, respectively.
These results suggest that the stabilised coating slightly retarded the rate of colour change for both
o
segments. However, the lowest percentage change for the segment ‘scorched’ at 400 C was achieved
by the sample coated with linseed oil, at 60%.
Visual interpretation
Figure 9, illustrates sample P.1, after exposure to 110 days and nights of natural light. It is
clear from this image that significant lightening of the wood surface, as well as fading, took place
during the experiment. It is also apparent that the coating inhibited the production of yellow
chromophores in the control segment, and the wood molecules unaffected by heat. Defects in the
coating, which had started to appear after 33 days, were particularly visible on the control segment
and indicated that perhaps the development of the coating was inadequate or, conceivably, 40%
Regalrez® 1126 in white spirit was not suitable as a top coat for the conditions presented in the testing
environment. This had not occurred with a 10% solution in white spirit, when exposed to ‘simulated
sunlight’ in the Dr Hönle UVA aging unit. To the contrary, the surface survived the excessive heat
levels exceptionally well.
Table 3
o
The percentage colour change at 50 days, for the segments ‘scorched’ at 375 C and
o
400 C
Sample Temperature Percentage change at
50 days
o
Stabilised 375 C 66%
o
Uncoated 375 C 79%
o
Shellac coated 375 C 80%
o
Linseed oil coated 375 C 77%
o
Stabilised 400 C 64%
o
Uncoated 400 C 76%
o
Shellac coated 400 C 76%
o
Linseed oil coated 400 C 60%
However, for sample P. 1, the coating remained soluble, and the overall appearance of the
surface was much richer, more vibrant in colour than that of the uncoated, shellac coated, and oil
coated samples. Figure 10, pictures sample P. 1, after coating removal, together with the uncoated
sample. Though yellowed, examination suggests that the pyrography on the uncoated sample has
faded slightly less in this case.
Fig. 9.
Sample P. 1, at the end of the testing phase.
Fig.10.
Sample P. 1 (below) after coating removal, together with the uncoated sample.
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A pyrographic surface presents a very difficult proposition to protect. This is because the
surface contains a large assortment of molecules at various stages of charring and carbonisation
(Shafizadeh 1984). These molecules are very unstable and require only low levels of energy for bonds
to be broken, resulting in loss of colour. Because it is so complex, it is unlikely that a single coating of
any type and thickness will be able to arrest all levels of colour change due to this art form. This
means that a compromise has to be reached, which will afford some degree of protection for the
majority of the surface colour. As mentioned previously (Millis 2017), applying a surface coating to any
art work is a very personal decision, and it is often dependent on the particular object needing the
treatment. The Regalrez® 1126, provided a good surface when used in a 10% solution with white
spirit, and previous work has determined that white spirit causes less damage to pyrography, than
more polar solvents (Millis 2012). When considering the issue from another standpoint, as extractives
are undoubtedly part of the pyrographic image, and it is well known that historic pigments containing
them and the products of incomplete combustion, such as bistre, are fugitive in light (Winter 1983),
could an extractive stabiliser be more successful, as demonstrated by Passauer et al. (2015)? Or,
perhaps, a red-shifted ultraviolet absorber? Whatever the choice, it is clear that much further testing is
needed to establish the way forward if using UV technology is the preferred path.
Table 4, presents the overall colour differences, together with the differences that occurred in
the b* axis, observed for the left, covered, side of sample P. 1, which acted as an overall control for
the duration of the test. Also shown are the results for the uncoated, shellac coated and oil coated
control samples, which were stored in complete darkness for the entire experimental phase. Whereas
the shellac and oil coated samples had increased in yellowness, no such change had occurred for
sample P. 1. However, a slight but consistent rise in lightness had contributed to the final results. This
suggests that very slight bleaching occurred in the dark for all segments of this sample.
Table 4
Overall colour differences seen in the control samples at the end of the testing phase,
compared with the covered side of sample P. 1
Segment P. 1 Uncoated Shellac Oil coated

Temperature Covered side coated
ΔE*ab ΔL* Δb* ΔE*ab Δb* ΔE*ab Δb* ΔE*ab Δb*
Control 2.51 2.37 0.59 1.14 0.78 2.53 2.26 5.74 5.49
o
350 C 3.19 3.17 0.07 1.58 1.20 1.76 1.32 1.91 1.37
o
375 C 3.27 3.25 0.33 1.56 1.06 1.50 1.17 1.50 1.06
o
400 C 2.54 2.31 0.69 0.53 0.05 1.46 0.80 0.33 0.15
o
425 C 2.48 2.19 -1.00 0.70 0.14 1.82 1.14 0.60 0.32
o
450 C 2.00 1.65 -1.08 0.33 0.12 1.02 0.56 0.30 0.20
CONCLUSION
The photo-discolouration of pyrography samples applied to English sycamore, and finished
with a coating system containing UV inhibitors, has been investigated, and compared to uncoated,
shellac coated, and linseed oil coated samples. After irradiation, it was clear that large colour changes
had occurred. Nevertheless, the coating prevented the development of yellow chromophores in the
molecules not affected by heat, leaving the surface looking brighter and more vibrant than the other
samples. Unfortunately, this coating failed at 33 days, producing bubble-like defects in the top layer.
Yet, even so, it continued to protect the wood from yellowing for the full 110 days. In spite of this, the
o
coating did not seem to offer any protection to the pyrography, and at 400 C, it might have been the
cause of the increased amount of colour change recorded. However, for the segments ‘scorched’ at
o o
375 C and 400 C, the stabilised coating seemed to slightly retard the percentage of colour change
that occurred over the first 50 days. Consequently, much further research is needed, to fully
understand if UV inhibitors are useful for pyrographic surfaces, or if they are, indeed, harmful.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author extends her sincere thanks to Gervais Sawyer FIMMM for his ongoing help and
support. Susan M Millis would also like to acknowledge the past support of staff at Buckinghamshire
New University, under whom this research was originally achieved. Special thanks to Ciba Speciality
Chemicals, and Kraton Polymers UK, for providing samples for testing purposes.
178
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180
A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON KANG AND KANG FURNITURE IN NORTHEAST OF

CHINA
Mihaela LIU
Nanjing Forestry University, College of Furnishing and Industry Desgin
Str. Longpan nr. 159, 200037 Nanjing, China
Tel: 0086 25 85428621, E-mail: mihaela.anghel1991@gmail.com
Houyi HUNAG
E-mail: 995810483@qq.com
Zhihui WU
Xinyou LIU
E-mail: liu.xinyou@njfu.edu.cn
Abstract
The paper presents the history of a platform (bed-stove) named Kang, initiated 7200 years
ago, providing a brief description of Kang development. Kang furniture is defined as furniture used on
kang, which can be divided into three categories according to functions: Kang table, Kang storing
furniture and other categories. These kinds of Kang furniture can reflect the Kang culture and the
liftstyle of the northeast people. The wood material used for kang furniture almost is local wood such
as Manchurian ash, mongolian oak, Chinese walnut, elm, Chinese red pine ect. The result of this
paper is a basic part of the doctoral research, which helps for understanding the furniture culture of
northeast in China.
Key words: Chinese furniture; Kang; furniture culture; material.
INTRODUCTION
The traditional Chinese furniture refers to the classical furniture manufactured throughout
different historical periods of the Ancient China (Liu et al. 2013a). The traditional Chinese furniture
varied from one area to another, expressing specific lifestyle, patterns of style and skillfulness
characteristic to each geographic position. In the northeast China, the winter climate is very cold (-
30°C), a traditional long platform (approximate 2m), with a height about 70cm, named Kang (bed-
stove) is used for general living, working, entertaining and sleeping (Xu and Wang 2010). It is made of
bricks or other forms of fired clay and more recently of concrete in some locations. Its interior cavity,
leading to a (often) convoluted flue system, channels the hot exhaust from a firewood/coal fireplace,
usually the cooking fire from an adjacent room that serves as a kitchen (see Fig. 1.), sometimes from
a stove set below floor level (Ren et al. 2012).
181
Fig. 1.
Schematic diagrams of kang: a.copy figure of kang in northerneast China, b. Cross-section
drawn of traditional kang, c. Cross-section drawn of modern kang.
The Chinese character “炕” (Fig. 2.) with two parts, one means fire and the other means pipe
or channel, explains how it works. In general, Kang is considered invented by Manchu and Korean
people. However, according to analysis of archeological excavations of building remains in Banpo,
Xi'an, the Kang is derived from the concept of a heated bed floor called a “fire wall” found in China in
the Neolithic period (Shi 2008a). The archeological sites in Shenyang, Liaoning province show
humans using the heated bed floor as early as 7,200 years ago (Shi 2008a and b). The bed at this
excavation is made of 10cm pounded clay on the floor. The bed was heated by fire which is simply the
process of placing an open fire on the bed floor and clearing the ashes before sleeping. Nowadays,
Kang is also common used in the northern China. Furniture used on Kang can reflect well the lifestyle
and culture of northeast of China (Xu and Wang 2010).
Fig. 2.
Explanation of the Chinese charater for kang.
OBJECTIVES
The present paper is a first step in a PhD research project focusing on a comparative study of
traditional furniture in Romania and Northeast China.
The current objectives were:
 Northeast China culture study;
 Traditional furniture in Northeast China;
 Culture, types and culture of Kang furniture.
FUNCTION AND TYPE OF KANG

Function of Kang
In cold winter days, northeast people often gather together on the warm and comfortable
Kang. In addition to sleep, many behaviors in rural houses also happen on the Kang. The Kang plays
a very important role in rural houses. Its main function is reflected in:
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Rest and sleep: In early time, due to the limited sleep spaces, whole family lives on one
Kang. Usually from the head of Kang (near to the kitchen) is warmer than the end part (far from
kitchen), successively living elder member of a family, host, hostess and children. On the one hand, it
reflects the traditional Chinese concept of respect and inferiority, and on the other hand, it conforms to
the modern health and wellness principles.
Daily life: In their spare time, farmers chat with their neighbors and relatives, watch TV and
play cards on them. Kang table is the daily work place of housewives. Housewives often do
housework and manual work on the Kang and beside the Kang table. Children learn, and play games
on them.
Three meals per day: in the northern rural areas of the meal is a more formal family activity,
by no means just eating. Especially in winter, everyone on the warm Kang, around the Kang table to
eat, drink, chat, comfortable atmosphere, harmony.
Entertain guests: There is no living room in the traditional farm house in northeast China.
When guests come to visit, taking off your shoes and sitting on the Kang is a way of intimate and
respectful hospitality. Nowadays, despite the addition of a living room in some newly built farmhouses,
the Kang still serves as a hospitality function, especially for the close visitors. The communication time
is a little longer, and they like to sit on the hot Kang to chat.
Type of Kang
Because the Kang plays an important role in rural housing, the location of the Kang has a
great influence on the layout of the housing. It is found that the location of the traditional Kang in rural
houses in Northern east China is located in the south, north and middles of the house, so the layout of
rural houses was also the basic types. In summary, it can be roughly divided into the following
situations:
The southern type Kang was built earlier, mostly before the 1970s, common to have three
(Fig. 3.a) or five (Fig. 3.b) rooms. The main entrance of the house is located in the middle of the room,
which is both the hall and the kitchen, commonly known as "out of town". On both sides of the field are
bedrooms, opposite to the field, commonly known as "inner room". The advantages of this type of
layout are good orientation, ideal lighting and ventilation, sufficient sunshine, and comfortable living on
the Kang. Defect is the entrance field often because pile up fuel and other sundry and disorderly,
because the kitchen is not closed into an independent room, when cooking smoke will diffuse the
whole field, even into the back room.
Fig. 3.
Schematic diagrams of Kang: a. Southern type Kang with 3 rooms, b. Southern type Kang with
5 rooms, c. Northern type Kang, d. Middle type Kang, e and f synthesis type Kang.
The northern type Kang: This type of farmhouse appeared later than south type Kang. The
difference between the two is that the northern type Kang residence is separated from the outside by a
partition wall and a door kitchen. The north side is an independent kitchen, and the south side is the
outside of the pure hall function. The advantage of this type of farm house is that people do not have
183
to go through the kitchen when entering the house. Sundries such as fuel can be concealed in the
north kitchen. The disadvantage is that the Kang corresponds to the kitchen stove moved to the north
side of the inner house, and the sunshine condition is far less than that of the south Kang. People's
activities on the Kang will be significantly reduced, but they can also set up sofa seats and other living
activities in the sunny area on the south side of the inner house, so they are more popular among
young people.
Middle type Kang: In the 1980s, the Middle type of Kang began to emerge. This kind of
residence is characterized by large depth, which is developed from the first two types of single depth
to the north and south. North part of the depth of the smaller size generally set for the kitchen,
bathroom, warehouse, etc. This type of farm house is deep, conducive to saving land. At the same
time, the secondary rooms on the north side form a thermal isolation zone, separating the cold gable
on the north side in winter from the hot Kang space on the south side, which is helpful for the warmth
of the main house and conducive to energy saving.
Synthesis type of Kang: The layout of northeast traditional farm houses above the
comprehensive type is relatively simple, all of which are opposites-type pattern, with weak adaptability
and pertinence. Therefore, a more appropriate layout should be made for the space, such as: a warm
and comfortable south-facing Kang for the elderly and a bedroom with clean and neat beds for the
young. Therefore, in recent years, some asymmetric integrated farm houses have begun to appear,
such as the mixed type of intermediate Kang and southward Kang (as shown in Fig. 3.e), and the
mixed type of intermediate Kang and northward Kang (as shown in Fig. 3.f)
KANG FURNITURE
Type of Kang furniture
The appearance of kang greatly improved the life of people in northeast China.People live and
eat on the heated kang, resulting in the rapid development of furniture on the kang with complete
functions and diverse shapes. Furniture on kang is usually called kang furniture. Kang furniture is
divided into three categories according to functions: Kang table, Kang storing furniture and other
categories (Chen and Zhang 2006).
Kang table
The Kang table is an indispensable part of the household with a height of 25-30cm. They are
used not just on the Kang but on other beds as well. Small and portable, the table was used for many
activities including serving tea, writing, playing board games. Larger ones were used when more than
one or two people were gathered. The designs varied so they might have drawers for storing smaller
items. In the old time, one kind of Kang table with a big hole in the centure of table surface for puting a
brazier.
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Kang table. Kang cabinet.
Kang cabinet:
Kang cabinet, especially in Changbai mountain area, is called Kang Qin (piano). Because the
cabinet is placed on the Kang, with a shape of piano; it is a special cabinet prepared by the Kang.
People regard it as " cash box on the Kang ", "treasure box" and "patron saint", "blessing box", "town
house auspicious". Usually it made by hardwwod and painted with, black, purple, red, yellow colour.
Kang cabinets are divided into upper and lower parts: the upper part stores clothes, a pair of doors in
the midle of the front surface can be opened to put colthes, quilt and pillows. In the front 4 picies
painted glass (birds, flowers or fishes) or ceramics are inlaied. In the lower part, there are 4 drawers to
184
put scissors, needle, line, the sundry such as cone is prepared lay aside.The bottom of the cabinet is
about 100mm away from the kang surface, for resistance to the haeting, and it is externally supported
by narrow wooden boards or textiles to keep out the cabinet legs. It is placed slightly against the wall
of the Kang.
Kang chest
Kang chests, usually appear in a pair on the Kang cabinet with a shape of square or rectangle.
Kang chests are very popular used as dowry item from bride’s family. Kang chest is used for storage
of clothing and bedding and other items. Tung oil and linseed oil are common used to finished these
chest. The hinges, pinboard and locks usualy are made of copper. Some chests painted with
flowers,dragon, phoenix, birds can be found from rich families. Some chests with small dimesion is
used as dressing box.
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
Kang chest. Cradle Cradle.
Before 1970s, a cradle was a bed for a baby. In northeast of China, due to the cold climate,
people don't want to leave their children in the cradle of the ground, but if the cradle is put on the Kang
it will occupy too much space and will break Kang mat. The cradle was suspended from the roof by a
rope. The baby in cradle can be warmed by the heat from Kang and aslo from sunlight through the
southern window.This furniture modelling also is considered "one of 3 northeast big strange "all the
time.
Wood material used for Kang furniture

Wood materials used for Kang furniture almost are local wood speices, such as ash, walnut,
elm, oak and pine. Sometimes Kang chest made of camphor wood can be found due to the durable
propriety and good resistance on insects (Liu et al. 2013b).
a b c d e
Fig. 8.
The macroscopy aspects of wood material used for Kang furniture:a. Manchurian ash
(Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.), b. Chinese walnut (Juglans mandshurica Maxim), c. Mongolian
oak (Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb), d. Elm (Ulmus rubra), e. Chinese red pine (Pinus
tabuliformis).
Chinese ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.) is a species of Fraxinus native to northeastern

Asia in northern China especially in northeast China. It is one of the three most preciousness wood
species in northeast China, the other two are Chinese walnut (Juglans mandshurica) and Cortex
Phellodendri (Phellodendron amurense Rupr). Chinese ash is a hardwood and is hard, dense (670
3
kg/m ), tough and very strong but elastic, suitable for dry climate, and very slight aging, small
performance changes. It extensively used for Kang cabinet and table.
185
Chinese walnut (Juglans mandshurica Maxim) is important for its attractive timber, which is
hard, dense, tight-grained and polishes to a very smooth finish. The color ranges from creamy white in
the sapwood to a dark chocolate in the heartwood. When kiln-dried, walnut wood tends toward a dull
brown color, but when air-dried can become a rich purplish-brown. Because of its color, hardness and
grain, it is prized furniture and carving wood. It is good material for Kang chest.
3
Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb) wood has a density of about 0.75g/cm
creating great strength and hardness. The wood is very resistant to insect and fungal attack because
of its high tannin content. It is good material for Kang cabinet, Kang table and also for cradles.
The elm (Ulmus rubra) is the most popular wood for furniture in northeast China and also
principal wood for Kang furniture. Elm and Chinese beech wood are the most commonly used woods
for furniture in north and south China respectively, usually called “northern elm southern beech”. Elm
wood is tough and heavy. It has rough structure with little flexibility, good elasticity and moderate
strength. It is superior in its resistance to humidity and corrosion and suitable for processing and
carving.
Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) is a pine native to northern China from Liaoning west to
Inner Mongolia and Gansu, and south to Shandong, Henan and Shaanxi, and also northern Korea. Its
wood is softer, have natural fragrance, color flaxen, knot scar is more common, it is the material that
northeast area makes furniture to use commonly, can obtain fine wood through artificial processing.
CONCLUSIONS
Primitive Kang appeared before the articulated words, while the culture had a great impact on
Kang ever since the words were created. The traditional Kang culture has promoted the unique area
of the Kang furniture while the art itself shows the aesthetic awareness and the spiritual specificity of
the Chinese culture. As a main conclusion, it can be stated that the platform „Kang”, experiencing an
evolution of thousands of years, is engraved within the development of the national characteristics.
Kang furniture can reflect the lifstyle of northeast people in China. Some local wood species
such as Manchurian ash, mongolian oak, Chinese walnut, elm, Chinese red pine are selected for
Kang furniture. It reflects the wisdom of the northeast people in using natural resources. The result of
this paper is a basic part of the doctoral research, which is help for understanding the furniture culture
of northeast in China.
REFERENCES
Chen Y, Zhang YC (2006) The Kang table and Shanxi traditional folk furniture. Furniture and interior
design (7):16-18.
Liu XY, Timar CM, Yi SL (2013a) A study on the history and materials of traditional Chinese furniture.
PRO LIGNO 9(4):246-256.
Liu XY, Timar CM, Varodi MA, (2013b) A preliminary study of three Chinese wood species for
traditional Chinese furniture. Bulletin of the Transilvania University Series II • Vol. 6(55):47-53.
Ren WD, Yang CX, Liu H (2012) The shape and connotation of northeast residential Kang furniture.
Journal of Northwest Forestry University 27(3):210-213.
Shi LZ (2008a) Tentative study on traditional furniture of northeast China. Furniture and interior design
1:54-55.
Shi LZ (2008b) Research on the northeastern traditional furniture. Master dissertation of Central South
University of Forestry and Technology, pp. 49-56.
Xu D, Wang XY (2010) Research on "Kang" of traditional residence in rural area of Liaoning province,
Journal of Liaoning University of Technology (Social Science Edition) 12(4):72-74.
Wang L, Zhang YC (2010) The northern cold regions of rural residential Kang new model home.
Journal of Jilin Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering (2):45-47.
186
A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON MAT-LEVEL FURNITURE IN SHANG AND ZHOU

DYNASTIES
Mihaela LIU
Str. Longpan nr. 159, 200037Nanjing, China
Tel: 00862585428621, E-mail: mihaela.anghel1991@gmail.com
Ting GAO
Wuyi University,Academy of Arts and Design,
No.22 Dongcheng Village,Pengjiang District.529020Jiangmen, China
E-mail:1532746039@qq.com
Zhihui WU
E-mail:467213464@qq.com
Xinyou LIU
E-mail:liu.xinyou@njfu.edu.cn
Jingwei AO
Zhejiang Yunfeng Moganshan Floor Co. LTD.
Industrial park, zhongguan town, deqing county 313220 Huzhou, China
E-mail: jingweiao@126.com
Abstract
The paper presents the lifestyle in Shang and Zhou dynasties sitting on the ground. Furniture
used in this period is called mat-level furniture and is including Xi, Zu, Ji and Jin. This kind furniture is
considered as the origin of traditional Chinese furniture. The furniture material was bronze, wood,
grass and bamboo. The furniture patterns, such as taotie pattern, kui dragon pattern and cicada
pattern, were not only used just for decoration. Their images had supreme magic power at that time,
and they were magic tools to help wizards to communicate with the world. This study hopes to provide
a better understanding of Chinese furnture history and Chinese furniture culture.
Key words: Shang and Zhou dynasties; bronze; mat-level furniture.

INTRODUCTION
Chinese furniture started as stone and bronze furniture of several thousand years ago.
Following changes in lifestyles, Chinese furniture has evolved from mat-level furniture, low-rise
furniture to high-rise furniture (Liu et al. 2013, Zhang 2009). The Shang and Zhou dynasties (from
17thcentury BC to 771 BC) were slave societies in Chinawith highly developed civilizations, which
played an important role in the ancient history of the world. The cultural relics unearthed in the Shang
and Zhou dynasties proved that the casting technique and aesthetic taste were excellent at that time.
The main material of Ritual vessels, weapons, daily utensils and tools was bronze.
a b
Fig. 1.
The statues from Shang tomb in Anyang, Heanan province: a. Jade statue, b. Stone statue.
187
The representative lifestyle was seating on the floor in Shang and Zhou dynasties. Kneeling
was a way to sit on the floor: two knees and the insteps of both feet landed on the ground, with the
hips on the heels (Shi 2008). According to the research of Mr. Li ji, "kneeling sitting is the living style of
the ruling class of the Shang dynasty, which gradually became a ritual of offering sacrifices to
ancestors, gods and guests. After Shang dynasty, the system of "rites" was developed in Zhou
Dynasty. The most famousphilosopher born in Zhou dynasty highly praised the etiquette and custom
of kneel sitting. The statues from Shang tomb in Anyang, Heanan province (see Fig. 1)and some
Chinese characters(incrisptions on bones see Tab.1) with kneel sitting from reflect people's living
conditions at that time, the furniture used in this period named mat-level furniture and the main types
of furniture included"席(xi)", "俎(zu)", "几（Ji）" and "禁（Jin）".
Table 1
Some Inscriptions on bones with kneel sitting form in Shang and Zhou dynasies
Inscriptions on bones
Chinese characters English meanings
Shang dynasty Zhou dynasty
女 Female
母 Mother
兄 Elder brother
邑 City
THE TYPES OF MAT-LEVEL FURNITURE

"席(xi)"-mat
"席(xi)"-mat is considered as bed and chair origin. Shang and Zhou dynasty is called the
period of living on mat, when mat was the essential object in daily life. From Kings and
princes’important events such as pilgrimages, treats to shoot, worships god, worships the ancestor to
the common wedding and funeral, lectures, entertainment and daily life both were processed on the
mats. In the ritual and music system of the Zhou dynasty, there were strict regulations on the
production and use of mats. The book named „Rite of Zhou dynasty” said understanding five type of
mats and five types of tables can know their onwer social position.The philosopher from East Han
dynasty Zhengxuan noted: five types mats named „莞(guan)”, „缫(sao)”, „次(ci)”, „蒲(pu)” and
„熊(xiong)” and their using places. 莞(guan) mat was made of one kind of scirpus grass growing in the
south of China. Dongguan is named for the growth of scirpus grass. 缫(sao) mat was made of colored
water grass. 次(ci) mat was made of bamboo. 蒲(pu) mat was made of water grass. 熊(xiong) mat was
made of bear skin. The quality of material and the level of adornment and craft decied the mat level
and also affect the display space. The layers of mat also followed rite rule, the King can use three
layer of mat, and government officials can use mat with two layers and the others can use single layer
mat. Futuremore, the shape and size of mat presented the owner social position. Single mat, a mat for
one person, was used for respected or elder person. Chairman should sit on the single mat, and the
word „chairman” is origated from the single mat. Multi-mat usualy used for four people, the elder
people shoud sit on one side not in the middle. If there are five people, the elder people sit on the
single mat and the other sit on multi-mat. Pair-mat is used for talking and eating or drinking. Special
mat is used for patient and beravement.
"俎(zu)"and "几（Ji）"
"俎(zu)" and "几（Ji）" are considered as the origin of table and desk. The book „ci yuan”
said俎(zu), one kind of sacrificial tool made of bronze or wood, finished with lacquer, used to put
sacrifice such as head of pig, sheep and caw.In order not to keep the blood of animal, the edge of the
board is 1cm above the surface. In Fig.2 a bronze 俎(zu) decorated with cicada patternunearthed in
Shanxi province, with a heigh of 18.8cm, a weight of 4kg, The shape is vigorous and steady, both
sides are upturned and decorated with dragon patterns. It is mainly used for serving meat and cutting
meat. The edge of the俎(zu) is decorated with a circle of cicada patterns and gluttony patterns on the
outside of both feet. 几（Ji）is similar with俎(zu), but with light structure, aesthetic shape(see Fig.3).
„几（Ji）” is used for daily life as usual.
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Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
俎(zu) decorated with cicada and dragon patterns. 几(Ji)in Zhou dynasty.
"禁（Jin）"
禁（Jin), Chinese maening is forbid. Jin made of bronze, is also one kind of sacrificial tool,
used to hold wine. People in Zhou dynasty summarized the reasons for the demise of the Xia and
Shang dynasties, both of which were drinking excessively. That is why this kind sacrificial toolcalled
Jin. Yu (one king) may have been the first emperor to put forward the prohibition of wine. Jin is the
vessel for carrying wine. In the furniture category, it is also used for storing wine, it has storing
meaning. Therefore Jin is considered as the origin of storing furniture.In the sacrificial activities, wine
will be put on the Jin, in order to express the heaven and earth wishes.Jin is actually the stage of
furniture, and also the matrix of boxes, cabinets, cabinets, such as the jin decorated with kui dragon
pattern inwestZhou dynasty (Fig. 4).
Fig.4.
Jin decorated with kui dragon pattern inwestZhou dynasty.
DECORATIVE PATTERNS OF MAT-LEVEL FURNITURE

The gluttony patterns, Kui patterns and cicada patterns are the common patterns used to
decorate furniture in Shang and Zhou dynasties.
The gluttony patterns(Fig. 6), also called Taotie is the common name for a motif found on
Chinese ritual bronze vessels from the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Zhao and Zhang 2019). The
design typically consists of a zoomorphic mask, described as being frontal, bilaterally symmetrical,
with a pair of raised eyes and typically no lower jaw area. Some argue that the design can be traced
back to jade pieces found in Neolithic sites such as the Liangzhu culture (3310–2250 BC). There is
also notable similarity with the painted pottery found at Xiajiadian.In ancient Chinese mythology like
"Classic of Mountains and Seas", the taotie (饕餮) is one of the "four evil creatures of the world" or four
fiends, along with Hundun (混沌), Qiongqi (窮奇) and Taowu (梼杌). On the opposite side, there are
Four Holy Creatures in Chinese mythology which are called Azure Dragon, Vermilion Bird, White Tiger
and Black Tortoise. The four fiends are also sometimes juxtaposed with the four benevolent animals
which are Qilin (麒麟), Dragon (龍), Turtle (龜) and Fenghuang (鳳凰).It is uncertain if the mask design
on bronze vessels is related in any way to the mythological creature.
Kui (Chinese: 夔; pinyin: kuí) is a polysemous figure in ancient Chinese mythology. Classic
texts use this name for the legendary musician Kui who invented music and dancing; for the one-
legged mountain demon or rain-god Kui variously said to resemble a Chinese dragon, a drum, or a
189
monkey with a human face; and for the Kuiniu wild yak or buffalo.While Kui 夔 originally named a
mythic being, Modern Standard Chinese uses it in several other expressions. The reduplication kuikui
夔夔 means "awe-struck; fearful; grave" (see the Shujing below). The compounds kuilong 夔龍 (with
"dragon") and kuiwen 夔紋 (with "pattern; design") name common motifs on Zhou Dynasty Chinese
bronzes(Song 2019). The chengyu idiom yikuiyizu 一夔已足 (lit. one Kui already enough") means "one
able person is enough for the job".
As a kind of realistic patterns, cicada patterns are different from fantasy animal patterns such
as taotie patterns and kui patterns.The cicada pattern on the shang and zhou bronzes has many
connotations. In the final analysis, it is a tool of royal rule.Shang and zhou dynasties are a special
stage of combining the governance of man with the governance of god. Bronze ware is a magic
instrument for wizard to communicate the world. Cicadas pattern is the assistant of wizard.
a b c
Fig.5.
Decorative patterns of mat-level furniture:a. gluttony patterns, b. Kui patterns, c. cicada
patterns.
CONCLUSIONS
The furniture of Shang and Zhou dynasties was the product of the royal ruling class and
closely related to the prosperous sacrificial activities.Furniture not only has the use function, more
importantly, it is a ritual vessel, bearing the worship of nature and divine power in the Shang and Zhou
dynasties. The mat-level furniture in Shang and Zhou dynasties is consider the origin of traditional
furniture including Xi, Zu, Ji and Jin. Materials used for the furniture are bronze, wood, grass and
Chinese lacquer for finishing.The furniture patterns, such as taotie pattern, kui dragon pattern and
cicada pattern, are no longer just used for decoration. Their images have supreme magic power at
that time, and they are magic tools to help wizards to communicate the world.
REFERENCES
Liu XY, Timar CM, Yi SL (2013) A study on the history and materials of traditional Chinese furniture.
PRO LIGNO 9(4):246-256.
Shi LZ (2008) Tentative study on traditional furniture of northeast China. Furniture and interior design
1:54-55.
Song M (2019) Study on the symbolic meaning of kui Patterns in Shang dynasty. Journal of xiangnan
university, 40(01):46-51.
Zhao J, Zhang CF (2019) Symbol recognition analysis of taotie pattern. Design, 32(05):72-73.
Zhang XM (2009) Chinese furniture exploring China’s furniture culture. China Intercontinental Press，
Beijing:3-8.
190
CHALLENGES IN THE CONSERVATION OF AN EARLY 19th CENTURY

HOLY DOOR - THE FIRST STEPS
Maria Cristina TIMAR

E-mail: cristinatimar@unitbv.ro
Emanuela Carmen BELDEAN

E-mail: ebeldean@unitbv.ro
Ion Valeriu OLARU

CNM ASTRA Sibiu- Centre for Cultural Heritage
Piaţa Mică, nr. 11, 550182, Sibiu, România
E-mail: valeriuolaru.astra@yahoo.com
Anca Maria VARODI

Associate lecturer
E-mail: anca.varodi@unitbv.ro
Dana Mihaela POP

PhD student
E-mail: pop.dana.mihaela@unitbv.ro
Abstract
Holy doors, also named royal doors or beautiful gates, are the central doors of the iconostases in
the Eastern Orthodox churches. An iconostasis is a complex wooden screen structure which
separates the sanctuary (altar) from the nave of the church. Holy doors, as the whole iconostases, are
most often very complex polychrome wood artefacts, with sculptured elements, gilded and painted
surfaces. Their high value, residing from liturgical, spiritual, artistic, historic and documentary
valences, makes their conservation imperious and challenging at the same time. Understanding of the
object and scientific investigations are starting key points for an approach in accordance to the code of
good practice and ethics. The paper presents the first steps undertaken in the conservation of a 19th
Century Holy door, originated from the old orthodox church in Codlea (Brasov county), presently
belonging to the local Museum of Traditions. Active conservation methods to preserve the very frail
painting layer, the gilding and the wood substrate, with massive insects attack, were applied.
Microscopy, FTIR spectroscopy and XRF were employed to investigate the original technique and
materials, to highlight the initial conservation state and also assist the cleaning interventions.
Key words: scientific conservation; cultural heritage; holy doors; microscopy; FTIR; XRF.
INTRODUCTION
The Church is the heart and the most important cohesive element for a community brought
together by the faith in God. The church is the holy place which makes possible the communion of
Divinity with the mankind, the place where spiritually the Heaven meets the Earth. From birth to death
the Christians life is connected to the Church, where the most important events are celebrated: the
Christening, the wedding and, finally, the funeral service.
The architecture and specific painting or decoration of the churches serve the purpose of feeling
the presence of God, getting closer to Heaven and making the Bible alive. The cross shape and
division of the interior in three distinct areas: altar, nave and narthex are architectural characteristics of
most Orthodox churches. The altar or sanctuary, always orientated to the East, is a sacred area where
is located the Holy Table. The altar is separated from the nave by the iconostasis, most often a
191
wooden screen with a complex structure of frames. Icons with themes, symbolism, clothing, colours
and gestures according to iconographical cannons (Harrison et al. 2006), are incorporated in this
structure so that its liturgical function, to isolate the celebration of the sacraments from the laity, is
associated to a narrative one, to show the history of the Church in images (Labo 2016, Yudin 2017).
Three openings with doors allow the connection between the altar and the nave. Holy doors, also
named royal doors or beautiful gates, are the central doors of the iconostases. The other two side
doors are known as deacon's doors or angels’ doors.
Most often the whole structure of iconostases is made of wood (e.g. lime, oak), which is
decorated by carving and usually finished by gilding (application of gold leaf on a white preparation
layer called gesso, usually after the application of red bolus), though silver or cupper alloys leaf, as
well as polychromies were employed. The same materials and techniques were used for the holy
doors. Painted icons with religious significance are often inserted in the design of holy doors. Often the
Virgin Mary and Saint Gabriel are included, though there is no general rule.
Besides the usual degradation factors, such as variation of environmental humidity and
temperature, risk of biological degradation in certain conditions, some specific factors related to the
religious ritual have to be considered for wood artefacts in churches. These include exposure to
incense and candles smoke, as well as acts of veneration, e.g. by kissing for icons. Moreover,
repeated cleaning and repainting for continued use in the church and preservation of a new and shiny
aspect, as well as inadequate structural repairs are part of the history of religious artefacts. This “care”
and “conservation” measures, taken as gestures of faith and love, usually result in more damage
(Harrison 2006, Labo 2016).
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the research work presented in this paper was the investigation and active
conservation of a valuable Holy door, dated from the first part of 19th century. In accordance to the
principles and code of good practice, adequate documentation and employment of diverse analytical
techniques were necessary to understand the object, evaluate the conservation state and select the
appropriate methods for interventions. The paper presents the first steps in a complex approach:
scientific investigation and active conservation of the painting layer, gilding and wood substrate, all in
a precarious conservation state due to severe specific degradation processes. These were essential
for the salvage of the valuable artefact, while preserving its authenticity.
a b c
Fig. 1.
The Holy door- general aspect and structure: a) face view; b) back view; c) dimensions.
192
PRESENTATION OF THE OBJECT

The Holy door (Fig. 1) presented as case study in this paper belongs to the Codlea Museum of
Traditions, being part of its collection based on donations from the local community and intended to be
presented by the museum in terms of culture, spirituality and traditions in historic evolution. Future is
strongly related to knowledge and understanding of the past and history, of cultural values and the role
of local community and recognised personalities in the evolution of a locality/ town. These all
represent reasons to appreciate the initiative and effort of the Council of Codlea to open this local
museum.
The Holy door originates from the Înălțarea Domnului (Lord Ascension) Orthodox Church, the
oldest one in Codlea, dating from 1783. There is no exact dating of the holy doors, but there is
information on the fact that initially separation between the altar and the nave was made by a brick
wall and about donations of different religious artefacts for liturgical purposes or funds for church
improvement from rich merchants from Brasov and parishioners in the first decades of the 19th
Century (Lehni 2009, Plaiasu and Marin 2011). It is reasonable to believe that the holy doors are
dating from the same period – around 1800-1830, which is in accordance to the Baroque style
influences in the decoration (Labo 2016). A new wooden screen iconostasis was mounted in 1935 in
the church. The object presented in this paper is, very likely, the left door leaf from the first holy doors
of the church. This is the only one remained, being discovered in the attic of an old house, once
headquarter of Romanian Cașina, a cultural and political association of Romanians in Transylvania,
founded in 1835 in Brașov
(https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casina_rom%C3%A2n%C4%83_din_Bra%C8%99ov).
This was made of a 30 mm thick panel constituted from two boards of lime wood joint together
on their longitudinal edges with the aid of two transversal rails (made of resinous species), visible on
the back of the door panel. Though no adhesive was used, the stability of the panel is remarkable due
to a fine processing of the edges and the dovetail joint solution employed for the rails, so that only a
fine shrinkage gap is visible between the two boards. The whole object has a rectangular trapezoidal
shape, the dimensions being detailed in Fig.1c.
The whole assembly was processed by carving and divided in two registers, each of them
processed to give the impression of a panelled frame structure. Actually, two arched panels, on which
saints icons were painted, are present on both the inferior and superior registers. The icons are
codified in this paper as I1, I2 (upper register, from left to right) and I3, I4 (bottom register, from left to
right). Architectural elements, namely column capitals and moulded arches are framing the icon
panels. On the upper part of both registers there are areas highly decorated with phytomorphic motifs,
such as leafs, stalks, flowers. The whole framing of the four icons appears to have been gilded,
though obviously several layers of bronze varnish were applied on top of the original gilding. The
concept of the whole door leaf is a multiple representation of the symbol of the tree of life. Moreover, if
one is imagining the complete assembly of the two Holy doors, then the same important symbol will
result, with a central vertical axis and branches on both sides.
The back side and the edges of the door are painted in grey with a simulated marble effect
obtained by white and black lines. This might not be the original finish, but a late intervention, as
suggested also by the similar coating of the two metallic hinges.
Initial state of conservation

Due to the ageing of materials and totally inappropriate conditions the object was deposited and
totally neglected for a very long period of time (at least 80 years), the initial conservation state of the
holy door (Fig.1a, Fig.2), was very unstable and precarious for both the wood substrate and the
painting layer, imposing urgent conservation actions. Severe insects attack, still active in some areas,
caused advanced wood frailness, so that ruptures with loss of material occurred (Fig. 2 a,b,c,e).
The painting layer for the four icons was extremely dark, fragile, crackled, non-adherent, with
extensive flaking, explaining the significant losses as lacunar or more compact areas (Fig.1a, Fig. 2
d,e). An approximation of losses of the original painting layer conducted to the following values: 15%
for I1, 40-45% for I2 (with almost total loss of the background painting layer in the upper part), 20% for
I3 and 25% for I4. The risk of detachment and further losses were maximum, with irremediable bad
consequences on the value and authenticity of the object. Accordingly, consolidation of the still
existing but very aged and fragile painting layer, to ensure its preservation without any further loss,
was a major challenge and the first step in the conservation process, as described later in this paper.
The "gilded" area, very dirty and darkened, of brownish colour, was also affected in terms of
integrity and adherence to the substrate (Fig. 2 d,e,f). Areas of total exfoliation up to the bare wood
(Fig. 2 g) alternated with areas of delamination between the top layer and the white preparation layer,
while in some areas the red bolus was still visible (Fig. 2 i). Maximum losses occurred on the “frame”
193
(the rectangular side and bottom parts) of the assembly, being approximated at about 50% on the left
stile, 70% on the right stile and almost 50% on the bottom rail. Some trends of exfoliation of the
"gilding” were also present in the sculptured upper part of the door leaf, as well as evidence of
previous “consolidation” by overpainting with a bronze varnish, with contrary results. Frailness of wood
and the lacy sculptured structure of this highly decorated area caused unfortunately rupture with loss
of material, approximated to about 20% from this area. Unfortunately, completion of this sculptured
missing part will not be possible due to the lack of relevant information (similar elements).
a b c
d e f
g h i
Fig. 2.
Details of the initial state of conservation: a) insects attack; b) fragile wood and rupture; c)
massive active insects attack; d,e,f) details of degradation of “gilding” and painting layer with
significant losses; g) magnified view of lacunar loss of gilding layer up to the wood substrate;
h) detail of aged painting layer through magnifying glass; i) magnified view of lacunar loss of
gilding – white gesso and red bolus still present.
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
Before any direct intervention relevant photos were taken to document the initial state of
conservation and the whole object was meticulously examined by naked eyes and through magnifying
194
glasses. At this stage, small samples of painting layer (P1, P2, P3, P12/ icon I1: P4/ icon I4, P7/ icon
I3), “gilding” and wood substrate (P11) were collected from damaged areas (Fig. 3) for investigations.
Supplementary, samples of less degraded wood were collected from the back of the panels (L1) and
rails (L2) for wood species investigation.
a b c
Fig. 3.
Collection of samples for investigations: a) painting layer; b) gilding; c) frail wood.
Optical microscopy (stereomicroscope OPTIKA SZM with video camera) and FTIR–ATR
spectroscopy (ALPHA BRUKER spectrometer) were employed to reveal the structure of the painting/
“gilding” layers and possibly identify the materials. Moreover, X ray fluorescence (XRF) was employed
to identify the main chemical elements present in the “gilded” areas, after cleaning. Only some
examples are given in this paper.
a a a
b b b
c c c
Sample P1/I2 Sample P2/I2 Sample P7/I4
Fig. 4.
Microscopic structure of the painting layer - exemplification for samples P1, P2 from icon
I2 and P7 from icon I4, observed under stereomicroscope at 60x magnification: a) face - top
layer, b) back-preparation layer, c) cross-section.
195
The microscopic investigation of the paint layer samples (Fig. 4) clearly revealed that the wood
substrate was prepared by application of a white base coat of “gesso” type. The total thickness of this
layer varied from about 100m to about 200m and appears to have resulted from successive
application of materials with different porosity. Also the topography of the layer in direct contact with
the wood substrate seems to indicate processing of wood to ensure a better adhesion of the ground
layer, a usual technique for traditional icons (Socolova 2001). FTIR investigation of the preparation
layer (not presented in this paper) indicated that this was prepared from animal glue (possibly rabbit
skin glue) and chalk.
For all the samples, a dark top layer, with granular structure and different inclusions (e.g. fibrous
filaments) was observed. This might be a top varnish which entrapped smoke, charcoal particles and
dust. Several other layers, of different colours depending on the sample origin, were observed in the
cross-section. For some samples, a very thin and discontinuous, yellow, highly reflective layer was
observed, which might indicate application of a gold/metal leaf prior painting in order to endure a
special luminosity and colour effects. (Gettens and Stout 2012).
a a a
(a), b b b
c c (a),b
Sample P6 Sample P8 Sample P10
Fig. 5.
Microscopic structure of the “gilding” layer - exemplification for samples P6 (moulded
arch I4), P8 (bottom part of the “frame”), P10 ( floral ornaments from the top), observed under
stereomicroscope at 60x magnification: a) face - top layer, b) back-preparation layer, c)cross-
section.
The microscopic investigation of the “gilding” samples (Fig. 5) revealed that the wood substrate
was prepared by application of a white base coat of “gesso” type, similarly to the painted areas. FTIR
investigation of the preparation layer (not presented in this paper) indicated that this was prepared
from animal glue (possibly rabbit skin glue) and chalk, though XRF analysis revealed also presence of
lead (Pb) alongside calcium (Ca) in the gesso. For some gilded areas the application of a red “bolus”
on top of the white gesso was evident microscopic and microscopic. As the actual “gilding” material is
196
concerned, two main aspects were revealed: 1) the non – uniform, granular aspect of the surface, with
yellowish shiny areas alternating with darker spots: 2) discontinuity of the gilding material in the cross-
section, with only isolated areas indicating the potential presence a metallic/gold leaf. These support
the assumption of an advanced degradation of the original gilding with metallic leaf and re-painting
with a varnish containing metallic powders.
2923.9
1634.3
1027.3
3693.2
1409.9
2860.4
1321.3
3693.60
3396.51
2923.94
2860.46
1634.30
1409.98
1321.31
1027.34
783.89
669.07
528.32
466.15
528.3
466.1
3396.1
783.8
669.0

4.0
3.5
3.0
Units
P1
2.5
ATR
ATR Units
P4
2.0
P7
1.5
1.0
0.5
Shelac reference
Rosin reference
0.0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
Wavenumber cm-1
Fig. 6.
FTIR spectra of the surface of painting samples – top layer.
The FTIR investigation of the surface of the samples of painting layer (Fig.6) indicates that very
likely a varnish containing shellac and rosin, alongside other components, has been applied to protect
the tempera painting.
601.0
1235.7
1628.4
1406.1
469.0
1321.2
1110.5
777.3
1034.6
668.2
1628.44
1406.13
1321.24
1235.74
1110.51
1034.65
777.36
668.26
601.08
469.08

4
P 10
3
Units Units
P6
ATR
2
P8
Absorbance
P 13
1
P7
0
Shelac reference
Rosin reference
-1
2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600

Wavenumber cm-1
Wavenumber cm-1
Fig. 7.
FTIR spectra of the surface of gilding samples – top layer (P6, P8, P10, P13) compared to.
The FTIR spectra registered for the surfaces of the “gilding” samples (Fig.7) indicate a slightly
different type of varnish than that applied on painted areas, though it is possible that the same varnish
was applied on top of a “gilding” varnish (containing metallic powder) employed to “restore” the original
gilding. More tests and complementary methods are needed to clarify these aspects.
197
Fig. 8.
Micro-XRF analysis of sample P10-gilding- floral area.
XRF and micro-XRF (Fig.8) analyses were employed in an attempt to elucidate the nature of the
“gilding” material. These tests were performed on samples collected after cleaning, actually controlled
partial stripping the gilded surfaces with a solvent based diluted stripping solution. The main metallic
elements found were copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), no gold (Au), which indicates a brass alloy. The same
metals were identified on the cotton swabs employed for cleaning, which indicates that cleaning
should go deeper in order to get to the original gilding. However, this might be risky, as very likely the
original gilding layer might have been lost in high proportion, explaining massive repainting. Therefore,
any further steps will be agreed with the legal owner of the artefact (the museum’s curator). It has to
be mentioned that not only gold leaf, but also brass, bronze and silver leaves were employed in 18th
and early 19th century for such artefacts (Angold 2014)
CONSERVATION CONCEPT
The concept of conservation considered with priority active conservation methods with a view of
ensuring preservation of the object authenticity, meaning no further loss of painting and “gilding.
Accordingly, the first step was consolidation of the very frail original painting layer and flaking “gilding”
areas employing Japanese paper and diluted fish glue solution (Fig.9), the application of the protective
material being followed by hot pressing (at 60C) with electric spatula, or alternation of hot and cold
pressing, by case. Once this goal was reached, it followed the active conservation of the wood
substrate in order to stop the active insects attack and consolidate the frail wood. For this purpose an
insecticide solution (Perxil 10) and then Paraloid B72 (solutions 5%, 7% in ethyl acetate) were applied
by injecting into the insects galleries in several reprises. At this stage, structural repairs as completion
of small missing parts and consolidation of the panel structure were possible. The steps to follow are
those of thorough cleaning of the surfaces, based on previous testing of different solutions for the
different types of surfaces (icons painting, gilding, marble-like paint on the back of the door). A
standard solution (based on water, alcohol and non-ionic detergent) was adequate for the back of the
door, whilst totally un-effective for the “gilded” parts, for which a diluted stripping solution (Chromofag /
Ethyl alcohol in ratio of 2:1) was employed. The cleaning of gilding is still in progress. Preliminary tests
indicated that the painted areas (icons) can be adequately cleaned with ethyl alcohol 97%.
198
a b c
Fig. 9.
Aspects of conservation and consolidation of the original painting layer and gilding: a)
application of the Japanese paper; b) macroscopic aspect of a consolidated area of painting
layer- fibres of consolidating paper c) final aspect of a gilded consolidated area after removing
the Japanese paper – edges of a gold/metallic leaf evident on the right side.
CONCLUSIONS
Following a complex approach, based on scientific investigations, the main challenges in the
active conservation of the valuable early 19th century Holy Door originated from the oldest orthodox
church in Codlea have been successfully addressed:
- the original painting layer and gilding have been consolidated to prevent any further losses;
- the very degraded and frail wooden support has been stabilised by adequate treatments
including preservation against insects attack and consolidation with polymers;
- important steps were achieved in understanding the manufacturing techniques employed and
identification of the original and later interventions materials;
- adequate methods of cleaning / controlled partial stripping were identified and applied, but this
process in still in progress.
All these are important steps in the conservation of the artefact, while maintaining its
authenticity and historic value.
Last but not least, this research proves once again that cooperation between specialists,
laboratories and institutions serve successfully the ultimate common goal of conservation of cultural
heritage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the cooperation with the Codlea Museum of Traditions, the present
paper being the result of a research project funded by the Codlea City Council. The authors express
their gratitude to the Total Spectrum SRL for the XRF investigations. The authors also acknowledge
the structural funds project PRO-DD (POS-CCE, O.2.2.1., ID 123, SMIS 2637, ctr. No 11/2009) for
providing the infrastructure used in part of the investigations presented in this work at the CDI Institute
of Transilvania University of Brașov, as well as the beneficial cooperation between the CNM ASTRA
Sibiu and the Transilvania University of Brașov. .
REFERENCES
Angold M (2014) The Cambridge History of Christianity – Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University
Press, England.
Gettens RJ, Stout GL (2012) Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopedia, Standard Book Number 0-486-
21597-0, Dover Publication Inc., New York, USA, (first published in 1942).
Harrison L, Ambers J, Stacey R, Cartwright C, Hook D, Entwistle C (2006) Sacred to Secular: The
Care and Conservation of Orthodox Icons at the British Museum, Conference paper, The Object in
199
Context: Crossing Conservation Boundaries: Contributions to the Munich Congress 28 August – 1

September 2006, p.317-317 (2006), available at: https://www.iiconservation.org/node/2092
Harrison L, Ambers J, Stacey R, Cartwright C, Lymberopoulou A (2011) The Noli me Tangere: study
and conservation of a Cretan icon, The British Museum Technical Research Bulletin, vol. 5/2011,
pp25-38.
Labo C (2016) The Conservation of Transylvanian Iconostases. Case Study: The Iconostases in Cluj
County - Ph D Thesis, University of Art and Design Cluj-Napoca: abstract available at:
http://www.uad.ro/Public/Docs/05%20PROGRAME%20DE%20STUDII/03%20Doctorat/Rezumate%20
romana/Labo%20Cristina%20-%20rezumat%20ro.pdf
Yudin V (2017) Architectural and Artistic Design of Wooden Iconostases in New and Restored
Temples. ICCATS 2017, IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 262 (2017) 012157
doi:10.1088/1757-899X/262/1/012157
Socolova MN (Monahia Iuliana) (2001) Truda iconarului. Editura Sophia, ISBN 973-8207-05-03.
Plăiașu M, Marin E (2011) Codlea-trecut și prezent. Ediția a 2-a, ISBN 978-973-0-08862-5, pp 129-
155.
Lehni R (2009) Zeiden- Eine kurze Chronik (Codlea- o cronică scurtă). Heidelberg,
www.siebenburgen-institut-de, ISBN 978-3-929848-77-9.
***. Evaluarea multi-disciplinară a șilor âmpărătești din bisericile de secol XV-XIX în vederea
conservării și restaurătii prin metode clasice și digitale pentru asigurarea vizibilității comunitare,
PROIECT PN-II-PT-PCCA-2013-4-1882- PARTENERIATE ÎN DOMENII PRIORITARE, 2013-2016,
available at: http://usiimparatesti.granturi.ubbcluj.ro/Raport_Etapa_1.pdf
200
WOOD IDENTIFICATION OF THE WOODEN COMPONENTS OF

A 19TH CENTURY PIPE ORGAN
Nicola MACCHIONI
National Research Council of Italy - Institute of Bioeconomy (CNR – IBE)
Via Madonna del Piano, 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy
Tel.: 0039 0555225602, Fax: 0039 0555225607, e-mail: nicola.macchioni@cnr.it
Simona LAZZERI
Tel.: 0039 0555225603, Fax: 0039 0555225607, e-mail: simona.lazzeri@cnr.it
Lorena SOZZI
Tel.: 0039 0555225687, Fax: 0039 0555225607, e-mail: lorena.sozzi@cnr.it
Nicola PUCCINI
Nicola Puccini Bottega Organaria Srl
Via Carlo Barsotti, 6/A, 56017 San Giuliano Terme (PI) Italy
Tel.: 0039 050803313, e-mail: info@pucciniorgani.com
Abstract
This work is aimed at showing the results of a work of identification of the wood species used
for the construction of the mechanical components of a historic pipe organ. The instrument was built in
1895 in Pistoia (Tuscany, Italy) for a church of a small municipality in the north-west of Tuscany, the
summer residence of a family of ancient European nobility; it is therefore a large monumental organ,
still original. During the restoration operations, and consequently on the disassembly, it was possible
to carry out a complete sampling of the wooden components that are normally not directly accessible.
The sampling was performed under the supervision of the restorer, through the cut and drawing of
very small samples and with minimally invasive criteria. The identification was performed by observing
thin sections, manually cut, by means of an optical microscope.
The results of the identification carried out on the 25 samples are reported. The identified
timbers are not very numerous and the most represented one is poplar (Populus sp.).
Key words: pipe organ, restoration, wood species identification, wood anatomy, cultural heritage.
INTRODUCTION
The pipe organ of the church of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Capezzano Pianore
is a large monumental pipe organ built in Pistoia (Tuscany) by the company Agati-Tronci in 1895
(opus number 1164, Figure 1). The Agati -Tronci was a pipe organ-making company founded in the
1880s by the union of the two competitors companies Agati and Tronci, both building large pipe
organs in Pistoia from the first half of the eighteenth century. The presence of an organ of this size in
the church of the small community of Capezzano-Pianore, not far from the north Tuscan coast, might
seem strange, but in that municipality there was the summer residence of the Bourbon-Parma family
and in Capezzano Pianore was born in 1892 Zita of Bourbon-Parma, wife of last emperor of Austria
Charles of Habsburg. Precisely the noble family commissioned the construction of this organ, which is
the largest still existing of the Agati-Tronci production.
The instrument is located in the elevated wooden choir of the church, enclosed in a wooden
case leaning against the counter-façade wall and anchored to it by means of iron rods and bolts. Its
appearance has an extraordinary majesty, confirmed by the imposing appearance of the 16-foot
façade and with the neoclassical case that recalls the ancient sixteenth-century Tuscan pipe organs.
The mechanical components of a pipe organ have the function of managing and regulating the
air flows, produced by the bellows, towards specific pipes, so as to produce the desired sounds
(Shannon 2014). A pipe organ is a polymateric instrument, mostly constituted in its mechanical parts
of different woods, but some metals (tin, iron and lead), frequently suffering for corrosion damages
(Chiavari et al. 2008) and some types of animal skin, together with paper and woollen felt, are also
201
important to seal the connections between elements constructed to regulate the flows of air towards
the pipes.
Fig. 1.
The original label of the Capezzano Pianore pipe organ (left), the console before the
restoration on the right.
Due to the damage suffered by some pipes due to the splinter of a bomb during the last World
War (1943), the organ of Capezzano Pianore had not played for several decades and at the time of
the beginning of the restoration operations it was not able to play. The mechanical wooden parts were
in good condition, showing few and limited holes from xylophagous insects dating back to old attacks
no longer active (Figure 4, left). The parts in animal skin needed instead to be replaced, as well as
numerous damaged and deformed tin pipes. The scientific literature on the restoration of pipe organs
is not very numerous, so it is not easy to find examples that concern the identification of the wood
normally used, because they are normally more concentrated on problems to metal components
(Justo-Estebaranz et al. 2012), like the so-called “tin pest” (Eckert 2008) or on the deformations of
wooden components due to heating (Schellen et al. 2003).
The first restoration operation consisted in the complete disassembly of the whole organ and
in the cataloguing of all the components. The disassembled instrument was then transported to the
organ building workshop of the Puccini company which required the identification of the wood species,
in order to receive fundamental information for the subsequent restoration and consolidation
operations of the wooden parts. The dismantling made it possible to evaluate that this pipe organ has
never undergone restoration in the course of its history, therefore all the components must be
considered those originally made by the manufacturer in 1895.
Aim of the work is the identification of the wood species used for the construction of the organ.
The results are important to have a better knowledge about the use of wood into a peculiar field, but
also both to inform the restoration and to find if it does exist a technological connection between the
selected species and the specific use within the instrument.

The applied methodologies follows the guidelines from the Italian technical standard UNI
11118. Sampling for wood identification was carried out by the staff of the anatomical wood
characterisation laboratory, but the selection of the wood components to be sampled was by the
restorer.
The samples, of the size of a few millimetres on each side, were taken by means of razor
blades or scalpels, labelled according to the name given by the master organ and placed in plastic
containers (Figure 2, Figure 3).
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Sampling from foot of wooden pipe Sampling of the rollerboard.
quintatone 4p.
202
The 25 drawn samples were brought to the CNR - IVALSA wood anatomical characterization
laboratory. Each sample was boiled in tap water to make it suitable for cutting into thin sections. The
sections were obtained by cutting the sample blocked by a freezing plate, by hand cutting with a sharp
blade. Thin sections were obtained along the three anatomical directions of wood: cross, longitudinal
radial and longitudinal tangential.
The observations were carried out using an optical microscope (Leica DB2) equipped with a
digital camera. Through the comparison between what has been observed and the descriptions
reported in the sector technical literature (Grosser 1977, Schweingruber 1990) it was possible to reach
the identifications listed in the results.
The results could reach in several cases the level of the species, while, eg for poplar, it is only
possible to reach the genus, because all the poplar species produce wood having the same
anatomical characteristics. Honestly, it should be declared that also for spruce wood it is possible only
to state the level of Picea genus, but considering the historical period and the geographical context it
is more probable (almost sure) Picea abies than any other possible spruce.

Table 1 reports the obtained results.
The most represented wood is poplar wood (Populus sp.), a widespread situation in Italy
where poplar wood is the one that historically finds the greatest variety of uses. In fact it is known that
Italian painting used poplar wood for some centuries to make paintings on wood. The most well-known
case is that of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, but other very famous names like Giotto or Raphael
used to paint on poplar boards (Dunkerton and Roy 1996, Mazzanti et al. 2012).
Even the Italian wooden statues from the Renaissance to the late Baroque period were very
often, but not almost exclusively, executed by carving poplar trunks (Macchioni et al. 2011, Macchioni
et al. 2015).
Fig. 4.
From left to right, cross, longitudinal radiale and longitudinal tangential sections from the
sample 4, poplar wood. Top right of the cross section: part of a tunnel by a furniture beetle.
Poplar wood was also widely used in less noble end uses than the artistic ones mentioned
before: in certain areas the wooden structures of rural buildings were often made of poplar, as well as
the arches that supported the vaulted ceilings were made by nailing each other, to shape an arch,
poplar boards (Macchioni and Diodato 2017).
Here in the pipe organ poplar wood is used mostly for lathe-worked elements, but also for less
refined joined elements, like supporting boards (Figure 4), reflecting its role as a widespread and
economic timber, useful for different purposes and selected according to quality and available
203
dimensions in the storage. For sure the lathe-working of small elements needed an accurate selection
of the material, in terms of wood orientation and absence of defects. Giordano (1997 Vol. I) reports the
use of Populus tremula for inner parts of pipe organs.
The second represented timber is that of the Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.). It is a wood
that is neither typical nor traditionally used in the organ production area. Despite this, it is widely used
within this organ. In the previous decades it was probably used European fir (Abies alba Mill.) wood
instead of the spruce, completely similar, but normally without resin production and coming from the
Tuscan mountains. Instead, Norway spruce wood was most likely originating in the Alpine regions and
its use throughout the peninsula had certainly been encouraged by the political unification of Italy
which, at the time of the organ's making, had taken place a few decades earlier, while up to the middle
of the 60s of the nineteenth century the Alps and Tuscany belonged to different states. The presence
of spruce wood is connected to the structural elements of the organ.
It must be underlined that spruce wood is typical for the production of resonance boards within
string instruments, including pianos (Giordano 1997 Vol. I). But this is not the case in this pipe organ,
where resonance boards are not present.
A similar structural function is given by the chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) elements: this
wood is represented within the organ by the jalousie of the swell box, a use of chestnut wood that is
among the most representative in the Tuscan tradition (Becagli et al. 2009).
The apparently casual presence of a single specimen of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga douglasii
Franco) and Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) is probably due to the presence of small elements in
the joinery storage that allowed the adequate realization of small components to be placed inside the
organ. The Douglas fir sample was probably of American origin (the so-called "first growth") given the
small rings, therefore suitable for carving, while Swiss stone pine is well known as one of the few
among softwoods suitable for carving (Macchioni et al. 2015).
Walnut wood (Juglans regia L.) is present in the organ in small components of fine joinery, as
frequently happens in the tradition of Italian carpentry. The walnut wood makes it possible to carry out
accurate work in a simple manner given its anatomical and physical-mechanical characteristics
(Giordano 1997 Vol. II).
Table 1
Results of the identifications
Sample Position Timber Scientific name
1 frame of windchest Norway spruce Picea abies
2 lock valve of windchest Walnut Juglans regia
3 frame of springs stops Walnut Juglans regia
4 bottom part of windchest Poplar Populus sp.
5 wind trunk Norway spruce Picea abies
6 rack board Poplar Populus sp.
7 long part of tracker Poplar Populus sp.
7b spherical part of tracker Poplar Populus sp.
8 pallet Norway spruce Picea abies
9 wooden pipe quintatone 4p Norway spruce Picea abies
10 foot of wooden pipe quintatone 4p Douglas fir Pseudotsuga douglasii
11 Foot of contrabass pipe Poplar Populus sp.
12 rollerboard Poplar Populus sp.
13 fold of bellow Beech Fagus sylvatica
14 valve of bellow Poplar Populus sp.
15 bourdon 8P Swiss pine Pinus cembra
16 foot of bourdon 8p Walnut Juglans regia
17 label of the stops Holly Ilex aquifolium
18 tracker Walnut Juglans regia
204
19 curtain's wooden pole Norway spruce Picea abies

20 jalousies of swell box Chestnut Castanea sativa
21 case bottom Norway spruce (r.w.) Picea abies
22 case Poplar Populus sp.
23 internal part of case (behind the Norway spruce Picea abies
column)
24 choir wooden floor Maritime pine Pinus pinaster
25 pipe oboe soprano Maple (prob. Acer cfr.
Sycamore) pseudoplatanus
What is surprising is the very reduced presence of beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.), used only
as an element of union of the components of the bellow, where the joiner looked for a stable and
dense wood. The use of holly wood (Ilex aquifolium L., Figure 5) is reserved for the production of
cartouches for organ stops. It is a hard wood with a very fine structure, suitable for making small, flat,
dimensionally very stable components. Normally, in other pipe organs this role is given to boxwood
(Buxus sempervirens), a timber very similar to holly. Most probably the producer didn’t have at the
moment the availability of boxwood in his storage and choose the most similar one: holly wood.
Among the 25 analysed samples, only one was made to produce and diffuse the sound
directly, ie the pipe of the soprano oboe, which turned out to be made of sycamore maple wood (Acer
pseudoplatanus L.) and not, as expected by the restorer of boxwood. It is an anatomically very uniform
wood, quite hard and compact, which allows for an excellent finish with any turning and carving work.
Finally, a sample was also taken from the balcony deck on which the organ is housed (upper
choir, cantoria in Italian. The wood of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Aiton.) Has been identified, a
wood widespread in the area, suitable for uses such as the one found. Currently the maritime pine
wood from the same area is mostly reduced in chips for the production of energy or wood panels,
given the low quality shape of the local logs.
Fig. 5.
Left cross and, right, longitudinal radial section from sample 17, holly wood.
CONCLUSIONS
The identification of the wood species was an analytical phase which, together with the
analysis of the metals and that of the surface finishes, informed the restorer in view of the restoration
operations.
Given the good general state of preservation of the instrument, the restoration focused mainly
on the cleaning of materials, the replacement of the few too damaged parts and the verification of all
air seals. This phase necessitated the replacement of almost all elements made of animal skin. The
most deformed metal pipes have not been replaced, but put back into shape and reinforced where
necessary.
Finally, an extremely delicate phase, the instrument was tuned to its individual components
and in general (Angster and Miklòs 1995). The final restoration phase ended on May 20018.
205
Fig. 6.
After the restoration: the organ from the church and its console.
The timbers used to make the mechanical components made of wood inside a large pipe
organ of the late nineteenth century were identified. The woods used for the construction of the
mechanical components made of wood were identified in a large pipe organ of the late nineteenth
century. The followed methodology involved the observation by optical microscope of thin sections cut
from small samples, obtained in a micro-invasive way with the support of the restorer.
The two most common woods were found to be poplar and spruce. Apparently the specific use
of a certain timber for certain wooden parts was guided primarily by availability in storage and,
secondarily, by adaptability to specific processes, necessary for obtaining the desired piece.
Once the restoration was completed, the pipe organ of Capezzano Pianore was reassembled
in its original location during summer 2018 and was again inaugurated during a special concert, when
the instrument played again for the public (Figure 6).
REFERENCES
Angster J, Miklós A (1995) Documentation of the sound of a historical pipe organ. Applied
Acoustics, 46(1):61-82.
Becagli C, Amorini E, Fratini R, Manetti MC, Marone E (2009) Problems and prospects of the chestnut
timber chain in Tuscany. In I European Congress on Chestnut-Castanea 2009 866 (pp. 693-700).
Chiavari C, Martini C, Prandstraller D, Niklasson A, Johansson LG, Svensson JE, Åslund A, Bergsten
CJ (2008) Atmospheric corrosion of historical organ pipes: the influence of environment and
materials. Corrosion Science, 50(9):2444-2455.
Dunkerton J, Roy A (1996) The materials of a group of late fifteenth-century Florentine panel
paintings. National Gallery Technical Bulletin, 17:20-31.
Eckert A (2008) Organ pipes and tin pest. Materials and corrosion, 59(3):254-260.
Giordano G (1997) Antologia del legno. Volume I and II. Consorzio LegnoLegno, Reggio Emilia. 457-
786.
Grosser D (1977) Die holzer mitteleuropas. Ein mikrophotographischer lehratlas. Springer Verlag,
Berlin, 208.
Justo-Estebaranz A, Herrera LK, Duran A, Sigüenza B, de Haro MCJ, Laguna O, Justo A (2012)
Analysis of the restoration of an historical organ: The case study of the Cavaillé-Coll organ of La
Merced Church in Burgos, Spain. Studies in conservation, 57(1):21-28.
Macchioni N, Lazzeri S, Sozzi L, Vitiello R (2011) Wooden Sculptures From Xvii And Xviii Centuries In
The Region Of Asti (Italy): Scientific Identification Of The Species. International Journal of
Conservation Science, 2(4).
Macchioni N, Fachechi GM, Lazzeri S, Sozzi L (2015) Timber species and provenances of wooden
sculptures. Information from the collections of the National Museum of “Palazzo di Venezia” in
Rome. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 16(1):57-64
206
Macchioni N, Diodato M (2017) Le Strutture Lignee: Sala Del Colosso E Crociera Del David. In “ La
valutazione del rischio sismico nel complesso della Galleria dell’Accademia di Firenze” (G. Giorgianni
Ed.), AAltrAlineA, Firenze, 131-140.
Mazzanti P, Togni M, Uzielli L (2012) Drying shrinkage and mechanical properties of poplar wood
(Populus alba L.) across the grain. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13(3):S85-S89.
Shannon JR (2014) Understanding the pipe organ: A guide for students, teachers and lovers of the
instrument. McFarland.
Schellen HL, van Schijndel AWM, Neilen D, van Aarle MAP (2003) Damage to a monumental organ
due to wood deformation caused by church heating. In 2ND Conference on Building Physics Leuven.
Schweingruber FH (1990) European wood anatomy. Verlag Paul Haupt, Bern. (800 pp.).
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REFLECTIONS OF WOOD PROCESSING IN THE ROMANIAN PHILATELY.

Part 1: IMOBIL HERITAGE & TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Mirela COMAN
Asoc. prof. dr. eng. habil. - Technical University, Cluj-Napoca - North University Centre, Baia Mare
Faculty of Engineering, 62A Victor Babeș Str., 430083, Baia Mare, Romania
E-mail: comanmirela2000@yahoo.com
Bogdan CIORUȚA
*
Phd. eng., inf. - Technical University, Cluj-Napoca - North University Centre, Baia Mare
Office of Informatics and Communications, 62A Victor Babeș Str., 430083, Baia Mare, Romania
E-mail: bogdan.cioruta@staff.utcluj.ro
Alexandru-Leonard POP
Sist. eng. - Technical University, Cluj-Napoca - North University Centre, Baia Mare
E-mail: alexandru.pop@staff.utcluj.ro
Abstract
The man viewed through ecology is directly involved and even responsible for his integration
into a healthy natural environment, from which the notion of ecological house with traditional
architecture, as a result of the concept of healthy home, can not be missed. The Romanian Philately,
since its inception, has made known to the world the elements of traditional (vernacular) architecture,
which we place as the foundation of the ecological house concept. Through this study, as a tradition of
the philatelic studies that we develop now, we want to showcase a part of the philatelic issues that
emphasize traditional architecture, from its inception to the present - including farmhouses with
associated annexes, mills, gates, and other elements that we can easily record into the category of
imobil heritage. Philatelic studied does not accentuate so much the art of wood processing, as the life
of the Romanian people, who helped mobilize all creative energies into what today we consider to be
cultural heritage from a philatelic perspective.
Key words: philatelic issues; wood constructions; imobil heritage; traditional architecture.
INTRODUCTION
About wood processing and wooden houses, it's been discussed for a long time. Lately, even
in Romania, the interest in this kind of houses has begun to take on proportions (Cioruța et al. 2018,
Muntean and Cioruța 2016). Gifted with curiosity, but especially by reorienting to a new lifestyle,
perhaps more comfortable, people are looking to find out more about traditional and healthy
architecture (Janeta and Coman 2016), as part of the modern cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage is a testimony and expression of the values, beliefs, knowledge and traditions
that have resulted over time from the interaction of human factors with those of nature. It is in a
continuous evolution and contributes fundamentally to the development of the urban and urban
communities, as well as to the improvement of the quality of collective life, from philosophy to
environmental engineering, and from science to sustainable development (Mesaroș 2018). In fact,
cultural heritage delights and inspires generations on their journey to knowledge, so it is a treasure
that must be protected.
As a domain, cultural heritage is an essential resource for Romania's identity and the
development of a society of peace and stability, based on respect for human rights, democracy and
the rule of law. Active participation and modern management of this strategic resource adds to the
community plus economic, social and cultural value. As part of human activity, cultural heritage
produces tangible representations of the value systems, beliefs, traditions and lifestyles, part of them
being also found as philatelic valences of communities history (Pop and Cioruța 2017, Pop A.L.,
Cioruța et al. 2018).
In the present society, we can say that the immovable property is, by far, the most valuable
component of the cultural heritage, both in terms of direct material value and the possibilities of
*
208
inserting extra-cultural components. It should be noted that the cultural heritage is a phrase that
designates what, in generic terms, is called "historical monuments", a category that includes not only
monuments, but also historic sites, memorial structures and other significant elements.
OBJECTIVES
Philately can be defined as the activity of collecting and studying philatelic products, especially
stamps. However, philately signifies more than a concern for beauty; provoking, informing, educating,
linking friends and having fun are some of the features of one of the most popular hobbies in the
world. Researching closely etymology philately beyond occupations whose purpose franking in the
broad meaning of the word, we realize that this is more than a concern, a means pleasant and
instructive recreation, which consists ino collecting and studying stamps and other philatelic-postal
items; practically, the two parts of philately - collecting and studying philatelic parts - are very closely
linked, constituting an organic whole. Moreover, we consent that we learn the misconception that
philately is only gathering, collecting trademark without careful study, thorough and versatility of their
means to go on a narrow path, to lose since the beginning, opportunity to enrich us, in a pleasant and
not surprising way, the knowledge of general culture, which is equivalent to emptying philately from its
instructive-educational content.
Today, at over 160 years of philately in Romania, our preoccupations for this extremely vast
field, which has as object of study not only the postage stamps of various types, but also other
categories of philatelic parts (first day covers, envelopes, postcards and maximum postcards, etc.) is
summed up and focuses on everything intimately linked to the wood processing activity.
By constantly promoting philatelic themes that focus on the beauties and riches of our country,
the administrative entity responsible for the issue of philatelic-postal items, Romfilatelia, is currently
performing a series of issues in whose images there are elements specific to the wood processing
activity, the elements of architecture that we consider part of the cultural heritage. Starting from the
idea that Romania is a blessed place, especially from a cultural heritage point of view, with an
extremely well-defined architectural and ethnographic richness, we chose to present a series of
philatelic-postal broadcasts, which come to refine the individual's need for aesthetics and cultural-
educational development.
At the same time, during the study, we tried to emphasize the cultural importance of philately
within society, and to give the public a part of the forgotten history of wood processing in Romania, an
activity that underpinned the national economy for a good time, and whose results we find, extremely
well-preserved, in various specially arranged corners of the Village Museum.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

The working methodology for this study comes as an accessible concern from all points of
view of the current generation of individuals. As with the practice of philately, no special long training is
required, so in the case of the present study, no laborious methodology is required, as well as costly
methods, equipment and/or tools for conducting research, in this case purely philatelic ones.
Objectively speaking, beyond the passion of the authors for philately - as a satisfaction of the
aesthetic need and as a cultural-educational development, the working methodology consisted in
identifying, indexing and describing in the present study the main philatelic pieces issued in Romania
(postal stamps, FDCs, occasional envelopes, postcards and maxicards), which, over time, continue to
promote the wood processing activity in Romania, from ancient times to the present.
In our research period, both author collections and international open-source philatelic
databases have been thoroughly consulted, including Delcampe (www.delcampe.net), Colnect
(colnect.com), StampWorld (www. stampworld.com) and Romania Stamps
(www.romaniastamps.com), as well as specialized philatelic catalogs: Yvert (Yv), Michael (Mi), Gibson
(G) and Scott (S).
The above mentioned bibliographic resources added, for the fullness of the study, a series of
specialized catalogs on errors, curiosities and philatelic varieties (Găbureac 2008, Găbureac 2010), as
well as an important series of Romanian specialty works of general character on Romanian postal
stamps (Scăiceanu 2018), which offer valuable information and confer authenticity to clarify the
following parameters: date of the issues, layout and indexing of the philatelic pieces (Spineanu
1984(I), Spineanu 1984(II)), respectively their description (Tudor et al. 2017, Tudor et al. 2017). At the
same time, the platforms with open-source philatelic content, as well as the discussion forums, due to
the online meetings of the philately enthusiasts, guarantees the correctness of the data presented.
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IMOBIL HERITAGE AND TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The first philatelic piece (telegram), identified and indexed in the present study, which brings to
the fore the possibilities of capitalizing the wood processing - as a trot (see Fig. 1) - was put into
circulation around 24 October 1940, and it is available to be purchased on www.delcampe.net.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.
„Wood trot” - circulated telegram, 1940.
Only after more than 20 years appears the series of postal items, not to be neglected, bearing
the fixed mark Stema R.P.R. of 55 money or 1 leu, of order no. 54 good to be print, for December
1963, in a total of 375,000 copies. Although the series expressly refers to the popular costumes from
different regions of the country (see Fig. 2), Muscel (picclick.com , www.delcampe.net ), the Apuseni
Mountains (www.delcampe.net), Jiul de Sus (www.delcampe.net), the Land of Olt
(https://picclick.com), North Moldova (www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-
postaux/cover-stationery-romania-1963-470192385.html), and in the background are also exhibiting
elements specific to the building heritage: wooden houses and gates, household annexes, wooden
handicrafts, etc.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 2.
„National costumes” - unclaimed and circulated postal items, 1961-1963.
Approximately during the same period (1960-1965), a series of postal stamps appeared to
highlight the beauty of old wooden houses, which can be found at the moment only on the specially
arranged alleys from the Village Museum in Bucharest . Among these, we can mention the "peasant
house from the Apuseni Mountains" (see Fig. 3) (www.delcampe.net/fr/collections), "the Romanian
household in the Bran-Braşov area" (see Fig. 4) (www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie),
"the peasant house from Oltenia (Fig. 5) (www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/architecture) and
210
an "old house from Bucharest" (as presented in Fig. 6)

(www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/architecture/autres).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 3.
„Peasant house form Apuseni Mountains” - various postal items.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 4.
„Romanian household in the Bran-Braşov area” - various postal items.
As can be seen from the philatelic pieces presented above, the architecture specific to a
certain place is influenced by a cumulus of factors, without any of them being determinant; economic
motivations, building materials, culture and customs are key elements around which architecture has
been built. Sometimes, neighboring villages with the same climate and relief develop differently.
Today, many believe that the shape and layout of a house are aesthetic, but vernacular
architecture is delicately dictated by the climate. The house is above all a shelter against the weather:
where the climate is warm and dry, high heat inertial materials are used to keep cool, such as chirpici
or stone, the walls are painted in white or light colors to reflect the radiation solar; where the climate is
warm and humid, houses raised from the ground to avoid flooding are sometimes open or have thin
walls that allow for rapid ventilation; In the cold climate, the house is structured around a large hearth
that heats the space, the materials used are heavy and good thermal insulators, and the exterior is
painted in dark colors that retain the heat.
211
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 5.
„Peasant house from Oltenia” - various postal items.
If the houses in the Danube Delta, for example, have the slope of the lower roof, because
there is less rain and the winters are mild, and as such, the olano-lined rooftops perfectly respond to
this climate, keeping cool summer and heat in the winter, instead in Transylvania and Maramures, the
roofs have steep slopes for rapid drainage of heavy rainbows.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 6.
„Old house from Bucharest” - various postal items.
The high roofs of the mountain houses also have an important role in keeping the meridians
and family needs all year round. In Maramures, the roof can be three times taller than the walls of the
house, and the house is not necessarily the tallest building in the household. Where people were
mainly engaged in animal husbandry, as in Maramures, the lure was larger than the house.
There were large amounts of feed needed for the wintering of the animals in the bridge of the
river. Instead, where people were viticulturists, the cellar was the most important. The same happens
in settlements where people were craftsmen - the semi-basement was tall and with direct street
access.
The first philatelic issue devoted exclusively to the wood processing and to the traditional
architecture variant called "Village Museum" (LP #575), was put into circulation by the Romanian Post
Office around December 25, 1963, at approx. 27 years since the founding of the institution known as
212
the "Village Museum", currently the National Village Museum "Dimitrie Gusti", according to the name
assigned to the institution by the Government Decision no. 742/2003.
The philatelic issue consisting of 7 postage stamps (RO # 2396/02) was printed on
monochromatic paper (see Fig. 7) - with nominal values ranging from 20 bani to 1.75 lei, all the
pieces, even the 2 FDCs (see Fig. 8) being elaborated by I. Dumitrana (Găbureac 2008, 2010;
Scăiceanu 2018; Tudor et al. 2007).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g)

Fig. 7.
„Village Museum” - postal stamps, 1963.
The series features different elements of traditional Romanian houses - in different maxicards
(see Fig. 9), namely the house from Chiojdu Mic (Ploiești), the house from Ceauru (Oltenia), the
house from Dumitra (Hunedoara), the house from Cutișoara (Oltenia), the house from Tilișca (Brașov),
the house from Răpciuni (Bacău) and the house from Stănești (Argeș) (www.mariusursu.ro).
Fig. 8.
„Village Museum” - first day covers (FDCs), 1963.
213
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i) (j)

Fig. 9.
„Village Museum” - different maxicards, 1963.
The following is the "Semicentenary of the Village Museum in Bucharest" (LP # 1162), which
appeared on July 21, 1986, consisting of 6 stamps (as in Fig. 10), illustrating homes from Sălciua de
Jos (Alba), Stăneşti (Argeş), Ostrov (Constanţa), Sârbova (Timiş), Audia (Neamţ) and Cutişoara
(Gorj).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 10.
„Semicentenary of the Village Museum” - postal stamps, 1986.
214
The stamps have a 33×48mm format and were printed in a 200,000 series run in 25-piece
finished sheets. The broadcast is accompanied by 2 FDCs, with 3 postal stamps on each FDC, and
different maxicards, as presented in Fig. 11.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k) (l)

Fig. 11.
„Semicentenary of the Village Museum” - maxicards, 1986.
215
The layout of the house, chaise, and other enclosures around the deck (courtyard) seems to
be the result of a compositional-plastic intention, but is in fact dictated by the functional needs of the
household. Vernacular architecture is not only influenced by external factors and functionality. There
are many aspects of the local architectural specificity of a habituation area, e.g. socio-cultural factors.
Sometimes, cultural factors become more important than environmental determinants.
The Romanian Philately has successfully illustrated this idea in the philatelic issue "Traditional
Architecture" (LP #1215), composed of 6 stamps (as presented in Fig. 12) made by M. Vămăşescu,
th
put into circulation on the 18 of February 1989. It can be seen on each stamp the specific house plan
of the architectural area. Stamps have a size of 27×42mm and were printed in a 200,000 series run.
The broadcast is also accompanied by 2 FDCs and different maxicards (see Fig. 13 and Fig. 14).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 12.
„Traditional architecture” - postal stamps, 1989.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 13.
„Traditional architecture” - maxicards with „first day stamp”, 1989.
216
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k) (l)

Fig. 14.
„Traditional architecture” - different maxicards, 1989.
The traditional house and household always agree with the occupations and way of
inhabitants life, but also with their economic possibilities. The economic motivations that influence
architecture are related to the basic occupations of the inhabitants and the way in which they
determine the configuration of the household. This aspect can be seen from the whole series of
philatelic pieces that have been exposed. With regard to building materials, the easiest way to build
has always been with materials in the immediate vicinity, in hill and mountain areas, where forests
surrounded the settlements, wood was the most handy resource.
Romanian civilization is a civilization of wood and not of stone; stone was commonly used only
for foundations. Of course, there are localities where wall stone was used, but these are rather the
exception that confirms the rule. Such houses are located in Dobrogea, in the south of Banat or in the
south of the Apuseni Mountains, where often used stone is processed from the Roman ruins.
217
CONCLUSION
Lately, in Romania at least, the philatelic research is almost completely missing. The novelty
of this study is that we try to bring, to the current and future generations, a hint of the wood processing
history. Through the philatelic pieces, in a very large number of pictorial data (in the form of postal
stamps, FDCs, occasional envelopes, postcards, maxicards etc.), we expose, something that has not
been included in Romanian philatelic studies so far.
By publishing this study we hope that we will make available to all those interested a useful
tool of information, education and philatelic orientation in what was the wood processing activity in
Romania over time. We would like the work to be the first light to guide through the intricate philatelic
galleries of Romanian traditional architecture. Also, to somewhat revive the sober style, proper
corrections and catalogs, and of course to remove the monotony specific to a purely philatelic study,
we sought to present the material in the form of not so analytical, but descriptive notes.
And that is to make it easier to fully understand the evolution of wood processing in philately,
as well as the dynamics of the preoccupations for the promotion of wooden architecture that we often
find as part of different village museums. This study is mainly addressed to passionate philatelists, but
can also be of interest to other professional categories that can develop similar studies. It can be
highlighted that philately is capable of being a true embassy of culture.
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218
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/telegraphes/telegram-form-with-envelope-
shephard-mushrooms-carved-wood-cross-1940-romania-229030722.html
picclick.com/1963-Regional-CostumesArchitectureMUSCELPotterySpinningRomaniaPS-cover-
192150054800.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/muscel-costume-peasure-cover-
stationery-send-to-mail-1964-romania-219936900.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/romanian-traditional-art-carvery-
apuseni-mountains-cover-stationery-entiere-postaux-1964-romania-225385057.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/cultures/costumes/ip-63-880a-popular-costumes-jiul-de-sus-
romania-stationery-unused-1963-757782656.html
https://picclick.com/1963-Regional-CostumesArchitectureTARA-OLTULUIFlutePotteryRomania2-
covers-192150054858.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/cover-stationery-romania-1963-
470192385.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/romania-1961-mint-stationery-
cover-peasant-house-in-western-carpathian-mountains-441399154.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/74305-bucharest-village-museum-
traditional-house-from-transylvania-cover-stationery-1962-romania-672001420.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/peasant-house-from-apuseni-
mountains-registered-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1962-romania-227721220.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/48840-traditional-house-from-
apuseni-mountains-cover-stationery-1962-romania-398043687.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/bucharest-village-museum-house-
from-apuseni-mountains-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1962-romania-329297251.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/arts/musees/romania-postal-stationery-cover-1961-village-
museum-bucharest-apuseni-mountains-area-country-house-227464296.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/romania-1961-mint-stationery-
cover-peasant-house-at-bran-in-transylvania-441398573.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/peasant-house-near-brasov-cover-
stationery-entier-postal-1964-romania-227721256.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/peasant-house-from-bran-brasov-
region-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1962-romania-633323761.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/romania-1962-used-stationery-
cover-peasant-house-at-bran-in-transylvania-441399789.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/peasant-house-from-bran-brasov-
region-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1963-romania-633323755.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/60344-traditional-house-from-bran-
brasov-region-registered-cover-stationery-1962-romania-449800947.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/architecture/autres/peasant-house-oltenia-1961-very-rare-
cover-stationery-entier-postal-unused-romania-159436319.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/68770-house-from-oltenia-region-
bucharest-village-museum-cover-stationery-1973-romania-513932312.html
peasant-house-from-oltenia-cover-stationery-1963-romania-465576797.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/bucharest-village-museum-
peasant-house-from-oltenia-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1986-romania-633323746.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/peasant-house-from-oltenia-
registered-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1962-romania-227721229.html
219
house-from-oltenia-cover-stationery-1963-romania-344159318.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/architecture/autres/peasant-house-bucharest-1961-very-rare-
cover-stationery-entier-postal-unused-romania-159436720.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/63528-bucharest-old-house-on-
kiseleff-street-cover-stationery-1963-romania-465304750.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/romania-postal-stationery-cover-
1962-circulated-old-house-in-bucharest-285408121.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/63611-old-house-from-ploiesti-
cover-stationery-1961-romania-465576747.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/bucharest-old-house-taproom-
cover-stationery-entier-postal-1962-romania-227721527.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/entiers-postaux/bucharest-old-house-taproom-
registered-cover-stationery-entier-postal-1962-romania-227721522.html
colnect.com/ro/stamps/list/country/2668-Rom%C3%A2nia/series/43638-Village_Museum
www.stampworld.com/stamps/Romania/Postage-stamps/g2219
www.mariusursu.ro/Site%20timbre/Muzeul%20satului.htm
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/architecture/non-classes/maximumcard-romania-folk-art-
cultures-folk-house-chiojdu-mic-buzau-county-213935809.html
cultures-folk-house-chiojdu-mic-buzau-county-213935822.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/cartes-maximum-cm/traditional-wooden-house-
village-museum-cm-maxicard-cartes-maximum-1963-romania-359715506.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/architecture/monuments/architecture-village-maxi-card-
maximum-card-1987-romania-69032943.html
cultures-wooden-gate-and-house-from-oltenia-214540604.html
cultures-folk-house-bistrita-county-213936571.html
cultures-house-from-curtisoara-gorj-county-214541709.html
cultures-folk-house-gorj-county-213936370.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/roumanie/cartes-maximum-cm/traditional-wooden-house-
village-museum-cm-maxicard-cartes-maximum-1963-romania-359715507.html
www.delcampe.net/fr/collections/timbres/cultures/autres/romania-maximumcard-cultures-popular-
architecture-house-from-curtisoara-179774437.html
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REFLECTIONS OF WOOD PROCESSING IN THE ROMANIAN PHILATELY.

Part 2: MOBIL HERITAGE & TRADITIONAL WOODEN-CRAFTS
Mirela COMAN
Asoc. prof. dr. eng. habil. - Technical University, Cluj-Napoca - North University Centre, Baia Mare
Faculty of Engineering, 62A Victor Babeș Str., 430083, Baia Mare, Romania
E-mail: comanmirela2000@yahoo.com
Alexandru-Leonard POP
Sist. eng. - Technical University, Cluj-Napoca - North University Centre, Baia Mare
E-mail: alexandru.pop@staff.utcluj.ro
Bogdan CIORUȚA
*
Phd. eng., inf. - Technical University, Cluj-Napoca - North University Centre, Baia Mare
E-mail: bogdan.cioruta@staff.utcluj.ro
Abstract
Through this study, as a tradition of the philatelic studies that we develop now, we want to
present a part of the philatelic issues that emphasize traditional wooden-crafts, including farmhouses
associated objects and other elements that we can easily record into the category of mobil heritage. In
this philatelic study we accentuate so much the art of wood processing, as well as the life of Romanian
people, who helped mobilize all creative energies into what today we consider to be mobil heritage as
integrated part of cultural heritage, but from a philatelic perspective.
Key words: philatelic issues; traditional wooden-crafts; mobil heritage; conservation of furniture.
INTRODUCTION
Cultural heritage is a testimony and expression of the values, beliefs, knowledge and traditions
that have resulted over time from the interaction of human factors with those of nature. It is in a
continuous evolution and contributes fundamentally to the development of the urban and urban
communities, as well as to the improvement of the quality of collective life. In fact, cultural heritage
delights and inspires generations on their journey to knowledge, so it is a treasure that must be
protected.
In the same way, we must also enjoy some protection on wood-based elements that have
been close to us, in their usefulness in day-to-day activities (Janeta and Coman 2016). Although many
of these wood-based objects have not passed the threshold of time, it is still worth mentioning those
who have made their way to the general public through various philatelic issues, which is also the
main purpose of the current study.
OBJECTIVES
Philately can be defined as the activity of collecting and studying philatelic products, especially
stamps. However, philately signifies more than a concern for beauty; provoking, informing, educating,
linking friends and having fun are some of the features of one of the most popular hobbies in the
world. Today, at over 160 years of philately in Romania, our preoccupations for this extremely vast
field, which has as object of study not only the postage stamps of various types, but also other
categories of philatelic parts is summed up and focuses on everything intimately linked to the wood
processing activity. The philately contribution fits into the wood-based materials topic, and wood
preservation-restoration of furniture and wooden objects.
By constantly promoting philatelic themes that focus on the beauties and riches of our country,
Romfilatelia, is currently performing a series of issues in whose images there are elements specific to
the wood processing activity, the wood-based materials that we consider part of the cultural heritage.
At the same time, during the study, we tried to emphasize the cultural importance of philately within
society, and to give the public a part of the forgotten history of wood processing in Romania, an
*
221
activity that underpinned the national economy for a good time, and whose results we find, extremely
well-preserved, in various furniture and wooden objects.

In our research period, both author collections and international open-source philatelic
databases have been thoroughly consulted, including Delcampe (www.delcampe.net), Colnect
(colnect.com), StampWorld (www. stampworld.com) and Romania Stamps
(www.romaniastamps.com), as well as specialized philatelic catalogs: Yvert (Yv), Michael (Mi), Gibson
(G) and Scott (S).
The above mentioned bibliographic resources added, for the fullness of the study, a series of
specialized catalogs on errors, curiosities and philatelic varieties (Găbureac 2008, 2010), as well as an
important series of Romanian specialty works of general character on Romanian postal stamps
(Scăiceanu 2018), which offer valuable information and confer authenticity to clarify the following
parameters: date of the issues, layout and indexing of the philatelic pieces (Spineanu 1984 (vol I, II)),
respectively their description (Tudor et al. 2017).
In fact, the few issues identified as having a particular significance for wood crafts are
encountered over the course of about 60 years, between 1934 and 1994, as follows: "Our Romanian
work" (LP #106), "Democratic Federation of Women from Romania" (LP #204), "Romanian folk
(musical) instruments" (LP #526), "Wood sculpture" (LP #959), "The Song of Romania" (LP #1037),
"Domestic household items" (LP #1070), " The World Philatelic Exhibition - PHILAKOREA" (LP
#1351), etc.
MOBIL HERITAGE AND TRADITIONAL WOODEN-CRAFTS. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The first issue considered for this study is the one titled "Our Romanian work" (LP #106),
published on April 15-16, 1934, on white paper with watermark, in 26×41mm format with lace 14.5×14
and 14×14.5 and in a print run of 105,000 series (Găbureac 2008, 2010; Spineanu 1984; Tudor et al.
2017). The issue (presented in Fig. 1) refers to three postage stamps, with the nominal values of 1+1
lei - "wood troita" (RO #605), 2+1 lei - "farmer's wife weaving" (RO #607) and 3+1 lei - " farmer's wife
with spindle" (RO #607), all of them having the use of wood as a support for the everyday activities
(colnect.com/ro/stamps, www.stampworld.com).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.
„Our Romanian work” - postal stamps, 1934.
In addition to the 1934 issue, the issue entitled "The Democratic Women's Federation of
Romania" (LP #204) appeared on 20 November 1946, on white paper with MM filigree, in 22×35mm
format with 14×14.5 lace and in print more generous - 225,000 series (Găbureac 2008, 2010;
Spineanu 1984; Tudor et al. 2017).
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 2.
„Democratic Federation of Women from Romania” - postal stamps, 1946.
222
The issue, also with a voluntary surcharge (see Fig. 2) (colnect.com, www.stampworld.com),
highlights the woman's involvement especially in the agricultural activity, where the wood is
indispensable, through the 5 postage stamps made entirely by A. Murnu (Scăiceanu 2018). Another
interesting show that reflects the possibilities of capitalizing on the art of wood crafting is the "Musical
Instruments" or "Romanian folk instruments" (LP #526), published on 20.09.1961, in 32×28 mm lace
and generous circulation - 3,500,000 series (Găbureac 2008, 2010; Spineanu 1984; Tudor et al.
2017), according to the models made by A. Tasgian (Scăiceanu 2018).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 3.
„Romanian folk instruments” - postal stamps, 1961.
The issue consisting of 6 postage stamps (see Fig. 3) (colnect.com/ro/stamps,

www.stampworld.com), namely 10 bani - „pan piper” (RO #2179), 20 bani - „alpenhorn” (RO #2180),
40 bani - „flaut” (RO #2181), 55 bani - „cobza” (RO #2182), 60 bani - „bagpiper” (RO #2183) and 1 leu
- „cembalo” (RO #2184), was made on finished 100 sheets and is the first issue studied in the present
paper which presents two FDCs (see Fig. 4).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.
„Romanian folk instruments” - first day covers (FDCs), 1961.
Also for the fairness of the exhibition we present a series of postal circulars circulated from the
series entitled "Musical Instruments in Romanian Folklore" (see Fig. 5), applying the figurative
figurative mark of 55 bani / 1 leu on a franked post with the postage stamps in the "Musical
Instruments" issue and obliterated with the stamp of the day.
223
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Fig. 5.
„Romanian folk instruments” - circulated postal issues, 1961.
Another extremely interesting show (see Fig. 6) which captures and reflects the essence of
wood use is the "Wood Sculpture" (LP #959), published on June 20, 1978, on 13 1/4 chrome lace
paper in 33×48mm, according to the models made by R. Coteanu (Găbureac 2008, 2010 , Scăiceanu
2018, Spineanu 1984, Tudor et al. 2017).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 6.
„Wood sculpture” - postal stamps, 1978.
The philatelic issue contains not less than 6 postage stamps (see Fig. 6)
(colnect.com/ro/stamps, www.stampworld.com), respectively 20 bani - „Spindle and Handle
(Transylvania)” (RO #3698), 40 bani - „Chinese molds (Muntenia)” (RO #3699), 55 bani - „Spoons
(Oltenia)” (RO #3700), 1 leu - „Churn (Moldova)” (RO #3701), 2.15 lei - „Ladle and mug (Transilvania)”
(RO #3702) and 4.80 lei - „Water bucket (Oltenia)” (RO #3703), with a run of 250,000 series, plus 3
official FDCs (see Fig. 7) and at least another set of private FDCs (see Fig. 8).
224
(b)
(a) (c)
Fig. 7.
„Wood sculpture” - first day covers (FDCs), 1978.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.
„Wood sculpture” - unofficial first day covers (FDCs), 1978.
225
In addition to the "Wood sculpture" issue, numerous postcards were made with postal stamps,
and some of them are presented in Fig. 9.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k)
Fig. 9.
„Wood sculpture” - maxicards, 1978.
226
Although tangential, year 1981 adds plus value to crafts involving wood as working material,
by the postage stamp with a nominal value of 3.40 lei - "Culture" (RO #3990), from "Song of Romania"
(LP #1037) published on July 15, 1981, on chrome paper, lace 13 1/2, in the format 33×48mm and in
a series of 250,000 series, based on the creation of the model Gh. Bozianu (Găbureac 2008, 2010 ,
Scăiceanu 2018, Spineanu 1984, Tudor et al. 2017), to which are added 2 FDCs, one of which is
mentioned directly in Fig. 10b (colnect.com/ro/stamps, www.stampworld.com).
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.
„The Song of Romania” - postal stamp and associated FDC, 1981.
We continue to present only the postage stamps related to wooden objects from a completely
different issue (see Fig. 11) [19, 20], usually this time, entitled "Domestic household items" (LP
#1070), which appeared at 22 December 1982, namely: 50 bani - „Wooden flask (Suceava)”, 1.50 lei -
„Wooden scoop (Alba)”, 3 lei - „Butter churn and wooden bucket (Moldova)”, 4 lei - „Wooden spoon
and ceramic plate (Cluj)”, 7 lei - „Distaff and spindle (Transylvania)”, 7.50 lei - „Double wooden pail
(Suceava)”, 10 lei - „Wooden tubs (Hunedoara)”, 20 lei - „Wooden canteen and six glasses (Horezu)”,
30 lei - „Wooden spoons (Alba)”, after the models made by A. Popescu (Găbureac 2008, 2010 ,
Scăiceanu 2018, Spineanu 1984, Tudor et al. 2017).
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i)

Fig. 11.
„Domestic household items” - postal stamps, 1982.
227
The philatelic issue - very generous both in terms of the number of postage stamps (the
complete series having 16 values), and in terms of FDCs (4 in number) or circulation (unlimited by
some sources) (Tudor et al. 2017) - it also has, spectacular features, some of which are shown in Fig.
12 and Fig. 13.
(b)
(a) (c)
Fig. 12.
„The Song of Romania” - uncirculated envelope (a), and „Domestic household items” (b-c).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 13.
„Domestic household items” - different maxicards with postal stamps, 1982.
228
The last philatelic issue, with direct references to traditional crafts involving wood as a work of
art, which saw the light of the printing, is the "The World Philatelic Exhibition - PHILAKOREA " (LP
#1351), published on 16 August 1994, on chrome paper 33×48 mm, lace 13 1/2, according to the
designs made by D. Cojoc (Găbureac 2008, 2010 , Scăiceanu 2018, Spineanu 1984, Tudor et al.
2017). The 300,000-series issue, accompanied by 2 FDCs (2,150 sets), brings to forefront the postage
stamp of 60 lei - "Torch fork" (RO #5196) as shown in Fig. 14 (colnect.com/ro/stamps,
www.stampworld.com).
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.
„The World Philatelic Exhibition - PHILAKOREA” - postal stamp and associated FDC, 1994.
CONCLUSION
Through the philatelic pieces, in a very large number of pictorial data (in the form of postal
stamps, FDCs, occasional envelopes, postcards, maxicards etc), we expose, something that has not
been included in Romanian philatelic studies so far, someething with direct references to traditional
crafts involving wood as a work of art.
By publishing this study we hope that we will make available to all those interested a useful
tool of information, education and philatelic orientation in what was the wood processing activity in
Romania over time. We would like the work to be the first light to guide through the intricate philatelic
galleries of Romanian traditional crafts involving wood. Also, to somewhat revive the sober style,
proper corrections and catalogs, and of course to remove the monotony specific to a purely philatelic
study, we sought to present the material in the form of not so analytical, but descriptive notes.
This study is mainly addressed to passionate philatelists, but can also be of interest to other
professional categories that can develop similar studies. It can be highlighted that philately is capable
of being a true embassy of culture, as a result of the movements that a stamp may have, if it is to be
applied to internal and external correspondence, and even, in this particular case, the wood is vital,
unfortunately it is exemplified very little.
REFERENCES
Janeta C, Coman M (2016) Lemnul în cultura populară din zonele etnografice ale jud. Maramureş,
Editura Gutenberg, Târgu Lăpuș.
Găbureac S (2008) România - erori filatelice 1903-2006 (catalog specializat ilustrat), Ed. Biblioteca
Bucureștilor.
Găbureac S (2010) România - curiozități și varietăți filatelice 1903-2006 (catalog specializat
semiilustrat), Ed. Biblioteca Bucureștilor.
Scăiceanu C (2018) Catalogul machetatorilor mărcilor poștale românești, Ed. Oscar Print, București.
229
Spineanu C (1984) Catalogul mărcilor poștale românești 1858-1947, vol. I, Direcția Generală a
Spineanu C (1984) Catalogul mărcilor poștale românești 1948-1984, vol. II, Direcția Generală a
Tudor Gh, Chiricheș C, Mermeze Gh (2017) Catalogul mărcilor poștale românești 1858-1989 (LP 1-
1233), Editura AXA, București.
Tudor Gh, Chiricheș C, Mermeze Gh (2017) Catalogul mărcilor poștale românești 1990-2017 (LP
1233-2135), Editura AXA, București.
colnect.com/ro/stamps/.../România/Our_Romanian_Work_-_LNFR/year/1934
colnect.com/ro/stamps/.../Democratic_Womens_Association_of_Romania/year/1946
colnect.com/ro/stamps/.../România/Musicians/year/1961
colnect.com/ro/stamps/.../România/Wood_Carvings/year/1978
colnect.com/ro/stamps/.../România/Cintaera_Romaniei_National_Festival/year/1981
colnect.com/ro/stamps/.../România/Household_Utensils/year/1982
colnect.com/ro/stamps/stamp/202575-Philakorea_94-Stamp_Exhibition-România
230
SECTION 4.
MECHANICAL
WOOD PROCESSING
& SURFACE
QUALITY
KNOWLEDGE AND QUALITY OF WOODWORKING IN ANCIENT GREECE

REVEALED FROM A SIMPLE FINDING
Ioannis BARBOUTIS
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Forestry and Natural Environment
54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
URL: http://users.auth.gr/jbarb/, E-mail: jbarb@for.auth.gr
Panagiotis KOUTIS
Ephorate of Antiquities of Piraeus and Islands, Greek Ministry of Culture
Str. Alkiviadou nr. 231-233, Piraeus, Greece
E-mail: panoskoutis@yahoo.com
Vasiliki KAMPERIDOU
E-mail: vkamperi@for.auth.gr
Stella CHRYSSOULAKI
Ephorate of Antiquities of Piraeus and Islands, Greek Ministry of Culture
Str. Alkiviadou nr. 231-233, Piraeus, Greece
E-mail: schrisoulaki@culture.gr
Abstract
Human recognized the value of wood and used it in a variety of applications from the early
years of his appearance on earth. Because of its biological composition, wood is easily destroyed and
therefore, the discovery of wooden archaeological findings seem to be very limited, compared to the
respective findings of inorganic materials, such as gold, marble, etc. During the archaeological
excavations for the construction of a Metro station, in the center of Piraeus (Greece), almost a whole
leaf of a wooden double door of a Hellenistic house was found in a well, which was destroyed by the
Roman invaders in 86 BC., when they captured and burned the city and consequently, the materials
coming from the demolition of the houses were thrown into the wells and tanks of the city. The
abovementioned wooden finding was examined, as long as its current state allows, in order we to
determine the quality of the wooden pieces and the whole structure, the manufacturing-processing
technology and the connections/joints techniques followed, to assess the level of knowledge and of
the available processing equipment.
Key words: door; timber; quality; processing technology; joints techniques.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is a highly valuable material, with numerous advantages compared to other materials.
An important advantage of wood is that it can be used in a very wide range of applications, unlike all
other materials. It is suitable to be used in simple applications, without any previous treatment to be
needed, in splendid, of high elegance creations and more complex structural applications till the
production of energy. This material is being easily processed, consuming low energy, while it is also
easy to be connected. It is understandable, that the sum of all these favorable features of wood have
led to its widespread use since ancient times, constituting the basic material in a number of structures.
It is characteristic that the Greek word for "material" comes from the ancient word "ύλη” meaning wood
(Liddell Scott Dictionary). However, wood is considered to have several drawbacks. As a biological
material, it has a variable structure and its quality is influenced by hereditary factors, as well as the
environment of its growth. It is also a hygroscopic and anisotropic material, it is being burnt and
decomposed.
Taking into account the abovementioned drawbacks of wood, that result from its biological
composition, in combination to the environmental conditions that prevail in Greece, which are
favourable for its biological degradation, as well as, the great number of wars and looting that the
country has suffered in the past, no wonder is caused by the fact that the archaeological findings of
wooden structures material are really scarce. Consequently, the relevant information comes mainly
from texts or illustrations in vases, wall paintings and other materials. Some information on wood
233
working and processing could also be derived from the neighboring Egyptian culture, from which the
wooden findings are quite rich. Egypt, certainly, did not have wooden vegetation and the main wood
used for fine carpentry was the species of cedar, imported from Libya and Syria. Findings of other
wood species, such as pine, cypress, boxwood, birch, ebony show that the trade of timber was much
developed since ancient times. It is reasonable, of course, that there was also a trade of the
processing equipment of wood and, to a certain extent, the dissemination of the existing know-how
and knowledge between cultures. The findings also show that wood processing technology has been
highly developed. Such an example, can be mentioned a plywood of 6 veneers, dated back to 2680
B.C, of which the veneers are of about 1/8 inch thick (Scott 1965).
In Greece, the roots of the decorative use of wood reach to the ancient mythology. All the
primordial works of architecture and sculpture, as well as the invention of the saw, drill, fish glue and
other glues, tools and materials that are being used even in our times, are attributed to mythical
“Daedalus” (before the 15th century BC) (Pliny, Book 7, chap 56). It is characteristic that his name in
ancient Greek means sophisticated (elaborate) artwork. But many of these woodworking tools are
considered to have been invented by his student and son of his sister, Talos (Diodorus 1st century eg
Historical Library IV, 76), such as the saw which was made of iron mimicking the roughness of the
snake's teeth. The lathe is reported to have been invented by Theodorus Samius (Pliny, Book 7, chap
56).
Homer (eighth century BC) in Odyssey (e234-248) mentions the use of double-edged axe,
made of copper and handle of olive wood, adz and drill, wood-nails and the existence of techniques
for grinding and aligning the wooden surfaces. Referring to the wood species used, he reported alder,
poplar and fir.
However, basic prerequisite for the achievement of a wood processing of high quality is the
right choice of wood species and part, on which wood-workers of those years seem to have had
particularly good knowledge, as can be seen and proven by the ancient texts that have been
preserved. The Greek philosopher Theophrastos (371-287 B.C.), a pioneer in the study of wood,
reported that the quality of wood is affected by the time of harvesting (V, 1 -2) and that stronger and
better in appearance timber can be obtained by logs that are free-of knots (V, 2 -2). He also states that
the best quality of Greek timber for structural uses originated in the region of Macedonia, which was
smooth, of straight grain and containing resin (Historia plantarum V, 2 -1) and further, that the wood
from species of juniper, chestnut, cypress, cedar, ebony and mulberry are among the most durable to
biological degradation (V, 4-2). Concerning the cutting of wood, he indicates that the peaks of the saw
teeth should be bent alternately, and further analyze the effect of moisture content of wood in the ease
of implementing processing procedures, such as sawing, drilling or turning of wood (V, 6 -3,4), while
he indicates which species is most suitable to be chosen for each use (V, 7, 1-8).
The Roman writer Plinius Secundus (Pliny) in his work "The Natural History" (1st century BC),
in which he collected almost all the knowledge of his time, provides useful information on species that
are resistant to biological attacks, mentioning the species ebony, cypress and cedar as the most
resistant ones (book 16, chapter 78, 79, 81), the species that appropriate to be used in structural and
carpentry applications, their adhesion ability (ch. 83) and the production of decorative wood veneers
(ch. 84). As a particularly precious wood species, he highlights the ash, which, according to Homer,
the spear of Achilles was made of (ch. 24). Beech wood is referred to, as an easily processed, soft
and easily curved wood species, which can be cut into thin veneers, but is used only for the
manufacture of boxes and desks. For the construction of wooden tools, such as mallets or drill
handles, the wood of wild olive, boxwood, holm oak, elm, ash (ch. 84) are mentioned as the best
materials. Regarding the construction of doors, he mentions fir as suitable wood (ch. 82), while the
dogwood timber, used for producing wood-nails, was strong as iron-nails (Ch. 76).
The Greek philosopher and lexicographer Iulius Polydeukus (Pollux) (2nd century AD)
separates roundwood (logs) into that intended for processing and that intended for fuels (book VII,
chapter KE, 109). Referring to the works and tools of carpenters (Onomastikon, book VII, chapter Κs',
111), he distinguishes the craftsmen of those years, in shipbuilders, door-manufacturers and
«κλινοποιοί» (meaning bed manufactures), a word used generally for the furniture manufacturers,
whose work includes, among others, tables, tripods, diphros, thrones, desks, stools. As evidenced, the
recognition and classification of the quality of manufacture of a product was already widespread, since
he indicates that among the many origins of manufactured diphros, the best was the Thessalian one.
Concerning their tools, he mentions the adz, the axe, the drill, the saw, and "rini", as an abrasive
means, a word derived from the Greek name of the fish Squatina squatina (angelshark), whose rough
skin was used to polish wood and other materials surfaces. Referring to the doors, he distinguishes
them into the types of «garden», «courtyard» and «double leaf door», with the latter being the main
entrance of the house, which usually was higher from the ground level. As parts of the door, he
234
mentions the “pivot”, the “frame”, referring to the two wood pieces found on both sides of the door and
the “planks” that constitute the main parts of the door, the door leafs (book I, chapter H, 76).
However, the archaeological findings can be considered as a much more clear evidence and
can provide detailed information on the impact of different cultures on the development and evolution
of technology. An investigation into ancient tools (Petrie 1917) reveals that the differentiation of the
two edges of the double axe (Fig.1) into axe and adze began in the early part of the bronze age from
Sparta, Crete and other Greek cities. Furthermore, the earliest European bronze saws seem to be
those of Knossos (Fig.2). Indeed, it seems that copper tools and many other products of Crete were in
great demand by the people of Egypt and other regions (Jonshon 1953). The comparison of ancient
tools from Egypt and Greece also shows a qualitative difference in their technology. Jonshon (1953)
points out that one of the strangest things about the Egyptians was the fact that they never learned to
put handles to their hammers. Generally, from every important archaeological finding, useful
conclusions can be drawn about the level of development of a civilization. Especially on the occasion
of the “sophistication Antikythera Mechanism” finding, the historian Price (1975) pointed out that, it
makes us completely rethink our attitudes towards ancient Greek technology, while author Sir Arthur
C. Clarke (2009 *) mentioned that "the technological equipment of the ancient was far more
sophisticated than we believe”. If the evolution of knowledge, as depicted in Antikythera's computer,
had not been halted, today science would be a thousand years ahead".
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Stone mould for making axes. Crete Oversized bronze crosscut tree saw. Knossos 1700-1450
1800-1700 BC. Archaeological BC. Archaeological museum of Heraklion.
museum of Heraklion.
Regarding the result of the quality of wood treatment, although there are few preserved
wooden archaeological findings, useful conclusions could be drawn from the numerous surviving
findings of exceptional aesthetic construction of other materials (gold, iron etc.). Additionally, as it is
already well known, the sense of quality and artistry in ancient Greece has been highly developed, as
evidenced by the fact that most of the words used internationally in the field of fine arts and aesthetics
originates from the corresponding Greek words, for example, Calligraphy, Harmony, Architect,
Technology, Analogy, Enthusiasm, Fantasy, Idea, melody, music, rhythm, symmetry, metrology.
OBJECTIVE
In the present work, an attempt is made to analyze and evaluate the quality characteristics of
the processing and construction of a recently discovered finding of an ancient wooden door section in
the area of Piraeus and draw conclusions on the knowledge level and techniques of woodworking
used 2000 years ago in Greece.
MATERIAL, METHOD
Ancient Piraeus was planned by Themistocles to operate as the port of Athens. The city was
built in 460 BC by Pericles, based on Ippodamos’ plan, father of the urban planning system. Streets
parallel to each other were designed, dividing the city into square blocks of equal size. The houses
that were built had in their yards underground rainwater storage cisterns and wells. They were used by
the inhabitants of the ancient city to pump the necessary water from the aquifer (Steinhauer 2012).
During the archaeological excavation for the construction of the Municipal Theater Metro
station, in the center of Piraeus, 27 of these wells were investigated. After a period of prosperity during
the Hellenistic period, the Roman troops of General Sulla captured and burned the city in 86 BC
235
(Garland 1987). The building remains and the housewares of the Hellenistic houses, together with
abundant wooden objects, were discarded into the wells and cisterns.
Into one of these wells, an almost entire leaf of a double wooden door from a Hellenistic house
was found, which was destroyed by the Roman invaders (Fig.3). The sherds of the terracotta vases
that were found together are dated between the early 3rd and the late 2nd century BC (Rotroff 1997).
At the bottom of the well, lamps were found, which are dated between the late 4th and the
early 3rd century BC (Howland 1958). They had fallen into the well during the use of the well.
Therefore, the wooden door was constructed in the Hellenistic period, a time before the destruction of
86 BC.
This finding was conserved, all these years, because it was situated at the level of the aquifer
in the well, in steady conditions, with constant humidity and temperature. It was sealed by dense mud
in anaerobic conditions, preventing the action of microorganisms that would cause its decomposition.
The door has been found in the state of water-saturation, due to the long period of emersion in water
and as a conclusion, the cell walls of wood have suffered alterations, mainly because of the hydrolysis
of hemicelluloses and cellulose (carbohydrates).
The parts of the door were collected separately one by one and they were immediately
transported to the laboratory, where the cleaning and conservation process began. The mud was
removed from the surface and the micro-organisms were inactivated. Parallel, the photographic
documentation and their recording were carried out.
They are preserved today in tanks filled with water to prevent uncontrolled drying, in
refrigerators, to prevent the growth of harmful micro-organisms. In the case of uncontrolled drying,
excessive shrinkage and the appearance of the "collapse" phenomenon may be caused.
The finding consists of four vertical parts, the two planks on the edges, with rectangular cross
section, forming the frame and two thinner planks in the middle, forming the leaf of the door (Fig. 4).
From the four horizontal Rails, which were operating as transverse joints, only the bottom rail is
preserved. A bronze pivot is preserved, on the vertical edge plank to the side of the door frame
(Hoepfner & Schwandner 1986, Müller-Wiener 1988).
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
The wooden door leaf as found The position of the door leaf sections.
inside a well.

After the thorough study and examination of the surviving wooden parts of the excavated door,
that has been carried out after the cleaning and before any maintenance process, the following
conclusions can be drawn regarding the quality of wood, the method of manufacturing, mechanical
processing and the technique used in the connection of the wooden elements.
236
Wood Quality
According to the extensive and thorough examination and macroscopic observation of the
door sections of the finding, the wood that had been selected to be used in the construction of the
door appears to come from straight grain stems of coniferous species, of good quality without encased
knots or other apparent defects or irregularities of structure. In the parts examined, it is observed that
the creation of wood cells was fairly smooth and balanced, with the width of the annual rings being
relatively small and reaching, in the first years of growth of the trees, to 4mm, whereas the mature
wood ranges around 1.7mm. In the findings in which the measurements were possible, the width of
late wood in annual rings, which is an important characteristic configuration of the density and strength
of wood, was estimated to correspond to about the 30% of the total width. This indicates that the
timber may originate from trees grown in dense forest, with a limited precipitation, particular during the
formation period of the late wood, referring to climatic conditions prevailing in the areas near Piraeus
(Attica). Another particularly important feature observed in the wood of this door, is the sawing
direction during the cutting process, in order to produce pieces of sawn wood, with pure radial surface
(Fig. 5). This shows that it has been already perfectly comprehended by the craftsmen of those years,
that better dimensional stability (Ross 2010) and avoidance of distortion (Ross 2010) can be achieved
through the use of wood sawn pieces, with their width to correspond to the cross-section surface of
the rings (radially).
Regarding the precise identification of the species of wood of the door construction, which
could be one or more than one species, it should be pointed out that, it was not possible to carry out
the identification process under the current conditions and the present state of the findings, but an
identification process is planned to take place in the future, if the circumstances allow.
Fig. 5.
Cross section of the plank from the middle part of the door leaf.
Quality of Manufacturing
These wooden findings indicate that they constitute parts of a synthesis of four sawn wood
pieces, parallel one another and to the door length, resulting in a total synthesis width of about 32cm,
aiming to the formation of the one of the one leaf of a double-leaf door. The maximum length of
surviving prismatic sawn wood pieces reaches the 122cm. The wood sawn pieces were found to be
symmetrically positioned, with the thickness of the internal planks being 18mm, although it is not
possible to state exact dimensions, mainly due to the long period of stay of the wood in the water,
while the external planks were of double width, approximately 36mm. It is characteristic that the two
dimensions of thickness and width of the sawn wood (planks) were found to be the same as the basic
dimensions of the thickness and width of sawn timber that is still produced in our times.
The width of each of the two internal planks (planks 2 and 3, Fig. 4) was found to be around
9cm, while the one in the edge near the side of the frame (plank 1) was 7.9cm, and the one close to
the inner part of the door (plank 4) was 6.5cm, respectively. The one narrow side of the edge plank,
which also bears the pivot, has a semicircular configuration, correspondingly to the marble doors that
have been preserved, and constitutes a necessary feature to facilitate the opening of the door through
rotation (Fig. 6).
From the exterior side, this plank bears alongside and in the middle of its width, a wooden
decorative lath (which probably has also a functional use, holding a decorative piece of fabric), with a
cross section of just 4mm x 4mm, whose production and use, even in our times with our mechanized
equipment, would be quite difficult. Also, the other plank that is placed in the edge of the door leaf
(plank 4, Fig 4) carries an additional lath along its side. This additive lath is a composite, consisting of
a lath of angled cross-section, of about 26mm x 7mm x 3mm (Fig. 8), into which is seated another lath
of rectangular cross-sectional dimensions of 20mm x 4mm. The production of these, of small cross-
237
section, elongated wooden profiles may not exhibit such an impressive artistic effect, as is achieved
through the carving or turning the wood, but it is obvious, that it requires much more difficult and
sophisticated machining/processing technique and the appropriate technical means, the expertise, as
well as the relevant know-how seem to have been possessed.
Fig. 6.
Semicircular configuration and the lath positioned in the surface of the edge plank.
Nowadays, with the evolution of technology and the automation of work, it is not usual to place
embossments on the surface of the door panels, but for their decoration, the faster and easier process
of engraving the wooden surface itself is usually chosen.
There was not used any horizontal element (perpendicular to the planks described) on the
exterior of the door surface, thus offering a plain appearance, with only the single planks just being
placed parallel. On the back surface of the edge planks (interior side of door leaf), suitable rectangular
notches, with a depth of about 1.5cm, have been formed to accommodate, at various heights, four
horizontal planks of about 15mm thickness and 6.9 - 7.9cm width. The lower horizontal plank was
positioned 22mm above the bottom of the vertical planks and 3.7cm far from the edge plank bearing
the pivot, offering also to the inner surface elegant appearance and functionality (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7.
Edge plank where a notch is used for the connection to a horizontal plank.
Joinery techniques
The construction of this door leaf includes, except for the copper pivot, only wooden elements,
for the connection of which, only wooden dowels of different dimensions were used.
In particular, for the lateral connection of parallel vertical planks to one another, were used per
35 to 40cm, turned wooden dowels with tapered ends. These dowels were of 3mm in diameter or
5mm in the case of connection of the internal planks one another or of 8mm diameter for the
connection in the edge planks. In the edge plank (plank 4), which appears to be additioned last in the
synthesis and construction of the door leaf, the dowels were found to penetrate and run all of its width
(through dowels). The horizontal planks of the door leaf were connected to the center of the formed
notches (Fig. 7), on its two edge vertical planks, using a 3mm or 5mm diameter dowel, which was not
placed vertically to the surface, but inclined to it, in order to ensure a more stable connection and
difficulty in disconnection (Fig. 8). For the installation and connection of the thin decorative laths on the
wooden leaf, wooden nails of about 3mm diameter, were used per 13cm.
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For the construction of the door leaf, apart from the wooden joints, it is also possible an
adhesive to have been used, but an examination for the presence of an adhesive cannot be carried
out in the present state of the findings.
Fig. 8.
Cross-section of the vertical edge plank and its connection to the horizontal one.
CONCLUSIONS
The finding of wooden constructions archaeological material is very limited in Greece due to
the climatic and environmental conditions that favor its destruction, as well as the large number of
looting the country suffered by its various invaders and conquerors. During the archaeological
excavation in the frame of construction of the Metro station in the center of Piraeus, in 2015, an almost
entire sheet of a wooden double-leaf door of a Hellenistic-era house destroyed by the Roman,
invaders was accidentally found inside a well. The initial examination of the pieces of this wooden
finding, which until the beginning of their preservation process, were maintained in a refrigerator
immersed in water, shows that it is a typical home entrance door, as roughly described by the ancient
writers. The quality of the wood used, the sawing technique and the joining technique chosen,
characterize the structure as one of a good quality, appearing to be a professional construction by
craftsmen who possess a very good knowledge of the wood properties and have already the
appropriate machining equipment for its manufacturing. It could be mentioned, that this excellent
structural product, excels in the design, the characteristic Greek austerity and the elaborate work,
compared to the corresponding modern products. It constitutes a completely ecological wooden
structure, using exclusively wood, a renewable and biological material, and additionally, it was
manually or mechanically treated without the consumption of fossil fuels products or energy.
REFERENCES
Bell K (2009) https://haysvillelibrary.wordpress.com/2009/08/04/the-antikythera-mechanism-decoding-
the-heavens/.
Garland R (1987) The Piraeus from the Fifth to the First Century B.C., Ithaca, New York.
Hoepfner W, Schwandner EL (1986) Haus und Stadt im Klassischen Griechenland. Munich.
Howland RH (1958) Greek Lamps and Their Survivals. The Athenian Agora, Vol. 4. Princeton.
https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/oa_ebooks/oa_agora/Agora_IV.pdf
Johnson T (1953) Τhe evolution of certain common hand tools used in woodwork. Thesis of Master of
Science. North Texas State College, Denton, Texas. 159 p
Liddell HD, Scott R (1883) Greek-English Lexicon, New York. https://archive.org/details/
greekenglishlex00liddrich/page/n7.
Müller-Wiener W 1988. Griechisches Bauwesen in der Antike, München.
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Petrie WMF (1917) Tools and Weapons (London) http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/sites/dl-

pa.home.nyu.edu.awdl/files/toolsweaponsillu00petr/toolsweaponsillu00petr.pdf.
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(http://derekdesollaprice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Science-Since-Babylon-opt.pdf)
Ross RJ (2010) Wood handbook: Wood as an engineering material. Chapter 4. USDA Forest Service
Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-190, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI. 508 p.
Rotroff S (1997) Hellenistic Pottery, Athenian and Imported Wheelmade Tableware and Related
Material. The Athenian Agora, Vol. 29. Princeton. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3602009
Scott N (1965) Our Egyptian Furniture. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series
24(4):129-150.
Steinhauer GA (2012) “Ancient Piraeus” in Steinhauer G.A, Malikouti M.G., Tsokopoulos V., Ganiatsas
V. (ed.), Piraeus. Center of Shipping and Culture, Piraeus, pp. 96-97
240
OPTIMIZATION OF MANUAL HANDLING OPERATION DURING FURNITURE

MANUFACTURING
Chang ZHANG
Southeast University, School of Mechanical Engineering
No. 2, Southeast University Road, 211189 Nanjing, China
E-mail: chang219@hotmail.com
Wencheng TANG
Southeast University, School of Mechanical Engineering
No. 2, Southeast University Road, 211189 Nanjing, China
E-mail: 101000185@seu.edu.cn
Na YU
E-mail: yuna96@hotmail.com
Abstract
Manual handling has always been a common task in the Chinese furniture manufacturing
industry, which is easy to cause fatigue. In order to improve the man-machine cooperation in the
machining of furniture, and to alleviate the fatigue of workers, the optimization of manual handling
operations is discussed in this paper from three aspects: planning of working time, improvement of
operating posture and optimization of workbench size. In addition, this paper shares the design of a
bending-free boards rack, which is based on the purpose of reducing the worker's back muscle load
during operating. In this paper, the optimization of manual handling could be used for reference in the
manufacturing industries where manual operations are intensive.
Key words: manual handling, man-machine cooperation; work fatigue; bending-free; operation
optimization.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, China's furniture manufacturing industry is undergoing a transition from
traditional human-intensive type to information-based manufacturing type. With the application of
information tools such as CAD and CAM in the mass production of furniture products, the dependence
on workers has been reduced (Wang 2017). Although the number of workers in a furniture workshop
has declined, the workload of individual workers might increase in many cases.
Manual material handling has been commonly demanded among furniture manufacturing
processes, such as loading, drilling, milling, assembly, etc. During repeated handling, muscles on the
body parts such as the arm, neck and shoulders, and lower back are prone to fatigue after frequent
contraction activities. Excessive workload, improper work posture, and long-term repetitive muscle
fatigue lead to an increased incidence of work-related muscular-skeletal disorders (WMSD) (Rashedi
& Nussbaum 2016). Related research in China during recent years shows that, no less than 39% of
manual workers among various industries, including furniture manufacturing, have suffered from
WMSDs, especially low back pain (LBP) and neck/shoulder pain (NSP) (Yue et al. 2014, Feng et al.
2016).
Based on the investigation and simulation of the load level and fatigue process of workers
during manual handling in furniture manufacturing, an operation optimization scheme for repetitive
manual handling was proposed to alleviate muscle fatigue and improve work efficiency. In addition, the
design of the bending-free equipment was discussed in the present study.
ANALYSIS
On the one hand, the work fatigue is caused by excessive local load during handling.
Excessive local load can be caused by long-term static contraction or excessive force of the muscle.
That is, long-term single posture exertion and compulsive force operation are probably to cause
muscle fatigue contraction, resulting in muscle soreness and strength decline (Dantas & de Lima
2015).
241
On the other hand, work fatigue is caused by continuous repetitive operation. This type of
operation exists in a large amount in the loading and assembly processes. Both G Sundelin's study on
the shoulder muscle fatigue during continuous repeated grasping operation (Sundelin & Hagberg
1992), and T Bosch's study on the neck and shoulder muscle fatigue during long-term assembly work
(Bosch, De Looze, & Van Dieen, 2007), have shown that though the muscle load is low in continuous
high-frequency repeated operations, significant fatigue occurs during normal working hours. In
addition, referring to W Dai' s study of forearm muscle fatigue in repetitive wrist movement (Dai et al.
2006), and F Zhang's study of upper limb muscle fatigue in repeated operation (Zhang et al. 2007), it
is found that when the number of movements in the operation reaches a certain level, the primary
factor that causes muscle fatigue in the upper limbs is the frequency of action, not the workload.
OPTIMIZATION, DESIGN AND DISCUSSION

Handling operation optimization
Referring to the typical operation of the furniture workshop involving loading and unloading,
the operation optimization scheme is designed as follows.
- Planning of working hours
According to the occurrence and change of the fatigue of back muscles in the repetitive
bending-handling task, it has been found that the single operation should not last too long. Therefore,
increasing short-term intermittent rest is capable of effectively controlling the occurrence of lumbar
muscle fatigue (Shin & Kim 2007).
For manual handling task with a handling weight of 5 kg, a frequency of 15 times/min, and a
lifting distance of 250 mm, waist fatigue generally appears at 7 to 10 minutes. Therefore, during the
continuous loading/unloading task, single loading cycle need to be controlled within 10 minutes. For a
fixed standing or sitting position feeding/sorting task, which rarely involves dynamic contraction of the
lower back muscles, the fatigue of the arms and neck and shoulder muscles is relieved quickly.
Therefore, the single cycle of this type of operation can be extended to 20 minutes or even longer.
- Improvement of operating posture
During bending-handling task, most workers are accustomed to bending down, and lifting
up/laying down boards, directly. Zhao's study on the binding of sofa frames using human simulation
shows that this bending-and-lifting movement is extremely harmful to the spine and the back muscles.
Zhao's study on manual lifting operation using surface electromyography (sEMG) shows that lifting the
load in a semi-squatting posture, with the back straight, is more reasonable (Fig. 1). This semi-
squatting-and-lifting movement is able to protect the muscles on the back and waist. Meanwhile, the
strength of shoulder and arm can be better exerted.
Fig. 1.
The bending-and-lifting movement.
In addition, it is also necessary to optimize the matching and cooperation of workers at the
same work post. For example, choosing two workers with similar body types, as well as similar
physical strength, to cooperate with each other can ensure that these two have similar rhythm and
high cooperation efficiency (Zhang et al. 2015).
- Workbench size optimization
At present, a large number of machine tools in China's furniture workshops are imported from
Europe. The dimension design of the equipment is mostly based on the European human body's
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percentile. Such as the height of the loading table and the numerical control screen, the width of the
workbench, and so on. In order to make the production equipment more suitable for domestic workers,
avoiding the difficulty of lifting due to the high loading table, the inconvenience caused by the high
numerical control screen, the difficulty of placing the workpiece due to the excessive width of the table,
the above dimensions should be appropriately adjusted according to the Chinese human body
percentile.
Design of the bending-free boards rack

- Principle of the bending-free boards rack
During the furniture manufacturing process, materials such as boards are generally
temporarily stacked on the ground, or on the pallet, when they are to be processed and already
processed. This causes the workers to bend down and lift up/lay down during the loading and stacking
process, increasing the burden on the back muscles. If the height of the material pile is maintained
slightly lower than the elbow height of the worker, by which guarantees that there is no need to bend
down, the above problem would be overcome.
Based on this idea, Yu et al. designed a bend-free boards rack that combines infrared
positioning and hydraulic lifting (Yu et al. 2015). As shown in Fig. 2 and 3, this device implies infrared
light-emitting tubes to emit infrared rays and receive infrared rays, and forms an electrical signal by
amplifying and rectifying them. When the side of the panel blocks infrared light, the signal processor
outputs an instruction to open the flow valve and the speed limit valve of the hydraulic system.
Therefore, the elevator is lowered until the infrared light is turned back on. Under the control of the
single-chip microcomputer, the pressure oil valve is closed, and the lifting mechanism is stopped and
stopped. When the inner plate of the loading rack is fully loaded, the side door of the box can be
opened to remove the board neatly. After resetting the infrared signal processor, the motor-driven lift is
raised back to the starting position with the push of the piston rod.
Fig. 2.
The infrared positioning device used upon the bend-free boards rack.
Fig. 3.
The hydraulic actuator inside the bend-fre boards rack.
- Application of the boards rack

The boards rack is designed to maintain the uppermost plane of stacked boards at a fixed
height. The height is set as the lower end of the elbow of the operator (Considering the space
2
limitation, the board size is not more than 1220×610mm , the number of boards of 18mm thickness is
243
not more than 50 pieces). In this way, no matter how many boards have been left in the rack, the
operator can always place and remove the board in the most convenient and labour-saving way.
As shown in Fig. 4, the application of the boards rack avoids excessive waist and back
movements of the worker during manual handling, avoiding strain on the back muscles. In addition,
this design can also effectively utilize the muscle strength of the shoulder and arm.
Fig. 4.
Application of the bend-free boards rack.
CONCLUSIONS
At present, the dependence of Chinese furniture manufacturing industry on human labour is
still on a high level, and human-machine collaboration is not efficient enough. Therefore, the fatigue of
workers' work is widespread. This paper focuses on repetitive handling operations, combined with field
research and predecessor research, to optimize the human factors such as worker's movement habits,
operating cycling, table measurements, etc. At the same time, it introduces the design of a bending-
free waist loading rack.
Although the current level of automation and informatization of furniture manufacturing is
constantly improving, the role of people within the manufacturing system has not diminished. In this
case, it is necessary to improve human reliability and overcome the interference of work fatigue. This
is of great significance for stabilizing the overall production efficiency.
REFERENCES
Bosch T, de Looze MP, van Dieën JH (2007) Development of fatigue and discomfort in the upper
trapezius muscle during light manual work. Ergonomics, 50(2):161-177.
Dai W, Zhang F, Wang Z, Yang L (2006) The workload of repetitive wrist-extension work and the
surface electromyography of the forearm extensor. Chinese Journal of Occupational Health and
Occupational Diseases, 24(4):201-204.
Dantas FF, de Lima KC (2015) The relationship between physical load and musculoskeletal
complaints among brazilian dentists. Applied Ergonomics, 47:93-98.
Feng Q, Liu S, Yang L, Xie M, Zhang Q (2016) The prevalence of and risk factors associated with
musculoskeletal disorders among sonographers in central china: a cross-sectional study. Plos One,
11(10):111-118.
Liu C, Wang CN, Yang L (2009) Evaluation and analysis of manual lifting load. Science Association
Forum (6):73-75.
Rashedi E, Nussbaum MA (2016) Cycle time influences the development of muscle fatigue at low to
moderate levels of intermittent muscle contraction. Journal of Electromyography & Kinesiology Official
Journal of the International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology, 28(1):37-45.
Shin HJ, Kim JY (2007) Measurement of trunk muscle fatigue during dynamic lifting and lowering as
recovery time changes. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 37(6):545-551.
244
Sundelin G, Hagberg M (1992) Electromyographic signs of shoulder muscle fatigue in repetitive arm
work paced by the methods-time measurement system. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment
＆ Health, 18(4):262-268.
Wang Y (2017) New thinking and new model of traditional manufacturing transformation and
upgrading in the context of Industry 4.0. China Equipment Engineering (10):117-118.
Yu N, Zhang C, Zhao R, Guo J, Mao Y, Zhou W, Shen L, Liu F (2015) Board-loading device: China,
2015204903852.1[P]. 2015-11-13.
Yue P, Xu G, Li L, Wang S (2014) Prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms in relation to
psychosocial factors. Occupational Medicine, 64(3):211-216.
Zhang F, Ding J, Dai W, Wang Z, Yang L (2007) Surface electromyography experiments on repeated
upper limb muscle fatigue. Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, 33(1):5-8.
Zhao J, Shen L, Yu N (2013) Analysis and optimization of sofa group operation based on time study.
Furniture (4):35-38.
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human body simulation technology. Furniture (1):12-17.
245
NOVEL INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS AND VALUE CHAINS TO UTILIZE SIDE-

STREAMS OF WOOD PRODUCT INDUSTRIES – FINNISH APPROACH
Erkki VERKASALO
Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production Systems
Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland, E-mail: erkki.verkasalo@luke.fi
Jarkko LEPPÄLÄ
Maarintie 6, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland, E-mail: jarkko.leppala@luke.fi
Timo MUHONEN
Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland, E-mail: timo.muhonen@luke.fi
Risto KORPINEN
Tietotie 2, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland, E-mail: risto.korpinen@luke.fi
Veikko MÖTTÖNEN
Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland, E-mail: veikko.mottonen@luke.fi
Sirpa KURPPA
Tietotie 4, FI-31600 Jokioinen, Finland, E-mail: sirpa.kurppa@luke.fi
Abstract
Side-streams of wood product industries such as wood chips, planer shavings, saw dust,
sanding dust, off-cut pieces, bark and liquid and gaseous wastes considerably contribute to
cascading, sustainability and carbon balance as well as profitability of saw mill, plywood and further
processing industries in northern Europe. They are important raw materials for pulp and paper, wood
panel and bioenergy industries, and provide much basis for novel value-added products. Industrial
ecosystems based on side-streams may be integrated with pulp and paper mills, chipboard or
fibreboard mills or heating and power plants, concentrated to SME industry parks or decentralized
between feedstock terminals, wood processing mills and biorefinery plants of different size. Availability
and flows of raw materials and semi-finished products, enterprise network and collaboration, storage
and transportation logistics and scaling of production essentially affect the optimal build-up of
industrial ecosystems and value-add. The objective of this paper is to summarize results from our
recent state-of-art and future perspective studies in Finland regarding industrial ecosystems based on
side-streams of wood product industries. We stress here value and supply chains, scaling production,
business and ownership, and present examples on well-functioning industrial ecosystems and
enterprise networks in Finland.
Key words: wood product industries; side-streams; added value; industrial ecosystem; value chain.
INTRODUCTION
Wood-based side-streams are an important part of business income of wood product
industries in North-European countries. In Finland, they currently constitute 15% of the revenue of
large and medium-sized saw mills, and 7-12% of the income of plywood industries (Varis 2017a,b). On
average 30–55% of their roundwood ends up to side-streams depending on the final product (Hassan
et al. 2018). Of the logs with bark, saw mills obtain, on average, 42-54% sawn timber, depending on
species, log size, region, saw mill technology and sawing set-up, and their side-streams consist of
fresh and dry wood chips (28-32%), saw dust (10-15%) and bark (10-12%) (Varis 2017a; Verkasalo et
al. 2017). Side-streams have a smaller role among furniture, building joinery, component and element
manufacturers (including CLT) and pre-fabricated house and log house industries, and their volumes
and economic significance are less known through statistics and research (Hassan et al, 2018; Kunttu
et al. 2019). Side-streams of further processing are typically made up of planer shavings, saw and
246
sanding dust and different-sized off-cut pieces and trimming wastes. Plywood, veneer and LVL
industries generate fresh side-streams in log debarking and trimming, bolt rounding and peeler cores
and fresh-cutting of veneer sheets, and dry side-streams after veneer drying in final cutting, edge-
trimming and sanding. Processing birch or spruce at plywood mills provides, on average, 58% or 65%
veneer for plywood, 16% or 12% rounding waste, 10% or 7% peeler cores, 3% off-cuts and 13% bark
and dust, respectively (Koponen 1995; Varis 2017b). Some wood-based side-streams include
adhesives, surface treatment substances and wood impregnation chemicals. All wood product
industries generate also smaller amounts of wood ashes as well as waste liquids and condensed
vapours in drying, modification and treatment processes, which include water and different chemical
substances, their origin being at least partly in wood and/or bark (Hakkila and Verkasalo 2009).
The main factors found influencing the use of forest biomass and side-streams are
international and national policies, resource availability, networking of different industries,
competitiveness of fossil products and fuels, and consumer behaviour, but the optimal allocation of
side-streams depends on the targets and country-specific circumstances (Kunttu et al. 2019,
Verkasalo et al. 2019). Wood chips, sawdust, and bark are considered the most valuable side-streams
because of their relatively high quality and solid form (Hassan et al., 2018), but to date they have been
mostly used in energy generation and partly in pulp and wood-based panel production in Europe
(Hassan et al. 2018; Mantau 2015).
In Finland, the industry structure is dominated by chemical pulping and energy generation,
with 60% of the wood-based side streams used for energy generation but less than 1% for chipboard
and fibreboard production (Ylitalo 2019). However, a range of new potential uses should be available
in the chemical, biofuel, modified wood and composite industries, along with the growing interest for
side-stream utilization. Here, the main drivers were identified as shortage of roundwood resources in
the future, availability of side stream resources (also through energy efficiency improvements),
emerging markets for wood-based products, savings in raw material costs, climate change mitigation,
cascading use of biomass and circular economy, and, finally, the EU policies (Antikainen et al. 2017;
Kunttu et al. 2019; see also: Pantsar et al 2016; European Commission 2018).
Novel products, markets and stakeholders involved inevitable imply new supply and value
chains, enterprise networks and collaboration, raw material and process integration, storage and
transportation logistics and scaling the production at different steps for optimal build-up of industrial
ecosystems and value-add. Depending on the case, production plants and enterprises may form
different value networks where the degree of integration, concentration and decentralization varies.
Industrial ecosystems are still under development in side-stream utilization, however, well-functioning
examples already exist both on concentrated, integrated and decentralized solutions in Finland.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this paper is to summarize results from our recent state-of-art and future
perspective studies in Finland regarding industrial ecosystems based on side-streams of wood product
industries. We stress here value and supply chains, scaling production, business and ownership, and
present examples on well-functioning industrial ecosystems and enterprise networks.

This paper is based on the results from three different projects of Natural Resources Finland
Luke: UBES 2016-17 (Verkasalo et al. 2019), Woodpolis Kuhmo 2016-17 (Verkasalo et al 2017) and
WoodCircus 2018-2021 (WoodCircus 2019).
In the UBES project, we made an explorative background study regarding new biorefinery
ecosystems and their scaling, performed a short impact analysis, identified relevant research,
development and innovation (RDI) projects and presented an estimate on the resources needed in
them in the future. We outlined the approach and definitions of biorefinery concept to investigate
benefits and drawbacks of production scales from the viewpoints of volume-based and specialized
production, set-up of value network and collaboration, and location of production sites and material
logistics. Wood product industry based, chemical forest industry based and agro-biomass industry
based solutions as well as hybrid raw material solutions were included to the survey.
In the Woodpolis Kuhmo project of the local wood product industry park, we mapped the
current and potential side-streams, identified relevant new business opportunities for the companies
and the development actions needed to fully implement the wood-based side-streams and develop the
value network and industrial ecosystem. We outlined alternative ways to own use or selling of side-
247
streams to new customers and presented new company-specific and production-oriented solutions to
the local industries and suppliers of machine and equipment for side-stream handling or processing.
In the on-going WoodCircus project, the main goal is to increase knowledge, raise awareness
and improve conditions to uptake resource efficient processing and recycling and support side-stream
utilization and waste management in wood construction driven value chains in Europe (wood product
industries, green field construction, building demolition, recycling). First, state-of-art analysis, fact
finding, good practice mapping and SWOT-analysis were done in four European regions, continuing
with actions of stakeholder integration, dissemination and policy impacts in EU and the countries.
In each project, we collected the data through literature review and internet search as well as
performing focused interviews of selected experts in Finland RDI organisations, wood product
industries, forest-based, agro-based and hybrid biorefinery and recycling companies and public
regional decision makers. We used semi-structural interview forms their design being specific in each
project, mailing the forms to the experts prior to the interviews. The forms are available as appendices
in the before-mentioned reports of the projects UBES and Woodpolis Kuhmo, and from the
WoodCircus project materials of Luke.
In the UBES project we used relevant research literature searched through appropriate key
words and Google advanced internet search (488 hits). Interviews were done by telephone among
stakeholders (20) and by webropol among researchers (37). Finnish stakeholder network register of
biorefinery branch was used to identify relevant participants to the interviews (104 enterprises,
organisations or persons). For the purpose of this paper, we identified, analysed and compiled the
answers relevant to the side-streams of wood product industries. In the Woodpolis Kuhmo project we
interviewed 15 representatives from the companies of the Kantola industry park and 9 experts among
Finnish RDI organisations (6) and consulting companies (3). All answers were considered relevant for
this paper. In the WoodCircus project, we made 15 interviews in Finland among wood product,
building with wood and recycling companies and public regional development agencies, and
complemented them with a workshop among the member companies of Finnish Sawmill Industries
Association (14 participants).
For this paper, the data was compiled and analysed using qualitative methods, and the main
conclusions were drawn as researchers’ desk work. Both causal reasoning (managerial thinking) and
effectual reasoning (entrepreneurial thinking) were applied in the analysis (Sarasvathy 2008). Causal
reasoning is based on selecting between given means to achieve a pre-determined goal, whereas
effectual reasoning applies imagining possible new ends using a given set of means. In causal
approach, product or service targets are defined first, and raw materials and other resources are
collected thereafter. In effectual approach, development actions start from existing resources and
produce thereafter new useful products or service through an interactive process. Effectuality is said to
be more efficient than causality in the scarcity of resources.
The analysis includes summarizing the definitions of industrial ecosystems, basic rules of
scaling production in typical cases of raw material, product and logistics situations, considerations of
value chains, enterprise networks and business collaboration to launch novel products that are based
on side-streams of wood product industries. Finnish SWOT analysis is presented and examples of the
industrial ecosystems and networks are drawn as good practices from the before-mentioned projects.
RESULTS
Side stream supplies, markets and current products
Finnish forest industry generated a total 27.7 million tons of side streams in 2016, consisting of
49.2% black liquor from pulp mills, 28.5% solid wood-based wastes, 14.1% sludge, 4.4% ashes, and
3.8% others (Hassan et al. 2018). Volumetrically, wood product industries produced around 9.1 Mm3
of wood chips, 4.0 Mm3 of saw dust and other wood residues and 3.3 Mm3 of bark in 2018 (Ylitalo
2019). Of the total volume, 8.6 Mm3 was supplied to the raw materials of pulp and paper mills which
comprised almost all green wood chips and a part of saw dust, and the rest to heat and power plants.
In the study of Hassan et al. (2018), side streams of saw mills comprised 48% of pulp chips, 43% of
saw dust and bark for energy, and 8% of slabs, endings and dry wood residues for energy, whereas
side streams of plywood, veneer and LVL mills comprised 50% of pulp chips, 30% of fuel chips and
20% of bark, saw and sanding dust and other wood residues for energy. Finnish chipboard and
fibreboard mills – which are only one of each in Finland – use saw dust and bark, and roundwood only
in exceptional supply conditions (Kumar and Verkasalo 2018).
In Finland, the main products starting from saw mills and veneer chips are chemical,
mechanical and semi-chemical pulps and the resultant versatility of paper and paperboard grades
(Hakkila and Verkasalo 2009; Kunttu et al. 2019). The market of green chips is steady, albeit the
248
considerable fluctuation in market prices, and the demand is growing further due to the announced
and prospective investments in pulping (e.g., Kunttu et al. 2019; WoodCircus 2019).
The market of other side-streams, mainly saw dust, dry chips and bark is more problematic
and dependent on the demand of and public subsidies to the bioenergy sector. There are three pulp
mills that continuously use saw dust in the integrated production of different packaging papers and
paperboards, and approximately 30 wood pellet factories throughout the country that use mainly saw
dust and planer shavings as their raw material (Kunttu et al. 2019). Combined heat and power plants
(CHP) of the municipal energy companies and forest industries are important users of wood residues
and bark, and wood product industries are commonly co-owners of the plants. However, the utilization
rate of CHP plants varies much according to the demand of heat and market price of electricity,
strongly affecting the market price and demand of wood residues and bark. Other factors affecting
negatively to the markets are public subsidies of alternative bioenergy sources, such as forest chips
and logging residues, import of forest chips, wood residues and bark, long transportation distances
and high transportation costs, and lack of alternative large-scale uses (Verkasalo et al. 2017, Kunttu et
al. 2019). There is locally some demand of side stream materials for green infrastructure building,
landscape management, soil improvement, horse stables and other animal houses.
The newest biorefinery products from side streams comprise mainly pyrolysis oil for replacing
light heating oil in heating plants and industries, and liquid fuels from saw dust for vehicles (tall oil,
bioethanol), their demand being based on the obligation to mix renewable fuels to petroleum and
diesel in land vehicle traffic (E10, E15, biodiesel). There are only a few ready-to-market products that
aim to Business-to-Business markets (BtoB). However, wood lignin based adhesives and paints were
recently started to produce, replacing their phenolic components, and biodegradable packaging
materials from wood fibres were launched for food, beverages and catering. In Business-to-Consumer
market (BtoC), some wood fractions, such as extractives from knotwood and inner bark of spruce and
pine are used in small amounts in nutritional, medical and skin care products and cosmetics.
Industrial ecosystems and value chains

Industrial symbiosis or ecosystem is a whole of several enterprises where companies
complement and provide added value for each other by utilising effectively raw materials, technology,
service and energy (e.g., Axtell et al. 2008). Side stream or waste generated in the production of a
company can be a raw material for another company, as a result, the material changing from a cost
item to valuable factor of production. In the recent scientific literature, industrial ecosystems have been
understood in a large context, not only as material circulation but also sharing knowledge and insight
between the stakeholders to generate new ideas and innovations. Business ecosystems to be built
around industrial symbioses provide more added value using less natural resources than in traditional
industrial value chains, utilizing materials and waste flows more efficiently with less energy, water and
amount of wastes. Business ecosystems are understood differently in various contexts, but finally the
group of agents, i.e. members of ecosystem should share the business values and revenue logic.
According to our findings, the entire pathway of a new product or service idea to the customer
market lasts typically 10-15 years in wood based industries, because of needs to develop
manufacturing technology and knowledge, create product or service standards, verify matching to
regulatory requirements and build the value network of actors (Kunttu et al. 2019). The pathway
includes several stages of up-scaling where the steps from the results of research and laboratory
testing to the level of proof-of-concept, industrial piloting or pre-manufacturing and test marketing are
usually the most crucial to raise the interest and convince the industrial operators and investors
(expected revenue, profitability, risk management). This has been valid also in side stream business.
Scaling of production volume affects essentially the organisation of sourcing raw materials or
semi-finished products, manufacturing, deliveries and logistics in biorefinery processes. In a large-
volume production of bigger companies, the structure of actor network, needs of collaboration and
optimal location of manufacturing and storage steps are different than in a specialized production of
SMEs. Management of value network, ownership of the companies, collaboration models, and
readiness to incentives, resources and commitments to investment and development actions vary
between large and small companies, being often linked with the degree of integration and
decentralization.
Basically, we identified five typical value chains in Finland representing different industrial
ecosystems of side stream utilization where wood product industries are strongly involved:
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1. Value chain of biorefinery located on the site or in the vicinity of a large

manufacturer of chemical forest products which receives side streams from
wood product industries and supplies further-processing industries with its
basic products and all industries on the site with different infrastructure
service. Example: UPM Pietarsaari; UPM saw mill delivers chips to UPM
sulphate pulp mill, one part of saw dust to Billerud kraft and sack paper mill
and bark and one part of saw dust Alholma Kraft CHP plant; UPM supplies
Billerud with a part of kraft pulp; UPM provides total green water, waste water
and sludge management, security service, wood yard operations, RDI
platform, etc.
2. Value chain of biorefinery where several chemical industries of large
corporation procure raw materials, including side streams, with long-term
contracts from a number of wood products industries in a larger area which
belong to the company or are independent companies, and supply further
processors with their basic products and side streams. RDI platform is strong.
Example: Metsä Group, Fig. 1.
3. Value chain of a large wood product company with both basic production,
further processing and possibly an energy plant. The use of side streams in
own production and energy plants is maximized and only chips is supplied to
chemical forest industries. RDI is managed by the company itself. Example:
Koskisen Oy, Fig. 2.
4. Value chain of several wood product companies in an industry park where
SME companies build a local mutual network based on the basic products,
further processed products and bioenergy. Collaboration potential is then
maximal. Triple Helix based RDI platform can be innovative and flexible.
Example: Woodpolis Kuhmo, Fig. 3.
5. Value chain of an individual wood product industry with none of or limited
further processing. Side streams are sold after sorting or up-grading to other
companies located outside the site. Resources for RDI are typically limited.
Example: Virtual saw mill, Fig. 4.
Fig. 1.
Value chain of integrated forest industry company (Source: Metsä Group).
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Fig. 2.
Value chain of wood products industry company (Source: Koskisen Group).
Fig. 3.
Value chain of industry-park based wood product industries (Verkasalo et al. 2019).
Fig. 4.
Value chain of individual sawmill (Verkasalo et al. 2019).
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SWOT AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS

According to Thompson and Strickland (1999), a SWOT analysis enables an industry
company to understand the dynamics of its business environment. Table 1 summarizes the current
and potential strategic performance of side-stream utilization in Finland in the form of SWOT analysis,
according to our studies. Likewise in Kunttu et al. (2019), the needs of industrial transformation
towards ambitious circulation and smart regulation encouraging markets towards the targets are
emphasized, but considering the current industry structure, prospective dynamics and RDI potential.
Table 1
SWOT analysis on the strategic performance of side-stream utilization of wood product
industries in Finland
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Circular economy approach and sustainability Varying profitability and lack of capital (investments,
Large total volumes of side-streams, renewable raw RDI) among wood product and bioenergy industries
material and bioenergy sources (certificated) Unstable markets and low prices for side streams,
Shared procurement and delivery with other wood except chips (for suppliers)
assortments, efficient comminution and bioenergy Competition and costs of side streams are critical in
technology some regions (for users)
High resource efficiency and closed loops (+) Unprofitability of wood-based electricity generation
Well-functioning value chain & market for chips (+) Logistics costs and scattered sources of raw
Efficient integrated forest products companies materials and semi-finished products
Versatile markets in energy sector Landfill materials (most of wood ashes, painted,
Regional solutions and public support in RDI, treated, glued) and hazardous wastes (contaminated)
investments and regulatory work (Triple Helix) Weak durability of some side-stream based products
Future-oriented product development (+) Different interests and resources for incentives of
Many companies of different size (in some regions) integrated forest products companies and SMEs
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Positive perspective for circular economy: aims and Slow reactions to changing product and customer
attitudes of society and decision makers markets in company strategies and public policies
Carbon sink approach and green policy incentives Slow and expensive development of new products
Positive and predictable regulation development and uses for side-streams
Green deal agreements between private and public Continuing low profitability and investment capacity of
parties to achieve sustainable development goals wood product and wood-based electricity industries
Limited biomass resources call for more cascading Continuing scarce RDI resources and lack of proofs-
New side-stream based products and users: value- of-concept, especially among SMEs of wood product
added biorefineries, chemical and composite and biorefinery industries
products (BtoB and BtoC), replacing coal and oil in Eventual lack of professional workers and
energy generation with wood pellets and other entrepreneurs in the supply and manufacturing stages
wood-based sources, renewable liquid fuels, of the value chains (in some regions)
bioplastics, biochar for soil amendment and water Decreasing district heating outside urban districts
management, wood panels and other construction Unpredictable regulation and subsidizing policies of
products, uses for off-cut pieces of building bioenergy and waste management (EU, Finland)
elements and furniture billets Lack of trust and collaboration between companies to
Trustful company relationships and collaboration build industrial ecosystems
Optimized integration: industry park approach, Disagreement of different producers and interest
industrial ecosystems of large companies and SMEs groups about the priority uses of side-streams and
Better classification, sorting and knowledge of side regulation and subsidizing policies (saw mills –
streams & end-of-waste criteria (suppliers, users) bioenergy – wood panel industries)
Longer life-cycle, better durability and LCAs and Omitting societal requirements, renewable raw
EPDs for side-stream based products material brand & carbon sink approach in strategic
Markets & technology are developing in cascading planning and dissemination to the different
Market & customer surveys, economic assessment stakeholders and big audience
of alternative products, proofs-of-concept
Adoption of good practices (Europe, Eastern Asia)
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CONCLUSIONS
Finland is one of the most advanced industrial users of side-streams of wood product
industries (saw mills, plywood, veneer and LVL mills, further processing industries), with a history of
more than hundred years of manufacturing fibre-based, sugar-based and extractive products and
derivatives of chemical components, or converting them to energy at the mills. Notably, wood residues
have not been directly burned to the sky in the mills since 1950’s. Wood pulp and bioenergy continue
to be the most important primary addresses of the side-streams, but value-added chemical biorefinery
products for a variety of BtoB and BtoB products have been started to rise during the 2000’s, some of
them being already in the market or under launching there. Unlike elsewhere in Europe, the few
chipboard and fibreboard mills are currently minor users of side-streams; however, in the recent
scientific discussion indicated a potential for re-invention of these industries. Access to and
competitiveness in the product markets, relationships of product and raw material prices and level of
knowledge and technology are important determinants for the Finnish production, and they have
largely affected the success and failures of chipboard, fibreboard and different bioenergy industries.
Different products and raw materials lead to different supply and value chains and enterprise
networks in the utilization of side-streams of wood product industries where the material and energy
flows and set-up of companies, their responsibilities, ownerships and mill locations vary. The more
advanced products are manufactured, the longer are the value chains and the more companies or
other stakeholders are involved, the more important are the trustful industrial symbioses, or
ecosystems, well-functioning collaboration and easy links between the participants and clear
ownerships and responsibilities in the network. The degree of concentration, decentralization and
integration should vary depending on the scale of production and volume of raw materials needed,
orientation to basic, customized or specialized products, interactions between raw materials and
products, logistical issues in transportation and storage, breakdown of value chain operations between
the companies and needs of collaboration and responsibilities of the participants. Generally, the
companies should benefit from integrated production systems to improve economic profitability, meet
the future requirements of waste management and environmental control and achieve the most
effective climate change mitigation impacts.
We identified five basic types of industrial ecosystems that are suitable for different kinds of
side-stream utilization of wood product industries, examples of them being already present in the
forest cluster. Some of them may be applied in hybrid cases where different renewable raw materials
are used parallel to or combined with each other, for example, CHP plant generating heat and
electricity using bark, saw dust, forest residues, peat and agro waste, LSL mill manufacturing
laminated strand lumber (Scrimber) from cutting waste of wood veneers, bamboos and bagasse, or a
mill manufacturing construction insulation materials using saw dust, natural hemp or willows.
Our selection of ecosystems is relevant also to the three scenarios of side-stream utilization
by Kunttu et al. (2019): (I) Pulp and Bioenergy, (II) Versatile uses; (III) Long-lifetime products. Here,
the first option is closest to the current structure and economic stability of the industries, the second
option is dependent on global political actions emphasizing resource efficiency with large-scale
circulation, substitution potential of non-renewable resources and economic risk diversification, and
the third option highlights the carbon storage perspective. Notably, political tools such as regulations,
standards and public support to RDI and investments are rated important to attract industries into
resource- and energy efficient strategies with efficient material circulation of all side-streams, not only
commercially viable by-products.
Regarding the research methodology, we could join the general opinion among the scientists
of industrial ecosystems that effectual reasoning that aims to reflect entrepreneurial thinking is a
suitable technique in this kind of set-up where several alternatives of product or service pathways are
available to utilize existing or prospective resources which are labelled with scarcity. Causal reasoning
can then help in selecting the choices. SWOT analysis is a necessary tool to understand the dynamics
and impacts of the strategic and operative environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the projects UBES, New biorefinery ecosystems with
benefits from scales (funding from Luke), Woodpolis Kuhmo, Investigation on side streams of Kantola
wood industry park (funding from Woodpolis Kuhmo) and WoodCircus, Underpinning the vital role of
the forest-based sector in the circular bioeconomy (funding from EU H2020-CE-SC5, project 820892).
253
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254
PERFORMANCE OF MULTI-LAYERED WOOD FLOORING ELEMENTS

PRODUCED WITH SLICED AND SAWN LAMELLAS
Victor GRUBÎI
Lückligs Plats 1, 352 52 Växjö, Sweden
Tel: 0046 724539121, E-mail: victor.grubii@lnu.se
Jimmy JOHANSSON
Lückligs Plats 1, 352 52 Växjö, Sweden
Tel: 0046 725264131 E-mail: jimmy.johansson@lnu.se
Abstract
The performance of multi-layered wood flooring produced with sliced and sawn top-layers was
evaluated in this study. Slicing checks side orientation was evaluated by pressing the veneers with
checks side oriented upwards and/or downwards the flooring surface. The performance of produced
flooring boards were evaluated using a climate chamber test with regard to the dimensional stability
(SS-EN:1910) and appearance. Delamination resistance was tested according to the ANSI
delamination testing procedures. Results of the climate chamber test revealed immerging of a high
amount of slicing checks to the surface of parquet boards after the first dry cycle. Checks tend to be
larger around knots. Checking was qualitatively assessed as being more severe on the boards with
checks side up. Dimensional stability was assessed to be slightly better for the sliced top-layers
compared to the sawn ones. Parquet elements produced with veneers checks side facing downwards
had poor delamination resistance. The best results regarding delamination resistance was achieved
when using sliced lamellas with the checks side facing up.
Key words: parquet; slicing; checks; wood flooring; dimensional stability.
INTRODUCTION
Wood flooring manufacturing represents an important share in the wood products industry. In
2
Europe, the wood flooring production was estimated at 86.6 Million. m (FEP 2018), showing a stable
development in the recent years. However, wood material was identified to hold only about 5% of the
Europe’s flooring market (FEP 2018). Wood flooring represent a rather low value-added product;
therefore, the largest share of production costs is related to the raw material costs. Initial costs were
identified to be the main factor affecting customer choice in new flooring investment (Jonsson 2005).
Multi-layered type dominates the wood flooring market with 81% share (FEP 2018) and this
trend is expected to grow. Its structure represents a cost-effective utilization of the raw material and
better technical capabilities e.g. dimension stability, weight. Parquet is a multi-layered flooring type
that enables the “real wood” value of the product due to its specifications. According to (EN SS-
EN:13756), parquet is a multi-layered flooring element with the top-layer thickness of min. 2.5mm. For
the production of parquet top-layers, few species are utilized due to several reasons such as
aesthetics, sustainable harvesting, species mechanical properties and/or availability. It is widely
known that oak (Quercus spp.) is the most common top-layer species for parquet production
cumulating 80.6% of all used species (FEP 2018). This aspect implies strong competition when
sourcing the raw material due to limited availability. In consequence, flooring manufacturers challenge
is to ensure an optimal utilization of the raw material.
Parquet top-layers processing starts with sawing of blocks (approximate thickness 80mm)
into lamellas with thickness ranging from 3 to 5mmThe volume of sawdust is related to the width of the
saw kerf. The amount of sawdust can represent a high proportion of the block when so many cuts are
produced. Consequently, the high value of the valuable raw material is wasted. Many industries but
also academics have sought alternatives for low/no kerf cutting and one of the most promising
technique was found to be flat slicing (Peters and Patzer 1976, Johnston and Stlaurent 1978). Veneer
flat slicing is a kerfless cutting technique that enables production of veneers with longitudinal section
appearance. This is particularly important for the products aesthetics and mechanical properties. To
produce flat sliced veneers, wood flitches are softened using hydro-thermal processes e.g. hot water
soaking or steaming. Subsequently, flitches are cut into veneers using vertical and/or horizontal slicing
255
equipment. The continuous cutting of a veneer slice is possible due to compression applied using a
pressure bar on the outside part of the flitch (Lutz 1977, Kobayashi et al.1995).
Although, slicing can involve high material yield compared to traditional sawing, the quality of
the produced veneers inherits specific defects. During slicing, the knife produce high compressive
forces in front of the cutting edge. That together with the bending stresses applied by the knife face
creates tension strain that leads to ruptures in a direction normal to the cutting direction (Marchal et al.
2009). These ruptures are generally called micro-checks. Depending on the veneer cutting type,
peeling or slicing, micro-checks can be classified as lathe and/or slicing checks. The veneer face
where checks are initiated is called the loose side or the open side while the opposite face is called
the closed or the tight side (Lutz 1977).
The effect of lathe checks on the performance of wood products has been shown increasing
interest over the last years e.g. mechanical properties of laminated veneer lumber (LVL) (Pot et al.
2015, Purba et al.2019), plywood bonding strength (Rohumaa et al. 2013), furniture veneered panels
checking (Cassens et al. 2003). The latest described the issue of the veneered furniture checking and
provided recommendations regarding technological aspects of processing veneered furniture panels.
To our knowledge, few studies grasp the influence of flat sliced veneers quality on the wood
products realisation. Therefore, our aim with this study was to explore the effects of flat-sliced veneers
as top-layer material for the performance of multi-layered parquet flooring elements. This is important
in order to understand the feasibility of sliced lamellas for flooring production.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of multi-layered parquet elements
produced using sliced and sawn top-layer lamellas. The main evaluation criteria were concerning the
appearance, dimensional stability and delamination resistance of parquet elements. Another objective
with this study was to evaluate if there is any effect of the veneer checks side orientation on the
parquet quality. This is an important step in understanding the possibilities and limitations of enabling
the slicing technique for parquet top-layer production.

The material for parquet samples top-layer was oak. Eight sliced and eight sawn lamellas
(control group) pre-formatted with the nominal dimensions of 2400x200x4.5mm were produced, dried
and stored in a conditioning chamber to obtain a 6±0.3% MC. Lamellas were then crosscut and glued
onto a core-layer. The core-layer was composed from a Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) veneer, with
nominal thickness of 2mm that was laminated onto a middle-layer composed of Scots Pine (Pinus
Silvestris L.) strips of 10mm thickness running across the length of the element (Fig.1). For the checks
side effect evaluation, half of the sliced top-layer lamellas were pressed with the open side on the
surface of the parquet element and are further referred as “open-side”, and the other half with the
open side facing on the core and are further referred as “closed side”.
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Fig. 2.
Structure and dimensions of multi-layered parquet elements produced in this study.
Fig. 1.
Technological operations for manufacturing of parquet elements used in this study
The sequence of technological operations for parquet samples manufacturing used in this
study is presented in the Fig.2. For a homogeneous pressing, lamellas thickness was measured and
were assigned into three batches. Gluing was done using two-component urea-formaldehyde (UF)
adhesive applied using manufacturer instructions. Pressing was done using a heat press with
o 2
temperature 106 C and applying a pressure of 236 kPa/m for 120 sec. Afterwards, parquet boards
were left to cool down for 24 hours. Following a rough sanding, a wood putty was applied in order to fill
the large cracks and holes. After curing, parquet elements were sanded using progressive displaced
band sanding belts with the final grit size of P120. Parquet elements were finished with a transparent
water-based lacquer using ultraviolet curing. Last processing step was profiling on the sides of parquet
elements with the special patented tongue-and-groove joint that enables the adhesive-free connection
of flooring elements.
Testing of the flooring performance involved visual inspection before and after a climate-
chamber test, dimensional stability and delamination test. Visual inspection involved both visual and
tactile inspection of parquet boards for visible defects.
For the climate chamber test, parquet elements were center-cut into 1.2m long specimens and
assembled into three samples as in Fig.3 (SS-EN:1910 2016) following the category of testing material
i.e. open side, closed side and sawn. The climate chamber test represented a five-cycle program
simulating two years of product exposure in an indoor environment. Details of the climate test are
presented in Table 1. The climate conditions are set according to the Northern Europe indoor
conditions requirements.
Measurements and visual inspections were performed after all climate test cycles except
second moistening cycle. Moistening cycles are believed to not influence the outcome of the main
regarded defect, slicing checks. Dimensional stability was tested according to the specifications in
(SS-EN:1910 2016) in regard to dimensional changes (length and width), cup and bow of the parquet
elements. Accordingly, dimensional change (𝝙D) was calculated using equation (1):
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where: Df is the dimension after the climate cycle;

Di is the dimension before climate cycle.
Delamination test was performed using an adapted method of the ANSI bonding test
(ANSI/HPVA EF:2009). Five specimens per parquet board were extracted with nominal dimensions of
50.8x127 mm (width x length). The test was based on three cycles. One cycle consisted of four hours
o o
water soaking at temperature 24±3 C followed by nineteen hours oven drying at 51 C. According to
the test, a delamination represents an opening with a continuous length of 50.8 mm, minimum depth
of 6.4mm and width of 0.08mm. Therefore, specimens were checked after the first and third cycle
using a 0.08mm feeler gauge. Delamination was considered between the top and middle layer only. In
order to verify the experimental results, the delamination test was repeated on smaller specimens with
nominal dimensions of 95x50.8mm (length x width).
Table 1
Cycles parameters for the climate-chamber
test
o
Cycle RH[%] T[ C] Period
Conditioning 40 23 1 week
1 80 23 2 weeks
2 20 23 2 weeks
3 80 23 2 weeks
4 20 23 2 weeks
Fig. 3.
Climate-chamber test sample consisting of four
parquet elements applied on a wooden frame;
grey lines indicate the axes for the measurement
of length and width; grey points represent
cupping measurement points.

Observations regarding the manufacturing process of parquet elements indicate that sliced
top-layer strips could be used in a technological parquet manufacturing process. However, sliced top-
layer lamellas containing knots close to the edge and sapwood presented visible defects such as
fibres and/or putty tearing (Fig.4). Therefore, cannot be recommended for the utilization in the
manufacturing of flooring elements without any special treatment. Having control over knots position
within the slicing block is therefore crucial. Some parquet samples produced with sliced top-layers
contained insect attack (Fig.4) and are not acceptable for product realisation (SS-EN:13489 2017).
Fig. 4.
Example of edge tear out due to edge-filled knots (left) and sapwood (right).
258
Beside general inspection and wood quality aspects, the main difference between the two
groups of material, sliced and sawn, was the emerging of slicing checks on the surface of sliced top-
o
layers (Fig.5). Checks appeared after first dry cycle (RH 20% T 23 C) and enhanced after the second
one. Surface checking was more severe around knots (Fig.5). This was probably because of large
induced checks due to sudden changes in fibres orientation. Differently, parquet elements build with
sawn top-layer lamellas maintained a smooth and check-free surface after all climate-chamber cycles.
Fig. 5.
Slicing checks on the surface of clear wood (left) and around knots (right).
Checks variation in size and shape was assessed as rather large, therefore, it was decided that their
counting as suggested by (Cassens et al. 2003) may give limited information.
The qualitative evaluation of parquet samples pointed out that checks are usually easier to
detect by touching than by visual inspection. As a result, it can be inferred that within parquet
elements with sliced top-layers, closed side of the lamellas tend to have less sharp, convex shaped
checks when compared to the open side. Lamellas open side checking may impose even safety
issues of the product while checking on the closed side may produce slight unpleasant feelings due to
some roughness. This is probably due to the fact that emerging surface checks in the case of closed
side samples, are the checks bottom-ends that are rather narrow. Differently, when using veneers with
open side, sanding of the top layer exposes the middle-top part of the checks that is considerably
wider than their tips. This aspect is represented in Fig.6 by showing checks distribution for a section of
sliced veneers viewed under microscope. From microscope inspection it can be seen that slicing
checks run generally 70-90% of the lamellas thickness. For both sample groups, open and closed side
orientation of the lamellas, with the given sanding thickness, the final surfaces before the finishing step
contained surface checks. It is therefore interesting to further research the effect of checks depth on
the checking behaviour of finished products when checks are bellow the surface of finishing layer. This
Fig. 6.
A section of sliced veneers used in this study; dashed lines represent approximate end
surfaces of the parquet top-layers when using open side up (red) and closed side up (green).
259
can be achieved with an optimization of the slicing process that involves low checks depth i.e. depth of
checks to be max. 50% of the veneer thickness. The most important aspect is that checks once
opened will interact with external agents such as liquids and will deteriorate faster the aspect of the
surface finish of the parquet boards. As a result, neither group of the tested sliced lamellas could be
accepted for flooring products realisation.
Results of the dimensional stability are presented in Fig.7. Lengthwise to the grain
dimensional change presented in Fig.7a shows insignificant differences between the testing samples.
A sensitive parameter for flooring performance is the dimensional change in the width of the element.
A high expansion coefficient together with poor installation procedures can lead to large product
failures. We can observe in Fig.7b, that flooring elements produced with sliced top-layer lamellas have
slightly lower width variation when compared to sawn elements. One reason could be that the wood
material from the two groups come from different growth areas and might have inherited different
levels of anisotropy i.e. swelling/shrinking ratio. The results presented in the Fig.7c-d show the
changes in cup and bow of the parquet elements. Sliced elements group, independently of orientation
of the slicing checks, had a better dimensional stability when compared to sawn-based top-layers
flooring elements regarding these parameters. Beside differences in swelling/shrinking ratio of material
with different growing conditions, another reason could be that there are changes in mechanical
behaviour of the top-layers due to the induced slicing checks. Checks might release part of the
lamellas shrinking/swelling strain, therefore, sliced lamellas would deform to a lesser extent when
compared to sawn elements.
1.5 2.6
A. 𝝙Length 2.1 B. 𝝙Width
1 1.6
𝝙Width (mm/m)
𝝙Length (mm/m)
1.1
0.5
0.6
0 0.1
Cycle1 Cycle 2 Cycle 4 -0.4 Cycle1 Cycle 2 Cycle 4
-0.5
-0.9
-1 -1.4
5
C. Cupping 4.5 D. Bow
0.3
4
3.5
0.1 3
2.5
Cup (mm)
Bow (mm)
-0.1 Conditioned Cycle1 Cycle 2 Cycle 4 2

1.5
1
-0.3 0.5
0
-0.5 -0.5 Conditioned Cycle1 Cycle 2 Cycle 4
-1
-1.5
-0.7
Closed side open side sawn
Fig. 7.
Dimensional stability results for the parquet elements produced with sliced and sawn top-
layers; A – Length variation, B – Width variation, C - Cupping, D – Bow.
Delamination results are represented in the Fig.8. Parquet specimens produced with sliced
top-layer lamellas have different delamination behaviour depending checks side orientation. Closed
side produced specimens, that represent common recommendation of the veneer manufacturers,
showed a rather poor delamination resistance. One possible reason for this could be the high
roughness due to checking behind the knife edge. This can be also noticed in the Fig.6. Considering
the standard specification that flooring elements must have minimum 85% of the specimens passing
the test. Parquet specimens produced with sliced top-layer lamellas with the open side as the
lamination face showed evident limitations in using such material for flooring manufacturing.
Differently, lamellas produced with the open side facing the surface of the element had superior
delamination resistance even compared to sawn-based samples. With the assumption that slicing
checks can be significantly reduced, the use of sliced lamellas in such way can be worth considering.
260
Due to the industrial environment of the sample manufacturing tests, this aspect should be further
evaluated under more controlled conditions. This aspect can be of great importance for laminated
structures with structural purposes as an accidental lamination of two veneers with open sides may
have strong negative impact on the performance of the laminated products quality.
CONCLUSIONS
The current study evaluated the qualitative aspects of multi-layered flooring produced with
sliced and sawn top-layer lamellas. Results show significant limitations when using sliced top-layers
Open Closed
Test ID Side Side Sawn
ANSI 100 60 95
Short
samples 95 80 80
Fig.8.
Rate of specimens passing the delamination test depending on the top-layer material; the
table represents raw test results.
for the parquet manufacturing due to the emerging slicing checks on the products in service.
Regarding checking behaviour, flooring elements are recommended to be produced with the top-layer
lamellas closed side facing the surface. However, delamination results performed in this study showed
that for the same structure delamination resistance is rather low. In this context, the feasibility of using
slicing lamellas for flooring manufacturing can be assessed as limited but it is open subject for further
veneer slicing quality optimization. Beside theoretical raw material yield gain, dimensional stability
were found to be important advantages of using sliced top-layers for multi-layered wood flooring
manufacturing.
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge Knowledge Foundation (KK) for their support.
REFERENCES
ANSI/HPVA (EF:2009) American National Standard for Engineered Flooring, American National
Standards Institute, Inc. Online at: https://www.floorreports.com/images/technotes_files/105.pdf
Cassens D, Leng YL, McCabe G (2003) Face check development in veneered furniture panels. Forest
Products Journal 53(10):79-86.
FEP (2018) FEP 2017 Statistics. FEP General Assembly in Sorrento (Italy).
Johnston JS, Stlaurent A (1978) Compression slicing of wood. Forest Products Journal 28(7):48-53.
Jonsson R (2005) Studies on the competitiveness of wood: - market segmentation and customer need
assessments. Doctor of Technology Växjö University.
261
Kobayashi J, Bakar ES, Tochigi T, Fukui H (1995) Veneer cutting with a floating bar 5. A slanted-
laoding floating bar. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 41(10):895-902.
Lutz JF (1977) Wood veneer: log selection, cutting, and drying. Technical Bulletin No.1577. U. S. D. o.
Agriculture. USDA Forest Products Laboratory.
Marchal R, Mothe F, Denaud LE, Thibaut B, Bleron L (2009) Cutting forces in wood machining -
Basics and applications in industrial processes. A review COST Action E35 2004-2008: Wood
machining - micromechanics and fracture. Holzforschung 63(2):157-167.
Peters CC, Patzer RA (1976) Thick-slicing of wood - effects of bar-type and speed of cuton quality of
slice. Forest Products Journal 26(4):19-24.
Pot G, Denaud LE, Collet R (2015) Numerical study of the influence of veneer lathe checks on the
elastic mechanical properties of laminated veneer lumber (LVL) made of beech. Holzforschung
69(3):337-345.
Purba CYC, Pot G, Viguier J, Ruelle J, Denaud L (2019) The influence of veneer thickness and knot
proportion on the mechanical properties of laminated veneer lumber (LVL) made from secondary
quality hardwood. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 77(3):393-404.
Rohumaa A, Hunt CG, Hughes M, Frihart CR, Logren J (2013) The influence of lathe check depth and
orientation on the bond quality of phenol-formaldehyde - bonded birch plywood. Holzforschung
67(7):779-786.
SS-EN:1910 (2016) Wood flooring and wood panelling and cladding - Determination of dimensional
stability. Swedish Standards Institute.
SS-EN:13489 (2017) Wood-flooring and parquet - Multi-layer parquet elements. Swedish Standard
Institute.
SS-EN:13756 (2002) Wood flooring – Terminology. Swedish Standards Institute.
262
AGING EFFECT OF SOME VARNISH COATED WOOD SPECIES ON COLOR

DIFFERENCE AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Andromachi MITANI
University of Thessaly, Karditsa Branch, Faculty of Forestry-Wood Science and Design
43100 Karditsa, Greece
E-mail: amitani@teilar.gr
Georgios NTALOS
E-mail: gntalos@uth.gr
Dimitrios KOUTSIANITIS
E-mail: dkoutsia@teilar.gr
Konstantinos NINIKAS
E-mail: kninikas@uth.gr
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the surface roughness and the color change of eight
wood species, namely, Juglans regia, Paulownia tomentosa, Acer sempervirens, Querqus alba , Larix
decidua, Tarrietia utilis, Tilia cordata, Fraxinus excelsior, coated with water-soluble varnish in contrast
to uncoated control samples before and after artificial weathering test. A long term artificial weathering
test was carried out in order to investigate the influence of UV light and water spray condition on wood
colour and surface roughness. Two main roughness parameters, mean arithmetic deviation of profile
(Ra) and mean peak-to-valley height (Rz) obtained from the surface of wood, were used to evaluate
the effect of weathering on the surface roughness of the samples. Additionally, the results are
presented in ΔE and L* a *b* coordinates according to the CIELab system. Total color change was
increased with increasing exposure time of artificial weathering. Uncoated (control) wood samples
exhibited higher color changes than the other wood samples in all the stages of weathering process.
Surface roughness of the uncoated samples resulted in higher mean peak-to-valley height (R𝑧)
values.
Key words: weathering; roughness; color change; water-soluble varnish; wood.
INTRODUCTION
Weathering is considered the common expression depicting outdoor degradation of wood and
demonstrates itself physically and chemically (for example, cracking, and photodegradation of organic
materials). Ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight catalyzes photodegradation of organic materials
intensified by moisture, temperature change, freeze–thaw cycles. Degradation takes place near the
surface of wood and finishes (Poletto 2017).
Weathering takes many forms depending on the material; wood and wood products initially
show color change and slight checking. Leaching of water-soluble extractives, chemical changes, and
discoloration of the surface by microorganisms cause color change. As weathering goes on, wood
evolves checks on parietal surfaces and checks and cracks near the ends of boards, and wood fibers
slowly erode from the surface. Wood consists of three types of organic components: carbohydrates
(cellulose and hemicelluloses), lignin, and extractives (Jankowska 2015, Turkoglu et al. 2015).
Meanwhile this procedure, wood can face serious alterations of its physical and structural
properties attributable to the incorporative effect of sunlight, oxygen, moisture, atmospheric pollutants
and micro-organisms. The synergy of oxygen and sunlight radiation influences oxidation of lignin and
hemicellulose and depolymerisation of cellulose. Many of the reaction products are water-soluble so
they are easily ejected from the wood surface by rain, exacerbating a roughened and discoloured
surface (Teacă et al. 2013).
263
Wood products used under outdoor conditions are treated or finished applying altered types of
chemicals with the purpose of protection so that the overall mean life of the product is elongated. Two
primitive types of finishing methods are ordinary used to upgrade resistance of wood surfaces contrary
to weathering. The first one is the application of finishes to the surface in the form of thin layers or
coatings with limited penetration (Wiliiams 2010).
Effect on Wood Finishes

Finish resins (ingredients that form films or penetrate wood) are organic polymers, and as with
lignin in wood, UV radiation degrades the polymer, causing slow erosion. Erosion rate depends on the
resistance of the polymer to UV radiation. Paints and stains based on latex polymers are more
resistant to UV radiation than those based on oil-alkyds. UV radiation does not usually degrade paint
pigments; therefore, as resin degrades, pigments loosen and erode from the surface. Degraded resin
and loose pigments give film-forming finishes a chalky appearance. Pigment erodes from oil-based
semitransparent stains to expose wood.
Wood finishes (paint, varnish, and stain, for example) give a desired appearance, protect wood
surfaces, and provide a cleanable surface (Williams 2010). Many people consider appearance most
important when choosing finishes for wood (lumber and wood composites). However, from a technical
aspect, protection is most important for wood used outdoors, and providing a cleanable surface is
most important for wood used indoors. Despite the use of coatings to restrict weathering, degradation
of wood beneath the coating still occurs, although at a reduced rate. Ordinarily, the degradation of
wood has been examined by weight loss measurements, colour measurements, mechanical tests, FT-
IR spectroscopy, optical and electron microscopy (Francesca Lionetto et al. 2012).
The aim of this research was to evaluate the color change and the influence on surface
roughness of several wood species uncoated and coated with water soluble varnish.
METHODS AND MATERIALS

Wood material
Eight different species of wood (5 of each specie), Juglans regia, Paulownia tomentosa, Acer
sempervirens, Querqus alba, Larix decidua, Tarrietia utilis, Tilia cordata, Fraxinus excelsior, were
used for the experiments. Samples with dimensions of 50mm by 50mm by 10mm were conditioned in
a climate room having a relative humidity of 65% and a temperature of 20∘C until they reach
equilibrium moisture content of 11%. All samples of each species were cut from the same air-dried
board to ensure high homogeneity.
Water-soluble Varnish
The finishing procedures have a great significance for technical, economical and aesthetical
assessment of the wood. Wood surfaces coated with a varnish can be secured from certain negative
conditions such as moisture, changes in dimensions and amplification by microorganisms and fungi.
The moisture content of the wood is significant for bending, drying, impregnating, and finishing
procedures. During water absorption by wood materials, water molecules are held by the hydroxyl
groups (OH) of cellulose and lignin until saturation (Kollmann and Côté 1984). This occurence is
important for the varnish which is cured by polymerization. Afterward occuring moisture level plays a
critical role in achievement of the wood finishing processes (Wheeler 1983; De Meijer and Militz 2001;
De Meijer 2002).
Weathering test
Artificial weathering was carried out according to the European standard EN ISO 11341
equipped with a filtered xenon-arc UV lamp for 2000h. The test was carried out for coated with varnish
and uncoated samples for 0 - 600h (5 cycles). The duration of each wetting cycle test was 120 min
where 18 min was the wetting time and the 102 min was the dry period (Relative humidity 40-60%).
Surface roughness measurements

As concerns surface roughness, the Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-210 instrument was employed for
surface roughness measurements. The Rz roughness parameter was measured to evaluate surface
roughness of unweathered and weathered samples’ surfaces according to ISO 1997. The equipment
has stylus with 0.5𝜇 radius and 90∘ contact angle running at a speed of 0.5mm/s. Random
measurements with a span of 15mm were taken from the surface across the grain orientation. Mean
peak-to-valley height (𝑅𝑧) which is well accepted roughness parameter was used as an indicator of the
surface quality of the samples. Average roughness (Ra) which is the parameter characterized by ISO
264
1997 was recorded. The Ra is by far the most commonly used parameter in surface finish
measurement and was expressed as the arithmetic mean of the absolute values of the profile
deviations from the mean line. Five replicates were used for each group to evaluate surface
roughness.
Color Measurement of the Samples

Color changes during weathering were steadily observed at the same spot of the specimens
based on the method of the (CIELAB) using color parameters, L*, lightness, a*, along the X axis red
(+) to green (-), and b* along the Y axis yellow (+) to blue (-). Color differences ΔE* of the samples
were evaluated according to the equation: ΔE* = (ΔL*2+Δa*2+Δb*2)1/2.
Positive values of Δb* indicated an increase of yellow color, while negative values indicated an
increase of blue color. Positive values of Δa* resulted in a tendency of the wood surface to be reddish,
while negative values exhibited a tendency to be greenish. The negative ΔL* values apparently
happened due to the fact that the wood surface becomes rougher and darker during UV light
irradiation. Measurements were performed according to ISO 7724-2 1984 standard.

The roughness of wood is a complex phenomenon because wood is an unisotropic and
heterogenous material and several factors such as anatomical differences, growing characteristics,
machining properties of wood, pretreatments applied to wood before machining should be considered
for the evaluating on the surface roughness of wood (Aydin & Colakoglu 2003). Table 1, demonstrates
surface roughness parameters Ra and Rz which showed that coated samples are significantly
smoother that uncoated. Acer sempervirens was found to be smoother than other wood species, but
on the other hand Tarrieta Utilis and Fraxinus excelsior seems to be rougher. Generally, the values
mean roughness profile (Ra) decreased after weathering process (600h) in same cases such as in
Juglans regia, Paulownia tomentosa and Fraxinus excelsior as concerns uncoated samples. The most
significant finding is that roughness of coated samples intensified after exposure to UV light and water
spray conditions, except for Paulownia tomentosa samples where an important decrease was
observed.
Table 1
Surface Roughness of coated and uncoated wood species
Color Change of the Samples

It is an undeniable fact that the color change of the wood is not only an optic deficiency but also
reflects the chemical modification of the components in wood due to photo-degradation. The color
change is attributed to the carbonyl groups as a consequent of the modification of lignin and other
related compounds (Temiz et al. 2005).
265
Table 2
Color change (ΔΕ) of coated and uncoated wood species
*1: Uncoated samples, 2: Coated samples
Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 displays the color changes of some wood species samples in the form of
CIELAB parameters, namely ΔL*, Δa*, Δb*, and ΔE* after they were exposed to 24 – 600 hours of
weathering. According to the results uncoated samples present higher color change after weathering
excluding Paulownia tomentosa samples which show lower color change (ΔE) at the end of
weathering test (600h). The color change rate of the surface of the samples was initially fast and then
the rate of discoloration reduced during the 172 hours of exposure. In general, samples coated with
water-soluble varnish exhibit soften color change influence. The color change of the samples took
place during the initial stage of weathering test. The selected wood species seems to perform different
during the weathering test due to their anatomical structure. The structural differences of wood
species are the most significant factors that influence weathering results (Williams 2010).
Table 3
Color change (ΔL) of coated and uncoated wood species
*1: Uncoated samples, 2: Coated samples
As concerns color Lightness (ΔL) of wood species samples we can observe that Juglans regia
and Fraxinus excelsior samples affected profoundly in contrast to other wood species. Additionally, the
water-soluble varnish did not prevent the Lightness difference (ΔL) as regards Juglans regia samples.
The highest average value of ΔL* was found out for uncoated samples of Juglans regia. It was also
determined that ΔL* was the most susceptible parameter to demonstrate the surface quality of the
samples as results of UV irradiation and water spray during weathering process. The negative
lightness (ΔL*) values take place during weathering because the surface of the samples becomes
darker, which is opposite of the positive lightness stability (ΔL*) values. In the initial stages of
weathering test, dark woods tend to become light and light woods, dark. Lastly, all wood species
become gray if completely exposed to UV light and water spray. Wood obtains gray color as a result of
the leaching of the decomposition products of lignin (Dawson et al. 2008).
266
Table 4
Color change (Δa) of coated and uncoated wood species
*1: Uncoated samples, 2:Coated samples
Moreover, it was found that Δa* and Δb* were reduced with an increasing exposure time in an
accelerated test cycle for the control samples from all wood species except for Paulownia tomentosa
samples regarding Δa* coordinate and Tilia cordata concerning Δb* coordinate which showed a small
increase in particular exposure time (72h-316h). It is obvious that the chromaticity coordinates, Δa*
and Δb* were fewer affected by the water spraying during the tests.
Table 5
Color change (Δb) of coated and uncoated wood species
*1: Uncoated samples, 2:Coated samples
The results of previous studies display that the coatings containing UV absorber substantially
prevented the color changes of the wood surface during weathering (Irmouli et al. 2012).
CONCLUSIONS
The roughness and color change of wood are very important properties for its aesthetic and
decorative appearance. Artificial weathering caused an increase in surface roughness. The conducted
test confirmed visual degradation of coatings over time as a result of a UV radiation and water spray.
Results revealed that changes in color occurred already after 24h of artificial weathering with a
decrease in Δa and Δ, and variable results in ΔL. Positive values of the color coordinates indicated
that the wood surfaces changed from their original color to a reddish and yellowish color. The highest
color change was detected in the samples coated with polyurethane varnish alone. Surfaces became
rougher after weathering in comparison with the initial surfaces of wood samples. Roughness of
coated samples intensified after exposure to UV light and water spray conditions, except for
Paulownia tomentosa samples where an important decrease was observed.
267
REFERENCES
Aydin G Colakoglu (2003) Roughness on wood surfaces and roughness measurement methods, J.
Artvin Forestry Fac. Kafkas Univ. 4(1/2):92–102.
Dawson B, Singh A, Kroese HW, Schwitzer MA, Gallagher S, Riddiough SJ, Wu S (2008) Enhancing
exterior performance of clear coatings through photostabilization of wood. Part 2: coating and
weathering performance. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research 5(2):207-219. DOI:
10.1007/s11998-008-9090-z.
Irmouli Y, George B, Merlin A (2012) Artificial ageing of wood finishes monitored by IR analysis and
color measurements. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2012; 124:1938–1946. doi: 10.1002/app.34797.
Jankowska A (2015) Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Forestry and Wood
Technology № 92, 2015: 131-136 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 92.
Poletto M (2017) Comparative study of wood flour photodegradation of two wood species submitted to
artificial weathering. Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología, v. 19(2):141-148, DOI: 10.4067/S0718-
221X2017005000012.
Teacă CA, Roşu D, Bodîrlău R, Roşu L (2013) “Structural changes in wood under artificial UV light
irradiation determined by FTIR spectroscopy and color measurements – A brief review,” BioResources
8(1):1478-1507. DOI: 10.15376/biores.8.1.1478-1507.
Temiz UC, Yildiz I, Aydin M, Eikenes G, Alfredsen G Colakoglu (2005) Surface roughness and colour
characteristics of wood treated with preservatives after accelerated weathering test, Appl. Surf. Sci.
Vol. 250(1-4):35-42.
Turkoglu T, Baysal E, Toker H (2015) The Effects of Natural Weathering on Color Stability of
Impregnated and Varnished Wood Materials. Hindawi Publishing Corporation Advances in Materials
Science and Engineering Volume 2015, Article ID 526570, 9 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/526570
Williams SR (2010) Finishing of wood. In: Wood Handbook. General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190.
Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Chapter
16:1–39.
268
ROUGHNESS AND COLOUR PROPERTIES OF THERMALLY COMPRESSED

POPLAR WOOD MATERIALS
Zeki CANDAN
Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Products Engineering Department
34473, Sariyer, İstanbul, Turkey
Tel: 0090 212 3382400 - 25356, Fax: 0090 212 3382424, E-mail: zekic@istanbul.edu.tr
Oner UNSAL
Tel: 0090 212 3382400 - 25363, Fax: 0090 212 3382424, E-mail: volkan.gorgun@istanbul.edu.tr
Hızır Volkan GORGUN

Oktay GONULTAS
Bursa Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Products Engineering Department
Mimar Sinan Campus, Yildirim, 16310, Bursa, Turkey
Tel: 0090 224 3003571, Fax: 0090 224 3003429, E-mail: oktay.gonultas@btu.edu.tr
Abstract
The aim of this study was finding out the effect of the thermal compression process on the
roughness and color properties of Poplar (Populus spp.) solid wood as a fast-growing species. The
clear samples were thermally compressed along 45min. with four combinations of different pressure (1
o o
and 2 MPa) and temperature (150 C and 170 C) values. Each group and untreated samples were
compared to each other.
Roughness properties were determined at both parallel and perpendicular to grain with a
profile-meter. Color properties were measured according to the CIE L*a*b system by using a
spectrophotometer.
The results showed that surface roughness results changed significantly with thermal
compression. Especially pressure had an important effect that all values in all directions. On the other
hand, the temperature didn’t affect the roughness of samples at the same pressure levels. When the
color values were evaluated; the treatment changed the wood appearance at high levels and the
samples became darker after treatments.
The results of this research showed that thermal compression method which is used generally
for surface densification to increase fast-growing species, significantly changed of some roughness
o
and color properties of Poplar wood with especially at the 170 C and 2 MPa parameters.
Key words: thermal compression; fast-growing species; poplar; color; surface roughness.
INTRODUCTION
Although wood is a renewable material, increasing demand due to increasing population and
awareness to positive features of this material caused pressure to forests. Several tree species can be
characterized as mid or slow-grown to meet the demand. Therefore industrial plantation forests were
usually established with fast-grown species such as Pine, Eucalyptus etc. In these plantations, yield
rather than timber quality is the primary consideration for species choice and management methods.
However, the fast rate of growth results in wide growth rings, producing low-density timber (Hill 2006).
Low-density is an undesirable character especially where mechanical properties are preferred.
A fast-grown species Poplar is a “hardwood” which has various usage area as a “softwood”
with low density, hardness etc. values. It was reported that many Italian Renaissance painters such as
Leonard da Vinci painted on wooden panels which were often made of Populus alba (WD 2019). On
the other hand, being not durable to fungi and poorly permeable, low mechanical properties, very soft
surface with low density are not desirable. These disadvantages limit the usage area of this fast-grown
species. Generally, wood has many positive material properties and also similar as other products, it
269
has some disadvantages. However, the disadvantages of this material can be described as
“ameliorative” properties which can be realized with modification methods.
The wood modification methods become varied from basically chemical reaction and/or
impregnation, thermal treatment with studies day by day. Good results of the studies lead up
commercialization such as impregnation, acetylation, oil and/or thermal modification etc. (Donath et al.
2004; Wang and Cooper 2005; Esteves and Pereira 2008; Çetin et al. 2011). In these studies,
methods are generally focused on improving whole material or surface properties. In surface
modification methods, chemical reactions with foreign matters are usually used as Compreg (Stamm
and Seborg 1960). However, some thermal compression methods as Staypak (Seborg et al. 1945)
which is generally used for densification, can change surface properties and can be categorized whole
material modification method without foreign matter.
Thermal compression is about plasticizing of components of wood material particularly lignin.
As a result of the process, a surface which is contacting part of material changes its characteristics.
After relatively high press and temperature, the higher surface density is obtained due to squeezing of
the components. Other surface properties can vary according to wood species, material and process
conditions. In studies with Poplar, hardness increased (Candan et al. 2013), non-uniform deformation
distribution in the growth rings (Dogu et al. 2015), similar wearing resistance (Gong et al. 2010),
crystallinity index increased and became darker (Ucuncu et al. 2017) for surface evaluation with
thermal compression were obtained.
The aim of this study was evaluating roughness and color change of the thermally
compressed Poplar samples surfaces with two pressure and two temperature levels combinations.

Wood material and thermal compression method
Clear (without defect) Poplar (Populus spp.) samples with 25 x 100 x 500 mm dimensions
were used. Thermal compression process was performed with a small-sized temperature and
pressure controlled the hot press. Totally five groups including control (untreated samples) were
generated. Ten samples were used for each treatment group, while nine samples were used for the
control group. The treatment parameters were shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Thermal Compression Parameters of Samples
Treatment Parameters
Group
Temperature (°C) Pressure (MPa) Duration (min)
Control - - -
A 150 1 45
B 150 2 45
C 170 1 45
D 170 2 45
Surface Roughness
The surface roughness values were measured with a stylus type profile-meter device
(Mitutoyo SJ-301). Arithmetical average roughness (Ra), maximum height (Ry), ten-spot average
roughness (Rz) and root-mean-square deviation (Rq) were measured according to JIS B 0601 (2001)
standard. The tests were made both parallel (//) and perpendicular (┴) to the grain direction of each
sample.
Color Change
The color values were measured with a spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating
sphere according to the CIE L*a*b* system (Minolta CM-2600d) (Fig. 1.).
270
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Surface Roughness Portable Spectrophotometer
Test Device (Mitutoyo 2002) CM-2600d - (Konica Minolta 2018)
Total color change (ΔE*) was calculated using the difference L*, a* and b* values of compared
groups each sample (Equation 1) (In the equation, each “Δ” indicates the difference of each
parameter). The magnitude of ΔE* results was classified according to the grading rules reported by
Cividini et al. (2007). It can be seen in Table 2.
∆E * = (∆L* ) 2 + (∆a * ) 2 + (∆b * ) 2 (1)
Table 2
Grading Parameters of total color change (ΔE*) (Cividini et al. 2007)
ΔE* value Observation Change
Level
0.2 > ΔE* Not visible difference 0
0.2 < ΔE* < 2 Small difference 1
2 < ΔE* < 3 Color difference visible with high quality screen 2
3 < ΔE* < 6 Color difference visible with medium quality screen 3
6 < ΔE* < 12 High color difference 4
ΔE* > 12 Different colors 5
Additionally, brightness (R457 nm) according to the ISO 2470 standard, while whiteness and
yellowness according to ASTM E313 standard, whiteness and yellowness according to ASTM E313
standard were determined. Also, thermally compressed samples were compared with untreated
samples for finding out getting lighter (positive values of ΔL*) or darker (negative values of ΔL*) after
treatment.

Surface Roughness
The effect of thermal compress conditions to the surface roughness both parallel and
perpendicular to grain were investigated. The results were shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Effect of different conditions on surface roughness values*
Temperature Pressure Ra (µm) Ry (µm) Rz (µm) Rq (µm)

o
( C) (bar) // ┴ // ┴ // ┴ // ┴
b a b b c b b a
6,45 7,29 54,19 72,74 40,55 56,01 8,80 10,13
Control
(1,17) (1,25) (10,05) (10,34) (7,37) (9,31) (1,84) (1,57)
a b a a b a a b
3,22 4,45 30,97 49,78 21,99 39,37 4,38 6,30
150 1
(1,12) (1,41) (8,82) (12,22) (6,40) (10,49) (1,39) (1,99)
b b b b c b b b
5,88 6,87 51,80 66,40 37,84 53,85 8,19 9,59
150 2
(1,62) (2,31) (16,79) (16,93) (10,14) (15,11) (2,30) (3,18)
a b ab ab ab ab a b
3,96 6,29 41,47 61,36 26,62 49,47 5,65 8,87
170 1
(1,46) (2,11) (17,98) (14,09) (10,36) (11,65) (2,27) (2,70)
b b b b bc b b b
5,49 6,42 51,41 68,89 34,12 53,16 7,64 9,10
170 2
(1,58) (1,72) (16,18) (13,27) (8,57) (12,59) (2,08) (2,40)
* The same letter on the numbers shows that there are no difference homogeneity groups in each column (p<0.05).
271
As seen in Table 3, some groups were statistically significantly (p < 0,05) different. Especially
pressure had a significant effect that all values on all directions (except Ra - ┴) were different. It can
be clearly summarized that when the pressure level increased at these temperatures, the Poplar could
have a rougher surface. Moreover, the temperature didn’t affect the roughness of samples at the same
pressure levels. The result shows that the effect of pressure change can’t be explained with
temperature, melting or crush of compounds. Nevertheless, this result could occur by the reason of
heterogeneous spring back after treatment. Because the measurements didn’t realize immediately
after treatment.
When the treatment effect with comparing untreated group was investigated, a significant
difference can’t be commented clearly. Only Rq - ┴ values of control samples were statistically
different from all treated groups.
Colour Changes
The color values of each group were presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Effect of different conditions on color values**
Temperature Pressure
o L* a* b* Whiteness Brightness Yellowness
( C) (MPa)
83,32 3,43 17,52 60,95 45,14 37,48
Control c a a c c a
(2,11) (0,67) (0,25) (3,94) (3,17) (0,96)
75,56 5,67 20,35 49,38 33,60 47,23
1 b b b b b b
(3,75) (0,93) (1,77) (5,93) (4,56) (3,85)
150
73,91 5,81 21,66 46,78 30,71 50,50
2 ab b bc ab ab b
(3,87) (0,69) (0,91) (5,92) (4,25) (2,26)
72,72 6,84 21,81 45,25 30,10 52,65
1 ab bc bc ab ab bc
(6,01) (2,12) (2,69) (8,96) (7,50) (9,43)
170
68,56 7,86 23,13 39,11 24,25 58,31
2 a c c a a c
(5,21) (1,42) (2,20) (7,40) (6,60) (8,06)
**Mean (standard deviation) and the same letter on the numbers show that there are no difference homogeneity groups in each
column (p<0.05).
As seen in Table 4, treatment significantly changed all color parameters of Poplar wood
samples. When the temperature effect was analyzed, all parameters were changing. However, the
o
changes stood out with pressure, especially at 170 C & 2 MPa.
In thermal based modification methods, it can be said that darkening characterized change
about appearance. Therefore the lightness changes (ΔL*) of treated groups according to the control
group was evaluated (Fig 1.).
Fig. 1.
Brightness change (ΔL*) values.
272
As seen in Fig. 1., the samples got dark after treatment. The darkening increased when the
treatment conditions increased. Result of getting darker is similar to thermal modification method.
However, the temperature is the most important factor for darkening in that method. Addition of
pressure affects more darkening. Lightness results were similarly found with the study of Ucuncu et al.
(2017).
Each group including control were compared and the color change values (ΔE*) and change
levels according to Cividini et al. (2007) were presented in Fig 2.
**Mean (standard deviation) and the same letter on the numbers show that there are no difference homogeneity groups in each
column (p<0.05).
Fig. 2.
Total color change (ΔE*) according to each treatment condition**.
As seen in Fig. 5., similar results to Fig. 4. were obtained. Only between untreated and treated
o
at 170 C & 2 MPa samples had a significant difference. However, all treatment conditions had
significant differences between each other. Total color change results were similarly found with the
study of Ucuncu et al. (2017).
On the other hand, the classification of Cividini et al. (2007) evaluated samples that there were
“High color difference” (4/5) and “Different colors” (5/5). When the study of Ucuncu et al. (2017) was
investigated, results showed that 3/5 treatment groups were found higher than 12 for total color
change value. If photographs in the study were evaluated visually, it can be evaluated that only two
groups changed their color. Another grade values according to some characteristics such as wood
species, evaluation surface (radial, tangential) etc. can be added for tangible comparisons. Because it
is a subjective classification, the comments of results can change per researcher with these
parameters.
CONCLUSIONS
The results showed that surface roughness results changed significantly with thermal
compression at these process conditions. Especially pressure had an important effect that all values in
all directions. On the other hand, the temperature didn’t affect the roughness of samples at the same
pressure levels. When the color values were evaluated; the treatment changed the wood appearance
at high levels and the samples became darker after treatments.
The results of this research showed that thermally compressed method which is used
generally for surface densification to increase fast-growing species, significantly changed of some
o
roughness and color properties of Poplar wood with especially at the 170 C and 2 MPa parameters.
273
REFERENCES
Candan Z, Korkut S, Unsal O (2013) Thermally compressed Poplar wood (TCW): Physical and
mechanical properties. Drvna industrija, 64(2):107-111.
Cividini R, Travan L, Allegretti O (2007) White beech: A tricky problem in drying process. Proceedings
of 7th ISCHP (International Scientific Conference on Hardwood Processing), Quebec City, Canada.
135-140.
Çetin NS, Özmen N, Birinci E (2011) Acetylation of wood with various catalysts. Journal of Wood
Chemistry and technology, 31(2):142-153.
Dogu DA, Bakir D, Tirak Hizal K, Tuncer DF, Candan Z, Unsal O (2015) Anatomical structures of
thermally compressed poplar (Populus spp.) wood. PRO LIGNO, 11(4).
Donath S, Militz H, Mai C (2004) Wood modification with alkoxysilanes, Wood Science and
Technology, 38 (7): 555-566, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-004-0257-1
Esteves B, Pereira H (2008) Wood modification by heat treatment: A review. BioResources, 4(1):370-
404.
Gong M, Lamason C, Li L (2010) Interactive effect of surface densification and post-heat-treatment on
aspen wood. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 210(2):293-296.
Hill CAS (2006) Wood Modification: Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
ISBN: 0-470-02172-1.
Konica Minolta (2018) Portable Spectrophotometer CM-2600d,

https://www5.konicaminolta.eu/en/measuring-instruments/products/colour-
measurement/spectrophotometers-portable/cm-2600d-cm-2500d/introduction.html
Mitutoyo (2002) surface roughness tester, Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-301, Product no. 99MBB035A 1.
Series No. 178, Mitutoyo Corporation, 20-1, Sakado 1-chome, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-
0012, Japan
Stamm AJ, Seborg RM (1960) Forest Products Laboratory resin-treated, laminated, compressed wood
(compreg).
Ucuncu T, Durmaz E, Kaymakci A (2017) Characteristics of Hot-compressed Poplar Wood Boards.

BioResources, 12(4):9038-9049.
Wang JY, Cooper PA (2005) Effect of oil type, temperature and time on moisture properties of hot oil-
treated wood. Holz als Roh-und Werkstoff, 63(6):417-422.
WD (2019) White Poplar, The Wood Databes, https://www.wood-database.com/white-poplar/
274
OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
12th edition
“Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

07-09 November 2019
EDITORS
Lidia GURAU - Mihaela CAMPEAN - Mihai ISPAS
Publication supported by the PRO LIGNO Foundation

 2019 EDITURA UNIVERSITĂŢII TRANSILVANIA din BRAŞOV
Adresa: 500030 Braşov,

B-dul Eroilor, Nr. 9
Tel/Fax :0268 - 47 53 48
E-mail : editura@unitbv.ro
Toate drepturile rezervate
Editură acreditată de CNCSIS

Adresa nr.1615 din 29 mai 2002
Referenţi ştiinţifici: Comitetul ştiinţific
ISSN 1843-2689
II
in collaboration with:
wish you a warm welcome to the

12th edition of the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ICWSE 2019
Brasov, Romania
III
The 12th edition of the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “WOOD SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM” ICWSE
2019
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Honorary Chairman Prof.Dr. Ioan ABRUDAN, Transilvania University of Brasov

Chairman Prof.Dr. Mihai ISPAS, Transilvania University of Brasov
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Lidia GURAU, Transilvania University of Brasov
Conference Coordinators
Prof.Dr. Mihaela CAMPEAN, Transilvania University of Brasov
Advisory Coordinator Prof.Dr. Marius Catalin BARBU, Transilvania University of Brasov
Web-Page Administrator Assoc.Prof.Dr. Luminita BRENCI, Transilvania University of Brasov
Lect.Dr. Bogdan BEDELEAN, Transilvania University of Brasov
Technical Support
Lect.Dr. Cosmin SPIRCHEZ, Transilvania University of Brasov
Editing and Secretariate Eng. Nicoleta GERE, Transilvania University of Brasov
Graphics Eng. Ligiu HRITCU, Transilvania University of Brasov
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (in alphabetic order)

Prof.Dr. Ioannis BARBOUTIS (Greece)
Prof.Dr. Marius Catalin BARBU (Romania)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Luminita BRENCI (Romania)
Prof.Dr. Mihaela CAMPEAN (Romania)
Prof.Dr. Levente DENES (Hungary)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Dan RIDLEY-ELLIS (UK)
Dr. Cosmin FILIPESCU (Canada)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Lidia GURAU (Romania)
Dr. Mark IRLE (France)
Prof.Dr. Mihai ISPAS (Romania)
Dr. Nicola MACCHIONI (Italy)
Prof.Emm.Dr. Peter NIEMZ (Switzerland)
Prof.Dr. Marko PETRIC (Slovenia)
Dr. Peter RADEMACHER (Hungary)
Prof.Dr. Regina RAYCHEVA (Bulgaria)
Dr. Gervais SAWYER (UK)
Prof.Dr. Maria Cristina TIMAR (Romania)
Prof.Dr. Erkki VERKASALO (Finland)
Prof.Dr. Timothy M. YOUNG (USA)
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Octavia ZELENIUC (Romania)
IV
IS SPONSORED BY:
V
VI
FOREWORD
The autumn in Brasov brings to our attention, every two years, the conference which
has become a tradition for the Faculty of Wood Engineering: The International Conference
“Wood Science and Engineering in the Third Millennium” - ICWSE. This year, it
coincides with the anniversary of 60 years of existence for the Faculty of Wood Engineering,
faculty with a strong tradition, unique within the wood engineering profile in Romania.
ICWSE 2019 unfolds its 12th edition under the aegis of three prestigious groups: The
International Union of Forest Research Organizations, The Forest Products Society, The
Society of Wood Science and Technology and of four partner institutions: The University of
Tennessee Knoxville, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences (FHS), Stellenbosch
University and Shizuoka University.
As in previous years, this conference sets its target of bringing together scientists and
researchers from all over the world. This year, ICWSE is open to 100 participants from 4
continents and 24 countries. The conference proceedings comprise 85 papers, among which
75 oral presentations and 10 posters, impressing by their scientific novelty, their potential for
industrial applicability or by bringing out elaborated syntheses of some high impact subjects.
The conference papers are grouped in 10 sections meant to cover a diverse range of
subjects of interest for the wood domain, such as: “Wood structure and properties”, “Wood
drying and heat treatments”, “Wood-based materials”, “Mechanical wood processing and
surface quality”, “Wood preservation, chemical wood modification, wood gluing and coating”,
“Conservation-restoration of furniture and wooden objects”, “Furniture design”, “Wood
constructions”, “Renewable energy from wooden biomass” and “Economics in wood
industry”.
The keynote papers will be delivered through the invited speeches of four top
researchers: Dr. Mark Irle - Ecole Superieure du Bois (France), Dr. Peter Rademacher –
Mendel University Brno (Czech Republic), Dr. Timothy Young - University of Tennessee
(USA) and Dr. Marius Catalin Barbu -Transilvania University of Brasov (Romania).
As in previous years, the conference benefited from the support of the sponsors,
which we are pleased to acknowledge: KASTAMONU ROMANIA Reghin, GLIGA
INSTRUMENTS Reghin, KRONOSPAN Brasov, JF FURNIR Brasov, HOLZINDUSTRIE
SCHWEIGHOFER Romania, EGGER Radauti and the PRO LIGNO Foundation.
For two days, science will carry us on its wings, in a journey of various topics
gathering researchers, university staff, PhD and master students, specialists from industry,
intending to be a perfect match of spirits and minds.
To conclude, because the subject of our meeting is science, we looked for a
suggestive definition. We found it as follows: “Science is the process that takes us from
confusion to understanding in a manner that's precise, predictive and reliable - a
transformation, for those lucky enough to experience it, that is empowering and emotional”
(Brian Greene).
Hope you will enjoy this ICWSE 2019 power and emotion!
The Editors
VII
VIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Volume 2)
Page
SECTION 5. WOOD-BASED MATERIALS
Anuj KUMAR, Erkki VERKASALO (Finland)

WOOD-BASED PANEL INDUSTRIES IN FINLAND – CURRENT STATUS
AND DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL 277
Julia MIHAJLOVA, Hulya KALAYCIOGLU, Marius-Catalin BARBU

(Bulgaria, Turkey, Romania)
UTILIZATION OF GRAPEVINE RODS AS RAW MATERIAL FOR
PRODUCTION OF BOARDS 285
Mojgan VAZIRI, Dick SANDBERG (Sweden)

WATER RESISTANCE OF WELDED PINE 292
Johannes S.JORDA, Marius Catalin BARBU; Pavel KRAL (Austria, Romania,

Czech Republic)
NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED VENEER BASED PRODUCTS 299
Shenjie HAN, Shaoyi LYU, Feng FU, Siqun WANG (China, USA)
MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PARAFFIN/MELAMINE-
UREA-FORMALDEHYDE CAPSULES BY IN SITU POLYMERIZATION 305
Way LONG, Chun-Chun CHIEN, Frances CHEN (Taiwan)

ASSESSING THE VIBROACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF BAMBOO BASED
COMPOSITE SOUNDBOARDS IN VIOLIN 312
Sergej MEDVED, Grega VILMAN, Maks MERELA (Slovenia)

ALIEN WOOD SPECIES FOR PARTICLEBOARDS 321
Alena SOBOTKOVA, Milan SIMEK, Marius Catalin BARBU (Czech Republic,

Romania)
FURNITURE DESIGN WITH PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN BY
USING PAPER PULP 329
Maria Roberta BRUNO, Paola CETERA, Valentina LO GIUDICE, Luigi

TODARO, Luigi MILELLA (Italy)
SECONDARY METABOLITES OF APRICOT TREES (PRUNUS PERSICA
L.) PRUNING: POSSIBLE SUSTAINABLE USE IN THE INDUSTRIAL
SECTORS 336
IX
Marjan ABEDI, Mehdi JONOOBI, Alireza ASHORI, Valentina SIRACUSA
(Iran, Italy)
EFFECT OF FREEZE DRYING ON THE MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF NANOCOMPOSITE MADE FROM POLYETHYTLENE
AND CELLULOSE NANOCRYSTALL 341
Dan Radu BARABOI, Aurel LUNGULEASA, Cosmin SPIRCHEZ (Romania)

COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON THE MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF
DIFFERENT PANEL BOARDS (CHIPBOARD, BLOCKBOARD) 347
SECTION 6. WOOD PRESERVATION, CHEMICAL WOOD

MODIFICATION, WOOD GLUING AND COATING
Marko PETRIC, Angela BALZANO, Miha HUMAR, Jernej KRIZAN, Davor

KRZISNIK, Matjaz PAVLIC, Jure ZIGON (Slovenia)
TREATMENT OF THERMALLY MODIFIED WOOD WITH A SUSPENSION
OF TITANIA NANOPARTICLES TO IMPROVE ITS SELECTED
PROPERTIES 359
Hadi GHOLAMIYAN, Asghar TARMIAN, Carsten MAI (Iran, Germany)

NANOFILM FORMATION BY SOL-GEL PROCESSES FOR PROMOTING
ADHESION OF FURNITURE COATINGS 367
Jure ZIGON, Sebastian DAHLE (Slovenia)

IMPROVEMENT OF PLASMA TREATMENT EFFICIENCY OF WOOD AND
COATING PROCESS BY SODIUM CHLORIDE AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 376
Emanuela BELDEAN, Maria Cristina TIMAR (Romania)

THE EFFECT OF A PEG TREATMENT ON DIFFERENT WOOD SPECIES 385
Anna OBERLE, Zuzana PASCHOVA, Gianluca TONDI, Vladimír GRYC

(Czech Republic, Austria)
IMPORTANCE OF BEECH WOOD PRE-TREATMENT FOR
IMPREGNATION WITH MIMOSA TANNIN EXTRACT 391
Peter NIEMZ, Gaspard CLERC, Christian LEHRINGER, Milan GAFF

(Switzerland, Czech Republic)
IMPROVEMENT OF ASH (FRAXINUS EXCELSIOR L.) BONDING
QUALITY WITH ONE COMPONENT POLYUERETHANE ADHESIVE AND
A PRIMER FOR GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER 395
Johanna GAITAN-ALVAREZ, Roger MOYA, Alexander BERROCAL, Fabio

ARAYA (Costa Rica)
MINERALIZATION IN-SITU OF TROPICAL HARDWOOD SPECIES FROM 400
FAST-GROWN PLANTATION IN COSTA RICA
X
Cristian-Dragos VARGANICI, Liliana ROSU, Fanică MUSTATA, Dan ROSU,
Irina ROSCA, Teodora RUSU, Elena MARLICA, Carmen-Alice TEACA
(Romania)
EPOXIDIZED VEGETABLE OILS FOR WOOD PROTECTION AGAINST
FUNGAL DEGRADATION 408
Marius ALEINIKOVAS, Milda PUKALSKIENE, Antanas BALTRUSAITIS,

Mindaugas SKEMA. Benas SILINSKAS, Lina BENUSIENE, Iveta
VARNAGIRYTE-KABASINSKIENE (Lithuania)
WOOD MODIFICATION IN ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY WAY:
DEVELOPMENT OF THE “BOK” OAK TECHNOLOGY 413
David EBNER, Rene STELZER, Marius Catalin BARBU (Czech Republic,

Austria, Romania)
STUDY OF WOODEN SURFACE CARBONIZATION USING THE
TRADITIONAL JAPANESE YAKISUGI TECHNIQUE 421
Yusuf Sudo HADI, Imam Busyra ABDILLAH, Muh Yusram MASSIJAYA,

Gustan PARI, Wa Ode Muliastuty ARSYAD (Indonesia)
WOOD RESISTANCE TO SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE CHANGES AFTER
SMOKE TREATMENT 427
SECTION 7. RENEWABLE ENERGY FROM WOODEN BIOMASS
Konstantinos NINIKAS, Georgios NTALOS, Andromachi MITANI, Dimitrios

KOUTSIANITIS (Greece)
CALORIFIC VALUES FROM GREEK SPRUCE RESIDUES & BIOENERGY
POTENTIALS VIA PELLET PRODUCTION 435
Paschalina TERZOPOULOU, Vasiliki KAMPERIDOU (Greece)

UTILIZATION OF WOODEN BIOMASS CHEMICAL COMPONENTS IN BIO-
PLASTIC PRODUCTS 441
Panagiotis BARMPOUTIS, Vasliki KAMPERIDOU, Tania STATHAKI (Greece,

UK)
FOREST BIOMASS SPECIES CATEGORIZATION AND EVALUATION OF
THEIR CONDITION AND QUALITY USING AERIAL IMAGES 449
Cosmin SPIRCHEZ, Aurel LUNGULEASA (Romania)

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SPRUCE AND BEECH PELLETS IN TERMS
OF PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL, AND ENERGY PROPERTIES 456
XI
SECTION 8. ECONOMICS IN WOOD INDUSTRY
Fredrik LINDBLAD (Sweden)

THE BUILDING PROCESS – A BOUNDLESS MULTIDISCIPLINARY
RESEARCH PROJECT RELATED TO WOODEN MULTI-FAMILY HOUSES
IN SWEDEN 467
Radu Dan PALTAN, Loredana Anne-Marie RADULESCU, Cristina Maria

BIRIS (Romania)
STATE OF RESEARCH ON THE OPTIMIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT PROCESS THROUGH TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
METHODS IN WOOD INDUSTRY 475
Gabor MOLNAR, Loredana Anne-Marie RADULESCU (Romania)

THE BALANCE OF PRODUCTION COST AND PROFIT IN THE CASE OF
PRODUCING SPRUCE TIMBER ASSORTMENTS. CASE STUDY -
HARGHITA COUNTY 483
SECTION 9. FURNITURE DESIGN
Biborka BARTHA, Alin OLARESCU (Romania)

VERNACULAR HOUSING AND FURNISHING PATTERNS OF CERNATU
VILLAGE, COVASNA COUNTY, ROMANIA 495
Sotiria FERFYRH (Greece)
DESIGN OF A FURNITURE FOR PATIENTS IN REHABILITATION STAGE.
KEY STUDY OF THE DEPARTED SECTION 507
Ali BAYATKASHKOLI, Mahmoud-Reza HOSSEINI-TABATABAEI, Toktam

HEMATI, Mehdi JAMSHIDZADEH, Farhad KOOL, Ehsan SANEAI-SISTANE
(Iran)
THE EFFECT OF SHELF BRACKETS ON THE FRONT TO BACK LOAD
AND COMPARING OF THE MECHANICAL STRENGTHS IN THE SCHOOL
CHAIRS MADE FROM LOTUS (ZIZIPHUS SPINA-CHRISTI) AND POPLAR
(POPULUS NIGRA) SPECIES 516
Octavia ZELENIUC, Catalin MATEIU (Romania)

FURNITURE DESIGN IN LEGO CONCEPT 525
Jiufang LV, Huan YE, Houyi HUANG (China)

AN INTERPRETATION OF AUSPICIOUS PATTERNS DECORATED ON
CHINESE HISTORIC FURNITURE 533
XII
Alin OLARESCU, Biborka BARTHA, Thomas GRONEGGER (Romania,
Austria)
EDUCATION IN DESIGN FIELD: NON FORMAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
APPROACHES 539
Desislava ANGELOVA, Regina RAYCHEVA, Rangel CHIPEV (Bulgaria)

STUDENT WORKSHOP: CREATIVITY IN PROGRESS 549
Regina RAYCHEVA (Bulgaria)

MID-CENTURY FURNITURE DESIGN AND ITS IMPACT ON THE DESIGN
OF THE 21ST CENTURY 559
SECTION 10. WOOD CONSTRUCTIONS
Evangelia AGNANTOPOULOU, Ioannis BARBOUTIS (Greece)

POST-BYZANTINE WOOD CARVED ICONOSTASES IN ORTHODOX
CHURCHES OF SIKINOS ISLAND 569
Fredrik LINDBLAD (Sweden)

LIVING QUALITY IN WOODEN MULTI-FAMILY HOUSES 577
Samuel KRAMAR, Martin BRABEC, Pavel KRAL, Peter RADEMACHER

(Czech Republic)
SURFACE SOUNDNESS OF BASALT FIBRE REINFORCED POLYVINYL 585
ACETATE PLYWOOD COATING
Virgil GRECU (Romania)

RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A NEW
SYSTEM FOR GENERATING ECOLOGICAL THERMAL ENERGY IN
BUILDINGS LOCATED IN THE HILL AND MOUNTAIN AREAS 589
POSTER SECTION
Valentina LO GIUDICE, Luigi TODARO, Octavia ZELENIUC (Italy, Romania)

UNDERUTILISED SPECIES RESOURCES IN ITALY FOR
PARTICLEBOARDS MANUFACTURE 599
Carmen-Alice TEACA, Liliana ROSU, Teodora RUSU, Dan ROSU,

Cristian-Dragos VARGANICI, Elena MARLICA (Romania)
STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN CHEMICALLY MODIFIED WOOD
EVIDENCED BY FTIR SPECTROSCOPY AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION
ANALYSIS 605
XIII
Gabriela Mariana BALEA, Camelia COSEREANU, Kambiz POURTAHMASI
(Romania, Iran)
LIGNIN-BASED ADHESIVE FOR PARTICLEBOARD MANUFACTURING
AND FORMALDEHYDE EMISSION 612
Liliana ROSU, Fanica MUSTATA, Dan ROSU, Teodora RUSU, Carmen-Alice

TEACA, Cristian-Dragos VARGANICI, Elena MARLICA (Romania)
PHOTOSTABILITY EVALUATION OF SOFTWOOD MODIFIED WITH 619
EPOXIDIZED OILS
Emilia-Adela SALCA, Hikaru KOBORI, Shigehiko SUZUKI, Sahriyanti SAAD,

Yoichi KOJIMA (Romania, Japan)
COLOUR CHANGES OF HINOKI CYPRESS VENEER UNDER HEAT
TREATMENT 625
Hızır Volkan GORGUN, Oner UNSAL (Turkey)

IMPORTANCE OF THE YIELD ON LOG SAWING PROCESS IN TURKEY 629
Chaminda Kumara MUTHUMALA, Sudhira DE SILVA, Arunakumara KKIU,

Alwis PLAG (Sri Lanka)
VARIATION OF DENSITY, FLEXURAL STRENGTH AND ANATOMICAL
FEATURES OF FINGER JOINTED WOOD SPECIES IN SRI LANKA 635
Juraj JANCIK, Stanislava GASPERCOVA, Linda MAKOVICKA OSVALDOVA

(Slovakia)
EFFECT OF FUNGICIDE COMPOUND APPLICATION ON FLAME
BURNING OF WOOD 643
Markus Johannes BRANDSTETTER, Mihaela CAMPEAN (Romania)

CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE
LOG CONVERSION EFFICIENCY AND THE TAPER FOR RESINOUS (FIR) 649
LOGS
XIV
SECTION 5.
WOOD-BASED
MATERIALS
WOOD-BASED PANEL INDUSTRIES IN FINLAND – CURRENT STATUS AND

DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL
Anuj KUMAR
Tietotie 2, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland, E-mail: anuj.kumar@luke.fi
Erkki VERKASALO
Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland, E-mail: erkki.verkasalo@luke.fi
Abstract
Among the Finnish forest industries, production of wood-based panels (WBP) has been
concentrated on birch plywood since 1910’s and also on softwood plywood and laminated veneer
lumber (LVL) since 1990’s. Chipboard (particleboard) and fibreboard industries started during 1930’s
and 1950’s, both strongly declining since 1980’s owing to the problems in competitiveness in export,
limited domestic markets and strong import, and stagnated RTDI and investment activity. The raw
materials consist nowadays solely of by-products from saw and plywood mills, such as saw dust,
planer shavings, grinding dust, residual wood chips and bark, replacing the more expensive small-
diameter wood and less used hardwoods of 1960’s to 1980’s. Recently, oversupply of the side
streams from mechanical wood processing has considerably lowered their prices for WBP mills.
Continuous growth and specific product segments in the European WBP markets, advanced
technology development, engineered panel products and green building incentives may provide
potential for renaissance of Finnish WBP industry. The main purpose of this paper is to review the
current status and evaluate the future potential of Finnish WBP industries, covering historical
prospects, current scope and structure, raw material and product trends, mill operations, fabrication
lines, adhesives systems and technology development, added with up-to-date SWOT analysis.
Key words: wood-based panels (WBP); chipboard (particleboard, OSB); fibreboard (MDF, HDF);
technology development; value chain.
INTRODUCTION
The European forest industries have recognized the importance of developing innovative forest-
based products with higher added value to meet societal demands for materials, energy, employment,
and environmental protection. Manufacturing products with greater added value is increasingly viewed
as a strategic goal also among wood panel industries, considering the opportunities and the limitations
of raw material supply and product palette (Sathre and Gustavsson 2009; Mantau et al. 2010; Berthold
et al. 2017). Wood products as a whole provide opportunities to mitigate climate change. The
consumption of energy and natural resources and CO2 emissions caused in the manufacture of wood
products is less than in manufacturing using other materials. Wood and wood products are long-term
carbon stores as they sequester CO2 from the air, and replace materials whose manufacture is
harmful to the environment. At the end of their life cycle, wood products can be used to produce
renewable energy and so replace fossil fuels.
In Finland, wood-based panels (WBP) are an important part of forest industries, albeit far
behind sawn wood and further products, pulp, paper and paperboard (Wood products Finland 2017).
The industry has concentrated on birch plywood since 1910’s and also on softwood plywood and
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) since 1990’s. Chipboard (particleboard) industries and fibreboard
industries started during late 1950’s but they strongly declined since 1980’s owing to the problems in
competitiveness in export, limited domestic markets and strong import, and stagnated RTDI and
investment activity (Varis 2018).The raw materials consist nowadays solely of by-products from saw
and plywood mills, such as saw dust, planer shavings, grinding dust, residual wood chips and bark,
replacing the more expensive small-diameter wood and less used hardwoods of 1960’s to 1980’s.
Recently, oversupply of the side streams from mechanical wood processing has considerably lowered
their prices for WBP mills. Continuous growth and specific product segments in the European WBP
markets, advanced technology development, engineered panel products and green building incentives
may provide potential for renaissance of Finnish WBP industry (Kumar and Verkasalo 2017).
277
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this paper is to review the current status and evaluate the future potential
of Finnish WBP industries, covering historical prospects, current scope and structure, raw material and
product trends, mill operations, fabrication lines, adhesives systems and technology development,
added with up-to-date SWOT analysis.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD PANEL INDUSTRIES

Plywood, veneer and LVL industries
Birch plywood has been the flagship of Finnish wood-based panel industries since 1910’s.
Wiikari Oy started the manufacturing in 1894 with chairs, boxes etc. made from plywood. True
plywood production was started for furniture and construction uses in 1912 by Oy Wilh. Schauman Ab.
The industry underwent several uprising and downfalls during the century reaching the global market
leadership in hardwood plywood during 1920’s and 1930’s and, after the losses of mills after World
War II, new peaks in the mid 1960’s and again during mid 2000’s. Manufacturing of softwood plywood
and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) for construction purposes from spruce was started in 1975 and
1994, respectively (Varis 2018). In 2018, after constant consolidation of plywood manufacturing
companies, reduction in the number of mills but rise in their production capacity the following number
of mills are operating: 6 birch plywood mills and 2 birch plywood veneer mills, 2 softwood plywood
mills and 3 LVL mills, 4 other veneer mills. Finland is the largest producer of softwood plywood and
LVL in Europe, and in birch plywood excluding Russia (FAO 2017; Finnish Forest Industries 2017).
Chipboard industries
The first chipboard factory was established in Finland in 1956 by Viiala, with the idea of
utilizing wood residues from the plywood mill in parallel with small thinning wood (Varis 2018). This
mill used first extrusion technology (Kreibaum method - OKAL) and later flatbed pressing technology
(VILA), the product being coated with hardboard (HF). Thereafter, extrusion technology remained
marginal compared with flatbed. Following the concept of VILA, further chipboard factories were most
often built to the sites of plywood mills, sometimes in connection with saw mill, joinery mill or
prefabricated house production. Five more companies started their factories due to 1961 and six more
3
mills followed due to 1973 when the all-time record of 880,000 m of chipboard was reached. Energy
crises of 1974 and 1978 and the resultant global economic downturns hit badly the demand of
chipboards in the Western world. However, three more mills were built in Finland during 1975-1984.
Actual downturn started in 1980’s: due to the early years of 2000’s the chipboard production had
halved and three mills were left only. In 2019, Koskisen Oy Panel Industry in Järvelä, southern
Finland, is the only operating mill in Finland. Significant reasons for the closure of mills were the rising
raw material price (competition from pellet and biopower industries) and lower product price (too much
concentration on bulk products with a hard competition both in export and domestic markets) and
omission of technology development investments (lack of own capital, low business profitability)
(Kumar and Verkasalo 2018).
Fibreboard industries
Fibreboard industries begun in Finland in 1931, when Enso-Gutzeit Oy (later part of Stora
Enso) started to manufacture both hardboards and softboards with wet-process technology in Karhula
(Varis 2018). During 1940’s seven more mills were built by several companies, and still one in 1959
(see Fig. 1). Like chipboard mills, most fibreboard mills were built in connection of plywood mills and
there is only one fibreboard mill left (Heinola), still being one of the biggest hardboard mills in Europe.
It is notable that its production process for LION boards is still fully based on the Finnish fibreboard
manufacturing tradition dating back 80 years. Over the decades, the process and the properties of the
boards have been honed to perfection in order to comply with the requirements of modern
construction. Dry-process technology leading to HDF, MDF or LDF has not been used in Finnish mills,
although process testing and product analysis have been realized (Kumar and Verkasalo 2018).
CURRENT STATUS OF PANEL INDUSTRIES

While only one chipboard mill and one fibreboard mill are active among wood-based panel
industries in Finland (Kumar and Verkasalo 2018), they are mostly producing panels for domestic
purposes (Table 1). Koskisen Oy mill is producing P1, P2, P4, P6 (dry condition) and P5 (humid
condition) types of chipboards. Finnish Fibreboard Ltd. mainly produces six types of hardboards for
278
Fig. 1.
Historical development of Finnish fibreboard industry (Source: Finnish Fibreboard Ltd).
different applications. Table 2 shows the production and import and Fig. 2 the export of different wood
3
based panels during a period of ten years. In 2007, the production totalled to 1.5 million m with the
3
value of 800 million €, while getting down due 2016 to 1.0 million m and 546 million € (FFI 2017).
It is notable that there is currently no production of many globally important types of wood-
based panels in Finland. Of the flake-type products, these include oriented strand board (OSB) and its
precessors like flakeboards and waferboards, and also laminated strand lumber (LSL). Dry-process
fibreboards (especially MDF, but also HF or LDF) or parallel strand lumber (PSL) which is a veneer-
based product are not manufactured either. Their domestic market needs are satisfied through import,
the origin being most often in Russia, Eastern Europe or Western Europe (Berthold et al. 2017).
Table 1
Active wood-based panel mills in Finland (Kumar and Verkasalo 2018)
Panel type Particleboard Fiberboard
Company/ Location Koskisen Oy Panel Industry, Suomen Kuitulevy Oy (Finnish
Järvelä Fibreboard Ltd), Heinola
No. of mills 1 1
Production lines 1 2
Raw materials By-products: Spruce 80 %, Birch 15 %, Sawdust, wood chips
Pine 5 %
Sawdust, mini chips, cutter chips
Resin system UF, MUF, MF UF, MUF, MF
Installed capacity 100,000 m3 65,000 m3

annually
Pressing system Platen pressing Platen pressing
Classes of panel P1, P2, P4, P6 (dry condition), P5 (humid)

produced
Certifications FSC, PEFC, CPR CE, FSC, PEFC,
E1 (formaldehyde emission class) M1 (emission classification of
M1 (emission classification for building building materials)
materials)
279
Table 2
Wood-based panel’s production, import estimates in Finland (FAO 2017)
Year Particleboard MDF Hardboard Other hardboard
(softboard)
Production Import Production Import Production Import Production Import
(m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3)
2011 170000 75924 0 124565 45000 35956 55000 34276
2012 100000 95311 0 125055 45000 30503 55000 22356
2013 96000 87857 0 106024 45000 31479 55000 21471
2014 93000 77630 0 113320 47000 26730 0 33440
2015 92000 79833 0 98974 15000 30255 0 27588
2016 92000 79201 0 121041 15000 27810 0 23996
Fig. 2.
Finnish exports of wood-based panels. (Source: Finnish National Board of Customs).
RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY CHAIN

It is vital to understand the value chains of forest industries, and the biomass flows from the
viewpoints of different wood using industries. Fig. 3 shows the distribution of forest biomass and flows
of wood-based raw materials to the main industries in Finland in 2017 and 2018. Primarily, forest
provides three types of biomass in the forms of saw and plywood logs, pulpwood and forest residues.
Large-sized timber, defined as more than 15-18 cm in diameter, depending on tree species, flows
primarily to saw mills. There is some competition between allocations to either saw or plywood mills
regarding high-quality spruce and birch more than 20 cm in diameter. Pulpwood goes overwhelmingly
to pulp, paper and paperboard industries, and partly to sawmilling of small-diameter logs.
As it was stated before, pulpwood and lower quality hardwoods were used before for chipboard
and fibreboard. They have been replaced later with saw dust, bark, chips, shavings and other side
streams of mechanical wood processing. These are used, parallel with roundwood, full trees, logging
residues and stumps, also in bioenergy plants both for heat and power generation, and now growingly
to liquid fuels (bioethanol, biodiesel). Accordingly, there is a partial competition of wood raw material
between chipboard/fibreboard and bioenergy. Low value woods such as aspen and willow may
provide new sources for wood panel industries. Pulping operations may also provide side-streams
such as lignin, black liquor, bark waste etc. suitable for valorisation in wood panel industries. Finnish
forest industry generated a total 27.7 million tons of side streams, consisting of 49.2% black liquor,
28.5% solid wood-based waste, 14.1% sludge, 4.4% ashes, and 3.8% others (Hassan et al. 2018).
280
Fig. 3.
Finnish forest industry and products status 2017 and forecast for 2018. (Source: Natural
Resources Institute Finland (Luke).
ADHESIVES IN PANEL PRODUCTION

Synthetic resins were the fundamental factor in the successful development of dry-process
wood-based panel industries (Maloney 1977, Hemmilä et al. 2017). The synthetic resins are mainly
classified into four types: urea resins, melamine resins, phenolic resins and isocyanates resins. The
only particleboard factory in Finland mostly uses UF resins and produces panels for interior
applications (Varis 2018). MUF adhesives with different proportions of melamine show high resistance
against moisture and climate, and they are used in particleboard and high-density fibreboard (HDF) in
Finland. Fibreboard industry used both UF and MUF resin in their hardboard production. MF is mostly
used as a high pressure laminate for hardboard coatings. PF resins are mostly used for making
exterior grade plywood in Finland. Isocyanates, also known as PMDI resins, are important industrial
chemicals used in injection moulding and poly-urethane foams. The higher cost of PMDI resins is
offset by the faster reaction time, compared to PF, with the very high bond strength and the superior
resistance to water and climatic conditions. These adhesives are marketed as formaldehyde-free
systems in Europe. However, PMDI adhesives need special precautionary protection measures when
used in the industry, and press-sticking problems need special care, when used in the face layer.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS

Rigidboard or softboard
Rigidboard is produced from refined and dried wood fibres derived from wood chips. Wood fibre
preparation by refining is comparable to that of other fibreboards, including MDF. The resin is applied
after drying and the mat is formed in similar processes as in MDF lines. The panel is pressed in a
prepress and cured in the main press. Rigidboard is produced in various thicknesses from 18 mm to
3 3
240 mm and in densities from 100 kg/m to 220 kg/m .
Chipboard using recycled wood particles

The consumption of chipboards and other panels is rapidly increasing in Europe and Finland as
well as the growth in international markets is steady. Significant amounts of recycled wood and wood
products are used for bioenergy production, without exploring the potential re-utilization in panel
products. Production of chipboards using recycled wood particles will support circular economy
principles and sustainable supply of raw materials. It is essential to develop the wood and wood
products recycling mills and efficient recycling and processing technologies.
281
Cement-fibreboard or cement board

Bio-renewable materials for cement or concrete industries may be a value-added market for
wood fibres and particles or recycled wood particles or residues, lowering the environmental pollution
by reducing the use of asbestos-based cement products. The use of lignocellulosic materials as a
reinforcement for cement may provide many advantages over synthetic reinforcement (steel fibres,
polymeric fibres), providing low density, nonabrasive nature, biodegradability, wide availability of fibres
and side-streams from wood processing industries, low cost, and support to circular bioeconomy.
IMPLEMENTATION OF INVESTMENTS AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIONS

European Union and the countries involved are targeted to move towards the fossil free society
and reduce the CO2 and greenhouse gases. In recent years, the development of thermal insulators
using renewable raw materials of natural origin brings the interest for researchers and industries. The
fossil fuel or crude oil based thermal insulators, i.e., expanded polystyrene, extruded polystyrene,
polyurethane are not sustainable and environment friendly due to the drastic depletion of fossil fuels
(Kumar et al. 2016). As discussed earlier, the demands of wood fibre based materials such as
softboard is increasing every year, and most of the softboard used in Finland comes from import. So,
a domestic fibreboard mill with emphasis on fibreboard insulator may be a viable option in Finland.
CIRCULAR ECONOMY AND CASCADING APPROACH

To achieve the most effective climate change mitigation impacts, the wood resources should be
used in a way that helps to store carbon or to replace the most emission intensive fossil fuels, while
securing development of forest carbon sinks. As a response to the above-mentioned challenges, the
concept of cascading use has been presented in many studies and reports. Simply, the cascading use
of biomass means that biomass is used (and reused or recycled) at least once or several times as a
product before its end-of-life. Minimization of waste of efficient usage of raw materials and energy lies
at the core of the work promote the circular economy. For example, Koskisen Group, the only
particleboard producer in Finland, has a very efficient material usage as wood raw materials and the
processing residues are utilized as well as possible, from wood harvesting to product manufacturing
(Fig. 4): logging residues are delivered as energy wood to power stations in close proximity of the
factories, saw mill chips and part of veneer chips are delivered to pulping and pellet production, part of
veneer chips, cut-offs, saw dust, grinding dust and shavings are used in the chipboard factory.
Fig. 4.
Circular economy example in wood based panel industry in Finland (Source: Koskisen group).
282
GREEN CHEMISTRY APPROACH IN WOOD BASED PANEL INDUSTRIES

The WBP industries should focus on replacing fossil fuel based adhesives such as UF, PF,
MUF etc. systems, because of formaldehyde emissions and strict regulations which have partly
hindered the development of WBP industries markets (Hemmilä et al. 2017). Renewable resources
such as tannin, lignin etc. based adhesives should replace the existing synthetic resins. Recently,
TM
Stora Enso started the production of kraft lignin based product Lineo , which is a versatile product
with numerous potential end uses. Due to its chemical structure, it is especially suitable as phenol
replacement in industrial phenolic resins used in the manufacturing of wood panels and engineered
wood, e.g. plywood, oriented strand board (OSB), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and paper
lamination and insulation material. Rolkem Oy is a phenolic resin producing company partnership with
Stora Enso to use renewable lignin in phenolic resin production and replace fossil-based chemicals,
aiming at the future with 100% bio-based resin (Stora Enso 2019).
SWOT ANALYSIS FOR WOOD BASED PANEL INDUSTRY IN FINLAND

According to Thompson & Strickland (1999), a SWOT analysis enables an industry to
understand its overall business environment. Various SWOT analyses have been performed in
assessing the strategic performance of, for example, overall forest industries (Korpela et al. 2001) and
MDF industry (Othman and Samadara. Fig. 5 demonstrates the current and potential strategic
performance of Finnish panel industries in the form of SWOT analysis, according to our studies.
Fig. 5.
The strategic performance of wood based panels industries demonstrated in-term of strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT).
CONCLUSIONS
Finland is a pioneer of the forest based bio-economy, produces a wide range of sustainable
solutions for wood and wood products. On the other hand WBP industry is not moving forward in the
similar direction like other wood products industries. There are only two WBP mills active in Finland
(excluding the numerous plywood and LVL mills), one being a chipboard mill and second a fibreboard
283
mill. Both are using old-tradition production lines without upgrading them with the latest state-of-art
technology. During 2010’s the price of raw materials has come down in Finland, despite the increased
demand for bioenergy sector. Plenty of sustainable side stream and round wood raw materials are still
available for the future use in panel industry. Simultaneously, the product markets are growing steadily
and several product groups of different volume are available in Europe. Implication of LCA approach
is also needed to imply the entire value chain of WBP producing mills to support the circular
bioeconomy initiatives in Finland. An up-to-date data on the availability and flows of wood-based
residues and their by-products (termed as side streams), their current utilization status and state-of-
the-art technologies could provide new knowledge for the development of bio-based value networks
and business concepts; in the context of the Finnish bioeconomy, these are imperative.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Luke self-funded project UBWGI, Urban building with
wood and green infrastructure and product and service potential of wood product industries, for the
support to this study.
REFERENCES
Berthold D, Meinlschmidt P, Ritter N (2017) Hardwood processing in Europe – Challenges and
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opportunities for the wood based panel industry. ISCHP 2017: 6 International Scientific Conference
on Hardwood Processing – Proceedings. Natural Resources and Bioeconomy Studies 80/2017, pp. 97-
108. Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke). https://jukuri.luke.fi/handle/10024/541001
FAO (2017) Global Forest products fact and figures, 2016. FAO, 2017 I7034EN/1/12.17. Rome, Italy:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Finnish Forest Industries (FFI) (2017) https://www.forestindustries.fi/statistics/
Hassan MK, Villa A, Kuittinen S, Jänis J, Pappinen A (2018) An assessment of side-stream generation
from Finnish forest industry. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, pp.1-16.
Hemmilä V, Adamopoulos S, Karlsson O, Kumar A (2017) Development of sustainable bio-adhesives
for engineered wood panels–A Review. RSC Advances, 7(61):38604-38630.
Korpela J, Sierila P, Tuominen M (2001) A GDSS-based approach to the strategy analysis of forest
industries. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, pp.
8-pp. IEEE.
Kumar A, Verkasalo E (2018) Current status and future implications of Finnish wood-based panel
industries. Proceedings of the 14th Annual Meeting of the Northern European Network for Wood
Science and Engineering (SWE2018) / Kallakas H.(ed.), pp 12-126. Tallinn University of Technology,
Estonia.
Maloney TM (1977) Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing. San Francisco,
Calif. (USA) Miller Freeman Pub.
Mantau U et al. (2010) EUwood - Real potential for changes in growth and use of EU forests. Final
report. Hamburg/Germany, June 2010. 160 p.
Othman MSH, Samad ARA (2009) A preliminary study of strategic competitiveness of MDF industry in
Peninsular Malaysia by using SWOT analysis. International Journal of Business and Management.
Sathre R, Gustavsson L (2009) Process-based analysis of added value in forest product
industries. Forest policy and economics, 11(1):65-75.
Stora Enso (2019) https://www.storaenso.com/en/newsroom/news/2019/2/aiming-at-future-with-100-
bio-based-resin
Thompson AA, Strickland AJ (1999) Strategic management: Cases and concepts. Singapore:
Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Varis R (Ed.) (2018) Wood-Based Panel Industry. Finnish Woodworking Engineers Association.
Bookwell Oy, Porvoo, Finland. 276 p.
Wood Products Finland (WPF) (2017) https://www.woodproducts.fi/content/forest-reserves
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UTILIZATION OF GRAPEVINE RODS AS RAW MATERIAL FOR PRODUCTION OF

BOARDS
Julia MIHAJLOVA
University of Forestry, Faculty of Forest Industry
Blvd. Kliment Ohridski nr. 10, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria
Phone: +359 291 907/260, Cell: +359 888 770 216, E-mail: jmihajlova@ltu.bg
Hülya KALAYCIOĞLU
Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry
Department of Forest Industry Engineering
61080 Trabzon, Turkey
Phone: +90 462 377 1522, Cell: +90 542 535 4266, E-mail: khulya@gmail.com
Marius-Catalin BARBU
Department of Forest Products Technology and Timber Construction
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences,Kuchl, Austria
Faculty for Wood Engineering, University Transilvania, Brasov, Romania
Cell: 00 40 741 580 000, E-mail: marius.barbu@fh-salzburg.ac.at
Abstract
The paper presents the results of studies relating to the utilization of the grapevine rods
remaining at the pruning of the vineyards.
The main objective of the present research was to compare and analyze the obtained values
of physico-mechanical indicators of different types of wood-based panels with the participation of
grapevine rods in their composition.
To be fulfilled the goal of the study in laboratory conditions were produced:
- 7 different types of single-layer particleboards from grapevine particles based on UFR and
PFR, the binder content varying between 8 и 12%, boards density was from 700 to 840kg/m , at press
3
temperature – 190°С;
- 7 types fiberboards from grapevine fibers - with 10% PFR, boards density was 900kg/m3, at
varying the percentage of grapevine fibers from 0 до 30% and press temperature – 190°С;
- 3 types three-layered particleboards with a face layer from wood particles and a core layer
from grapevine particles, at ratio of FL:CL=40:60, based on PFR, the binder content varying between
8 и 12%, boards density was 700kg/m , at press temperature 170°С;
3
- 4 types three-layered combined boards with a face layer from wood fibers and a core layer
from grapevine particles (0; 15; 30 и 45%), based on 10% UFR in FL and 10% UFR in CL, at press
temperature 170°С.
The summarized results for the physical and mechanical indicators of the manufactured
boards with various participation of grapevine particles respectively grapevine fibers are presented in
Tables 1 – 4.
The results obtained within the present research demonstrated that the grapevine rods can be
utilized as raw material for production of different type of boards – particleboards, fiberboards,
combined boards. Increasing the content of this type of lignocellulosic material in the composition of
the various types of boards leads to a deterioration in their physico-mechanical indicators, which can
be offset to a certain extent by an increase in the binder content or a change in the type of binder.
This, of course, must be done after taking into account the future use of the respective type of wood
boards.
Key words: grapevine rods; raw material; particleboards; fiberboards; combined boards.
INTRODUCTION
The needs of wood raw material and wood-based materials increases proportionally to the
rate of population growth. The world population increases by about 90 million persons annually
(Cooper and Balatinecz, 1999). Moreover, on a world-wide scale, more than 3.5 million tons of wood
are consumed per year, which corresponds to about 0.7 t per capita. If the consumption of wood and
the population growth remained constant, then the need of wood would increase by 60 million tons
each year. Therefore, emergence of big unbalance between the wood supply and demand is
285
inevitable. The above presented clearly shows the shortage of forest resources and the impact of the
increased wood consumption. Therefore, the lack of forest resources necessitates partial or full
replacement of wood with other lignocellulosic raw materials in the production of wood materials
(Mihajlova and Savov 2017).
The grapevine rods are abundant and renewable annually. Every season, large quantities of
grapevine rods remain as by-products in the field, and unfortunately not utilized properly in related
industries, although, the grapevine rods are excellent alternative sources to replace wood particles
and wood fibers. Moreover, it is an environmentally friendly practice due to disposal methods. In
general, mostly grapevine rods are destroyed by fire.
The grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is a perennial plant, expanded in the temperate zone of the
Earth, covering a broad area of approximately 10 million hectares. The stem of the grapevine usually
develops shortly and ends in rambling, of which shoots develop in spring. The mature shoots, called
grapevine rods, are pruned every year. The generation of absolutely dry lignocellulose substance by a
hectare is from 1.5 to 2.0 tons, i.e. the minimum amount of annually generated potential raw material
in the world is beyond 15 million tons.
From an economic point of view, the use of the grapevine rods as a raw material in board’s
production correlates mainly with their price free warehouse of the board’s manufacturer, i.e. of
reducing the raw material collecting and transport costs to minimum. Therefore, it is more efficient as
raw material sources to use larger grapevine plantations, where the implementation of mechanization
is economically justified. For the reduction of transport costs, it is recommended the plants for wood
boards based on grapevine raw material to be built in regions abundant in large amounts of that raw
material, which in reality is utterly attainable in numerical wording – above 50 thousand tons raw
material in diameter of 60 km. Besides, it is more rational to transport the raw material in crushed
state, which is achieved by special mobile cutting machines at the spot of collecting the raw material.
The grapevine rods are a seasonal raw material, thence it is necessary to secure its
preserving throughout the year. That can be carried out at best in open areas for storing, because the
grapevine rods crushed in a form of splinters are stored better in piles of technological cuts. In
addition, it is ascertained that the grapevine wood stuff rots harder, i.e. the wood stuff loss while
keeping it in open throughout the year is below 10 %. The substance does not heat spontaneously
(the temperature inside the piles does not exceed 50°C). The destructive phenomena manifest mainly
on the surface layers of the piles at a depth to 270 mm. The balanced humidity of the stuff in the piles
is 15-18 %, irrespective of the climatic conditions (Yosifov et al. 2001).
The utilization of the grapevine raw material for wood boards has several alternative solutions
in terms of applying one or other method of production, as well as the type and the quality of the
manufactured product.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to compare and analyze the obtained values
of physico-mechanical indicators of different types of wood-based panels with the participation of
grapevine rods in their composition.

In the laboratory experiments grapevine rods of such kinds as Pamid and Dimjat which are
common in Bulgaria, have been used. Incidentally, it is necessary to remark on the ascertainment
(Yosifov et al. 2001) that the kind of the grapevine rods not shown any essential influence on the
boards properties.
To be fulfilled the goal of the study in laboratory conditions were produced:
- 7 different types of single-layer particleboards from grapevine particles based on UFR and
3
PFR, the binder content varying between 8 и 12%, boards density was from 700 to 840kg/m , at press
temperature – 190°С;
- 7 types fiberboards from grapevine fibers - with 10% PFR, boards density was 900kg/m3, at
varying the percentage of grapevine fibers from 0 до 30% and press temperature – 190°С;
- 3 types three-layered particleboards with a face layer from wood particles and a core layer
from grapevine particles, at ratio of FL:CL=40:60, based on PFR, the binder content varying between
3
8 и 12%, boards density was 700kg/m , at press temperature 170°С;
- 4 types three-layered combined boards with a face layer from wood fibers and a core layer
from grapevine particles (0; 15; 30 и 45%), based on 10% UFR in FL and 10% UFR in CL, at press
temperature 170°С.
286
The obtaining of the particles has been performed through a two-stage crushing of the
grapevine rods. The initial crushing has been performed on a disc-cutting machine, and the obtained
particles in length of 25-30mm have been further fractioned on a centryfugal-rotary cutting machine
(mill) for the synthetic resins based boards or on a hammer mill for the wood fiber boards. By means
of the cutting machine the generated particles had a thickness of 0.3-0.6 mm and a dispersed
structure in fractions as follows: 10/5 – 13.4%; 5/2.5 – 32.6%; 2.5/1 – 40.5%; 1/0.7 – 9.5%; 0.7/0 –
4%’. The dispersed structure of the particles after the hammer mill was: 10/5 – 28.3%; 5/0.7 – 65.1%;
0.7/0 – 6.6%. The high percentage of small fraction (0.7/0) in the both ways of crushing is mainly due
to the anatomy structure of the grapevine rods, i.e. the structure of pith and bark husks.
Before mixing the particles with the proper binding agent, it is subjected to desiccation up to
thorough moisture 3 – 5%. By using the binding agent based on synthetic water soluble UFR and
RFR, the following basic parameters have been projected: board thickness 16mm, board density
3
770±70kg/m , dry resin content in the boards - 10±2%. The compressing has been performed by
means of a laboratory hydraulic press with the temperature of the plates of 190°C and the pressing
time 0.5min/mm. Depending on the board density the maximum pressing pressure has been within 1,8
– 2,6MPa.
For the obtaining of fiberboards with different quantity of grapevine fibers at content from 0 to
20% industrially manufactured wood-fiber mass was used with the following composition: beech –
57%, oak – 35%, poplar – 8 %. The mass was stored in the laboratory and was dried to water content
of 11%. The degree of its defibration, determined after the Schopper-Riegler method, is 11°. Its bulk
3
density is 32kg/m .
With a view to eliminating mineral inclusions and ash from the grapevine rods, as well as
increasing their water content, they were soaked in a water bath for 72h. The grapevine rods were cut
in advance. The grapevine rods pieces thus prepared were placed in a laboratory defibrator with
additional amount of circulating water. The defibration’s duration was 2min. Grapevine fibers obtained
after mechanical method were subjected to sorting and subsequent drying under atmospheric
conditions (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
Mass of grapevine rods.
287
Phenol-formaldehyde resin with initial concentration of 48% and concentration of the glue
solution of 30% was used for the manufacture of the boards.
Gluing was done in a laboratory mixer with the glue feed by forced injection using an air gun
and a compressor. The pressing was carried out in a hydraulic press type Мanni № Т 0376-449541
(Fig.2).
Fig. 2.
Laboratory hydraulic press type Мanni.
All laboratory boards were sized 500х500mm and thickness respectively for particleboards
and for combined boards16mm, and for fiberboards - 6mm.
The physical and mechanical indicators of all laboratory boards were determined after
methods pursuant to valid standards.

The summarized results for the physical and mechanical indicators of the manufactured
boards with various participation of grapevine particles respectively grapevine fibers are presented in
Tables 1 – 4.
Table 1
Single-layer particleboards from grapevine
Board Kind of binder - Density, Water Thickness Bending Internal
3
No Binder content,% kg/m absorption, swelling, % strength, bond,
-2 -2
% N.mm N.mm
1. UF - 8 770 53.1 17.8 10.6 0.33
2. UF – 10 700 74.1 15.3 11.8 0.35
3. UF – 10 770 45.0 14.2 18.2 0.49
4. UF – 10 840 32.4 12.5 22.9 0.57
5. UF - 12 770 39.3 11.0 19.8 0.57
6. PF - 8 770 42.6 14.9 18.8 0.46
Table 2
Fiberboards from grapevine fibers with 10 % PFR
Board Grapevine fibers Density, Water Thickness Bending Internal
3
No content,% kg/m absorption, swelling, % strength, bond,
-2 -2
% N.mm N.mm
1. 0 915 38.3 13.7 56.4 -
2. 5 920 37.8 14.0 54.0 -
3. 10 925 50.2 20.3 48.2 -
4. 15 935 52.0 24.9 45.5 -
5. 20 940 53.3 27.6 42.8 -
6. 25 920 57.0 28.8 32.6 -
7. 30 930 61.0 28.9 29.0 -
288
Table 3
Three-layered particleboards with a FL from wood particles and an CL from grapevine particles
Board Kind of binder - Density, Water Thickness Bending Internal
3
No Binder content,% kg/m absorption, swelling, % strength, bond,
-2 -2
% N.mm N.mm
1. PF - 8 700 85.1 36.9 13.0 0.27
2. PF - 10 700 79.0 32.6 13.0 0.40
3. PF - 12 700 67.0 19.1 18.0 0.48
Table 4
Three-layered combined boards with a FL from wood fibers and an CL from grapevine particles
Board Grapevine Kind of Density, Water Thickness Bending Internal
3
No particles binder - kg/m absorption, swelling, % strength, bond,
-2 -2
content in Binder % N.mm N.mm
CL,% content,%
1. 0 PF – 10 700 97.1 29.0 18.0 0.48
2. 15 PF - 10 700 104.2 30.4 17.8 0.32
3. 30 PF - 10 700 106.9 31.8 17.0 0.30
4. 45 PF - 10 700 114.0 32.9 16.8 0.28
From the data presented in Table 1 concerning the physical and mechanical properties of
single-layer particle boards at 10% UFR, it can be seen that an increase in density from 700 to
3
840kg/m leads to a reduction in water absorption from 74.1 to 32.4% and in thickness swelling from
15.3 to 12.5%. The bending strength and internal bond of the same type of boards increases from
-2 -2
11.8 to 22.9N.mm and from 0.35 to 0.57N.mm , respectively, with increasing the boards density.
When choosing a density in the production of boards with the participation of grapevine particles, an
account must be taken of their future use. With regard to values for indices for the thickness swelling,
bending strength and internal bond (EN 319) all the obtained boards with 10% UFR content and
3
densities of 700, 770 and 840kg/m respectively meet the requirements of EN 312 for Type P1 –
Requirements for general purpose boards for use in dry conditions and for Type P2 – Requirements
for boards for interior fitments (including furniture) for use in dry conditions. The boards with density of
3
770 and 840kg/m have shown in the tests values for bending strength, internal bond and swelling in
thickness, 24h suitable for boards Type P3 according EN 312 – non load-bearing boards for use in
humid conditions.
Increasing the percentage of binder in the board composition can be traced if if the values of
the physical and mechanical indicators of board type 1, 3 and 5 in Table 1 are compared. It can be
seen that the increase in the board binder content has a positive effect - water absorption and
thickness swelling are reduced, and bending strength and internal bond of the boards are increased.
When selecting the percent of the binder content, it is necessary to consider both the future use of the
boards, i.е. the desired values for properties of the obtained boards, as well as economic efficiency as
the higher percentage of binder increases the cost of the boards. All three types of boards -
respectively with 8, 10 and 12% UFR in their composition correspond to requirements of EN 312 for
Type P1 – Requirements for general purpose boards for use in dry conditions, and the boards with 10
and 12% UFR in their composition meet the requirements against these indicators for Type P2 –
Requirements for boards for interior fitments (including furniture) for use in dry conditions and for Type
3 according EN 312 – non load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions.
As can be seen in Table. 1, boards 1 and 6 were obtained with the same parameters but with
a different type of binder - respectively UFR and PFR. When comparing the obtained values for the
physical and mechanical indicators, it is clear that better indicators have the boards with PFR – 42.6%
-2 -2
water absorption, 14.9% thickness swelling, 18.8N.mm bending strength and 0.46 N.mm internal
bond, which are respectively with 10.5% lower water absorption, with 2.9% lower thickness swelling,
-2 -2
with 8.2N.mm higher bending strength and 0.13N.mm higher internal bond compared with the
boards with UFR. Of course, when choosing the type of binder, future use of the boards should be
considered.
From the data presented in Table 2 can be seen how does the increase of the fiber content
from grapevine rods in the FBs composition affect their indicators. Under the conditions of the study,
the water absorption of FBs varies from 61% to 38,3%. That is, the water absorption of the boards with
30% participation of grapevine fibers is by 22,7% worse, respectively higher, than that in the reference
board that is without participation of grapevine fibers. Under the conditions of the study, the thickness
swelling of FBs varies from 28,9% to 13.7%. That is, at 30% grapevine fibers content, the thickness
289
swelling is with 15.2 % worse, i.e. higher, than that of the reference board that is without participation
of grapevine fibers. With the addition of up to 30% of grapevine fibers to the composition of FBs,
-2
decrease in the bending strength of the boards from 56 to 29N.mm . The boards with grapevine fibers
content of 5% to 20% meet the requirements of the highest strength classes, respectively FBs with
increased load-carrying capacity for bearing structures and for outdoor use, respectively with required
-2
bending strength of 44 and 40N.mm . This shows that the grapevine rods as a waste lignocellulosic
raw material from the agriculture may be successfully, without violating the requirements to the
bending strength, utilized in the composition of FBs in content of up to 20%. The boards with
grapevine fibers content of 25% meet the requirements for bending strength of FBs for general
purpose and for use in dry environment. And FBs with 30% grapevine fibers content do not meet the
requirements to the studied indicator. Attention should be paid to the fact that the boards were
manufactured with high PFR content – 10%. This makes the utilization of grapevine fibers in their
composition of more than 20% unjustified with respect to the bending strength. In conclusion, the
following main recommendations may be made: The amount of grapevine fibers shall not exceed 20%
of the composition of FBs manufactured after dry method, and when there are increased requirements
to the boards with respect to the performance indicators, the amount of grapevine fibers shall not
exceed 5%. In subsequent studies, the effect of the grapevine fibers content within the range 5% to
10% and 10% to 20% should be studied (with lower increment).
In Tab. 3 are presented data on the physicomechanical indicators of three-layer particleboards
with the face layer from wood particles and core layer from grapevine particles with different
participation of PFR in board composition. From the results obtained in testing the physicomechanical
properties of the boards, the tendency to improve them with an increase in the binder content – reduce
water absorption with 18,1% and thickness swelling – with 17,8%, as well as increasing the bending
-2 -2
strength with 5.0N.mm and the internal bond with 0,21N.mm . All three types of three-layer boards -
with 8, 10 and 12% PFR in their composition, respectively, meet the requirements of EN 312 for Type
P1 – Requirements for general purpose boards for use in dry conditions, and boards with 10 and 12%
PFR in the composition and the requirements against these indicators for Type P2 – Requirements for
boards for interior fitments (including furniture) for use in dry conditions. Three-layer boards with 12%
PFR participation in the composition meet the requirements for these indicators for Type 3 according
EN 312 – non load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions.
In Table. 4 the values obtained for the study for physicomechanical indicators of the three-
3
layer composite boards, which are obtained with a density of 700 kg/m and the participation in the
composition of the boards - 10% of the PFR, are presented. From the obtained results there is a
tendency to deteriorate the physicomechanical indicators of the boards with increasing the percentage
of grapevine particles in the core layer – for example, water absorption increases by 16.9% with the
gradual increase of the grapevine particles content in CL from 0 to 45%; respectively, the thickness
-2
swelling increases from 29 to 32.9%, i. e. with 3.9%; the bending strength decreases by 1.8N.mm
-2 -2
(from 18.0 to 16.8 N.mm ) and the internal bond also decreases from 0.48 to 0.28N.mm (with 0.2
-2
N.mm ) for the boards with 45% grapevine particles in CL. By comparing the values obtained for the
physicomechanical indicators on the three-layered combined boards with those of the three-layer
particleboards with CL from the grapevines particles and 10% PFR in their composition, it is clear that
-2
the combined boards have better mechanical indicators (bending strength 16,8N.mm and internal
-2
bond 0,28N.mm ) even at 45% grapevine particles content in CL, but worse physical properties (water
absorption 114% and thickness swelling 32,9%). This is most likely due to the face layer, which is
3
obtained from wood fibers at a density 700kg/m .
CONILUSIONS
The studies conducted confirm the results of a number of colleagues working in this field
(Yeniocak et al. 2014; Ntalos et al. 2002, Kalaycioğlu and Nemli 2006; Alma et al. 2005). The results
obtained within the present research demonstrated that the grapevine rods can be utilize as raw
material for production of different type of boards – particleboards, fiberboards, combined boards.
Increasing the content of this type of lignocellulosic material in the composition of the various types of
boards leads to a deterioration in their physicomechanical indicators, which can be offset to a certain
extent by an increase in the binder content or a change in the type of binder. This, of course, must be
done after taking into account the future use of the respective type of wood boards.
290
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449–455.
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Boards. Proceedings of Papers the 8 International Science Conference “Chip and Chipless
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vinifera.cv.sultan) as Raw Material for Particleboard Manufacturing”, Wood Reserch, 59(1):167-176.
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90896-5-7, pp. 139 – 147.
291
WATER RESISTANCE OF WELDED PINE
Mojgan VAZIRI
Luleå University of Technology, Wood Science and Engineering
Forskagatan 1, 931 87, Skellefteå, Sweden
Tel: 0046 910 58 57 04, E-mail: mojgan.vaziri@ltu.se
Dick SANDBERG
Luleå University of Technology, Wood Science and Engineering
Forskagatan 1, 931 87, Skellefteå, Sweden
Tel: 0046 910 58 53 71, E-mail: dick.sandberg@ltu.se
Abstract
Wood welding is a novel technology to join wood elements based on friction between two
wood surfaces. The crack formation in the welded joint was visualized and studied using X-ray
Computed Tomography. Increasing the welding time from 4 s to 5 s could either make no difference or
decrease the cracking time i.e. the time from water exposure of the specimen to the crack appearance
in the welded joint, whereas increasing the welding time could improve the water resistance and shear
strength of the welded joint. The incompatibility between the CT-scanning results with immersion test
and the shear strength results lead to the idea that the cracking time may not be an indicator of
durability and strength of the welded wood.
Key words: cracking; CT scanning; Micro CT scanning; shear strength; welding time.
INTRODUCTION
Wood welding is a novel procedure for joining wood pieces without the use of adhesives or
any other material than the wood itself. Solidification of the induced material flow at the interface
makes a bond capable of reproducing the behaviour and performance of synthetic resins (Vaziri et al.
2015a). First pioneered in 1996, the welding process and the mechanical properties of the welded
wood have been studied in the past decade across Europe and the technique has shown some
success in the furniture industry (Pizzi et al. 2011, Navi and Sandberg 2012). However, to date there
have been few studies related to structural applications, in part due to the vulnerability of the weld to
damage from moisture. For industrial applications of the technology, the long-term stability of the joint
must be ensured.
The durability of welded wood can be improved through different methods. Optimization of the
welding parameters (welding time, welding pressure etc.) and parameters related to the geometry and
structure of the wood (Belleville et al. 2017), dimensional stabilization of wood by thermal and
chemical treatments techniques such as acetylation and furfurylation (Pizzi et al. 2012) or surface
coating with naturally derived additives (Amirou et al. 2017). A majority of these processes decrease
mechanical performance indicators in wood or contain components that are of environmental concern.
However, efforts regarding enhancing moisture resistance of the welded wood by optimisation of
process parameters and understanding of the underlying mechanisms of water damage in the welded
wood joints are still comparatively rare.
OBJECTIVES
The overall purpose of this work is following up the previous studies (Vaziri et al. 2011) to gain
information related to the effect of welding time on water resistance of the welded Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris L.) as one of the most used European species. A crack in the welded joint is the first sign of
damage. Therefore, with the help of well-developed image processing algorithms and using non-
destructive test methods such as X-ray Computed Tomography (CT-scanning), the cracks in the
welded joints were visualized and cracking times (the time from water exposure of the specimen to the
crack appearance in the welded joint) were calculated.
Related to this, an effort was also made to analyse the shear strength of the welded wood and
durability of the joint in water using immersion test, in order to define if there is any correlation
between cracking time, delamination time, and shear strength of the welded joint.
292
MATERIAL AND METHOD

PREPARATION OF THE SPECIMENS
WELDING
Wood specimens with dimensions of 20mm × 20mm × 230mm (R × T × L) were prepared from
clear pieces of Scots pine. The materials were conditioned for two weeks at 20ºC and 65% relative
humidity (RH) in an environmental chamber to 12% moisture content (MC) and welded together in
pairs to dimensions 20mm × 40mm × 230mm (Longitudinal welding of a tangential face to a radial
face). The linear vibration welding machine type M 624 (Branson) with a frequency of 240Hz and
settings according to Table 1 was used for the welding procedure.
Table 1
The welding procedure and classification of the specimens
Specimen Welding Initial Final Holding Time Holding Pressure
type Time (s) Welding Welding after Welding (MPa)
Pressure Pressure (s)
(MPa) (MPa)
T4 2+2=4 1.3 1.7 10 2.7
T5 2+3=5
CT SCANNING
The welded specimens were conditioned in the CT-laboratory at ambient conditions to 8% MC
for 10 days before scanning. For each welding time 5 specimens were prepared. The welded
specimens were placed with butt ends in 5mm deep tap water in an experimental rig (Fig. 1) and were
scanned over 2 days at 30min intervals by a medical X-ray CT-scanner (SIEMENS Emotion Duo) at
ambient conditions according to scanner settings in Table 2. For image reconstruction, a standard
S80s algorithm was used. The X-ray sorption was measured along the welded joint in an area of
222mm × 25mm.
Fig. 1.
Experimental rig for CT-scanning. Two batches of welded specimens were placed in the rigs
and separated with plastic walls so that all welded joints of each batch were placed along a line
to be captured by one scan.
Table 2
Setting of the CT-scanner
Parameter Unit Value
Voltage kV 110
Current mA 70
Scan time s 2
Scan thickness (depth) mm 1
Matrix Pixels 512 × 512
Resolution Pixels/mm 0.58
The CT scanning generates images with greyscale values that corresponds to the attenuation
coefficient of the materials. This coefficient is in turn related to density of the scanned material, which
is shown by an intensity profile (Lindgren et al. 1992, Vaziri et al. 2010). The MC of the scanned wood
specimens can be determined by a complementary scan of the same specimens at 0% MC. The
293
calculated X-ray linear attenuation coefficient in each small volume element (voxel) was normalized by
the corresponding linear attenuation coefficient for water according to Equation (1). This normalized
value was referred to as the CT-number (Herman 1980).
(1)
where: denotes the CT-number, the attenuation coefficient for the tested material, and the
attenuation coefficient for water. A CT-number of -1000 indicates an object or a voxel within the object
that has the density of air and a CT-number of zero indicates a region in the slice of the object with the
density of water. Water movement and crack propagation were traced in the weld interface by CT-
image analysis using the software Matlab R 2018b.
Water movement and crack propagation was traced in the welding interface by CT image
analysis with the same software. The positions of the welded joints were changed by swelling of the
specimens and were not along a line. Therefore, CT-number profiles of the specimens were created
separately. Variation in the welded joints position indicates that the specimens have moved because
of swelling and a big reduction in the top of the density profiles implies a crack forming in the welded
joint (Vaziri et al. 2011).
SHEAR STRENGTH AND WATER IMMERSION TEST

30 welded specimens consisting of 15 specimens welded for 4s and 15 specimens welded for
5s, were prepared and conditioned for 10 days in an environmental chamber (20°C and 65% RH) to
12% MC before testing. The specimens were cut according to the method described in European
standard EN 14080 (2013) and tested using Instron Universal testing machine (ASTM D143-14) along
the longitudinal direction of the specimens at a rate of 2mm/min. The average value and standard
deviation of the bond strength and the average wood failure were calculated for each set of specimens
(Table 3).
For water immersion test the welded specimens of original size of 20mm × 20mm × 200mm
were conditioned to 12% MC in the conditionings room and then were put in cold tap water in the
ambient room temperature (22°C) until delaminating of the welded joints.

CRACK DETECTION BY CT-SCANNING
Figures 2 and 3 show typical CT-number profiles of two groups of the specimens when a crack
appears in the welded joint of at least one of the specimens in comparison to their dry profiles (dot
lines in Fig. 2 and 3) and the previous time of scanning (dash-dot lines in Fig. 2 and 3). The CT-
number of some of the specimens welded for 4 s (S2, S4, and S5) fell below their original (dry) CT-
number after 2.5 hours of water sorption which indicated a crack formed in their welded joints (Fig 2).
For welded specimens in 5s also 3 specimens (S3, S4, and S5) cracked after 2.5 hours of water
sorption (Fig 3). The average cracking time of the specimens welded for 4 s (T4) and those welded for
5s (T5) were 8h and 2h, respectively (Table 3).
Table 3
Cracking time (h) for specimens welded in 4 s (T4) and 5 s (T5)
Specimen S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
group No.
T4 31.5 2.5 0.5 2.5 2.5
T5 0.5 0.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
294
Cracking
900 S1
S2
S3
800 S4
S5
S1D
700 S2D
CT-number
S3D
S4D
600 S5D
S1P
S2P
500 S3P
S4P
S5P
400
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
[pixel]
Fig. 2.
CT-number profile of welded joints for 5 specimens welded for 4 s (T4). S1-S5 are welded
specimens after 2 .5 h water sorption; S1P-S5P are previous scanning (2 h after water
sorption); S1D-S5D are dry welded specimens (before water sorption).
Cracking
S1
900
S2
S3
S4
800
S5
S1D
S2D
700
CT-number
S3D
S4D
S5D
600
S1P
S2P
S3P
500
S4P
S5P
400
45 50 55 60 65 70
[pixel]
Fig. 3.
specimens after
2 .5 h water sorption; S1P-S5P are previous scanning (2 h after water sorption); S1D-S5D are
dry welded specimens (before water sorption). The dotted ellipse shows the density profile of
early wood and late wood within the growth ring.
295
1000
Rejoining S1
900 S2
S3
S4
800 S5
S1D
S2D
700
CT-number
S3D
S4D
S5D
600
S1P
S2P
S3P
500
S4P
S5P
400
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
[pixel]
Fig. 4.
specimens after 6.5 h water sorption; S1P-S5P are previous scanning (6 h after water sorption);
S1D-S5D are dry welded specimens (before water sorption). Arrows show the CT-number
profiles of three specimens (S2, S4, S5) have increased after cracking to the same level as the
previous ones (S2P, S4P, S5P).
The CT-number profiles of the joints of the specimens increased again after cracking by
continuing the water sorption and reached to the same level or above as before (Fig. 4). This might be
explained by the cracks being filled with water or by swelling of the welded joint and/or wood around it
and re-joining of the wood pieces.
The density of the welded joints and the adherent woods increased with water sorption and
the zigzag pattern of the wood profiles disappeared due to water sorption and homogenising the
densities of earlywood and latewood (Fig.3). If the specimen T4, S1 (Table 3) with longest cracking
time is considered as an outlier, then two groups (T4, T5) show almost the same cracking time.
SHEAR STRENGTH AND WATER RESISTANCE

The average shear strength of the specimens welded for 5s were higher than that of the
specimens welded for 4s (Table 4). The average shear strength of the joints were acceptable, but the
percentage of the wood failure was relatively low.
Table 4
Average shear strength of the specimens
Specimen Average Shear Maximum Shear Average Wood
type Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa) Failure (%)
T4 4.93 ± 2.3 9.8 5
T5 6.3 ± 3.31 11.8 10
More notable, however, is the time that these joints are capable to withstand immersion in
water without falling apart. More than 46% of the specimens welded for 4s (T4) delaminated within the
first 24 hours of water sorption and about 30% delaminated during the second day. However, the
specimens welded for 5s (T5) delaminated with delay of about 26 hours. They survived the first 24
hours of water sorption without delaminating and then about 50% of them fell apart during the second
day and 30% within the third day. Two specimens of each group are still kept together for 120 -and 90
days for T4 and T5, respectively without delamination.
296
15
10
delaminated samples
T4
T5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
time [h]
Fig. 5.
Accumulated number of delaminated specimens versus immersion time in water for 2 different
groups of welded specimens, each of which consisted of 15 specimens; T4-specimens welded
for 4 s and T5-specimens welded for 5 s.
Based on the previous results (Vaziri et al. 2015b), longer welding time seemed to enhance
formation of dehydration carbohydrate products like the furfurals and levoglucosan as well as phenols
from lignin degradation (Vaziri et al. 2015). Condensation reaction between aldehydes and phenols
may also take place during welding which results in forming cured resins under hot and alkaline
conditions. Such materials may enhance the water resistance and mechanical strength of the welded
joint (Pizzi et al. 1994).
CONCLUSION
The analysis of crack formation in the welded interface using CT-scanning revealed that, in the
frame of welding parameters used in this study increasing the welding time for 1 second could either
make no difference or decrease the cracking time. Based on the water immersion and shear strength
tests, increasing the welding time had a clear tendency toward enhanced water resistance and
improved shear strength of the welded wood.
The incompatibility between the CT-scanning results with immersion test and the shear
strength results leads to the idea that the cracking time may not be an indicator of durability and
strength of the welded wood. Since the specimens containing crack are still able to withstand the
water without falling apart it can be concluded that the size, depth, and distribution of the cracks have
also some effect on the water resistance of the welded wood. Using a high resolution CT-scanner and
introducing different methods of crack detection may lead to different results than that obtained in this
study.
The results of this study is indicative, but not really, a verification of behaviour of the welded
wood for different welding times. Therefore, it is recommended for future work to study the cracking
times and water resistances of more specimens welded in many different welding times to gain a clear
pattern of correlation between these properties.
Furthermore, to study the ability of a joint to withstand the outdoor climatic variations from wet
to dry, it is recommended for future work in addition to water immersion tests to expose the welded
specimens to extreme weather variation such as the north European climate for a couple of months
and test at regular intervals.
This study provides new knowledge for enhancing the moisture resistance of welded wood
through optimization of process parameters and/or wood modification technique.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Financial support from the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences
and Spatial Planning (FORMAS), project Wood Welding - ”Glue-free Wood Assembly 2017-01157”, is
gratefully acknowledged. We would also like to show our gratitude to Dr. Lars Abrahamsson at LTU,
297
Division of Electric power engineering for providing insight and expertise that greatly assisted the
research.
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Vaziri M (2011) Water resistance of welded Scots pine produced by linear friction welding. Doctoral
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Vaziri M, du Plessis A, Sandberg D, Berg S (2015a) Nano X-ray tomography analysis of the cell-wall
density of welded beech joints. Wood Material Science and Engineering 10(4):368-372.
Vaziri M, Rogaume C, Masson E, Pizzi A, Sandberg D (2015b) VOC emissions from linear vibration.
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Modified Wood. Eds. Kutnar A, Burnard M, Schwarzkopf M, Simmons A. University of Primorska,
Science and Research Centre of Koper, Slovenia. pp. 26-27.
298
NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED VENEER BASED PRODUCTS

Johannes S. JORDA
Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Wood Science
Salzburg University for Applied Sciences, Forest Products and Timber Construction
Marius C. BARBU
Salzburg University for Applied Sciences, Forest Products and Timber Construction
University “Transilvania” of Brasov, Faculty for Wood Engineering
Pavel KRAL
Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Wood Science
Abstract
Veneer based products belong to the oldest engineered materials. Used in a broad range of
applications, from structural elements, static products for furniture (boards/flat or moulded), sport
equipment or in automotive industry. This paper gives an overview about the recent development of
fibre reinforcement used for veneer based products, in order to overcome and improve the mechanical
properties for these wood based composites. Current fibre reinforcement is primarily based on fibre
fabrics originated from glass or carbon. Drawing the focus of this study on eco-friendly natural fibre
reinforcement as the future prospect for replacing traditional fibre reinforcements. Several natural
fibres such as flax, hemp or kenaf have shown competitiveness to glass fibre. The barriers for the
implementation of natural fibre reinforcement at industrial level are mainly due to economic and
technical issues as well as interacting low research focus.
Key words: veneer based products; natural fibre; reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
Veneer based products are considered to be the oldest wood based material developed by
mankind and had been further developed for various purposes throughout the last centuries (Niemz
and Wagenführ 2008, Paulitsch and Barbu 2015, Kollmann and Kuenzi 1973). Applications are
ranging from structural construction materials such as plywood, LVL etc. to deckings and floorings and
for aesthetic purposes in the field of furniture and automotive as well as special applications for sport
products, like ski-/snowboard-cores or surfboards and hockey sticks. Shapes of veneer based
materials are not only limited to two-dimensional boards; moreover three-dimensional moulded
products for furniture such as chairs or sports equipment were developed. Highlighting the great
variety of possible applications, in general veneer based products belong to the family of ligno-
cellulosic materials and are part of wood based composites beside timber-, chips/particle- and fibre-
based products (Barbu et al. 2014). According to Niemz (1993, 2015) they can be categorized by the
grade of compression/adhesive content, veneer-strands materials (PSL/OSL) and the grain orientation
of the layers (LVL/plywood/etc.).
Veneers are defined as thin sheets of wood produced by cutting, slicing or peeling (Paulitsch
and Barbu 2015). The process technology deeply influences the length, width as well as the texture of
the veneer sheets (Wood 1963) and the mechanical properties due to the anisotropic orthotropic
character of wood (Kretschmann 2010). In addition, the level of decomposition from solid wood to
structural elements of wood-based materials - as defined by the scheme of Mara (Marra 1979) - has a
direct influence on decreasing strength properties. Whereas in contrast e.g. homogeneity, isotropy and
thermal insulation are increasing (Niemz and Wagenführ 2008). In contrast, the modulus of elasticity
(MoE) increases with the level of decomposition behold the isolated element (Gassan and Bledzki
1999). Strength of veneer based products is influenced by the thickness of the single veneer layer, the
board density and the solid resin content. Tensile strength depends on the direction of applied force
and the grain direction of the face layer (Niemz and Wagenführ 2008, Niemz 2015).
To overcome the limitations of the mechanical properties, veneer based composites are used.
Complexity arises about classifying composites, with no clear scientific consensus, by different
classification model approaches (Stevenson 2010, Stokke et al. 2014, Callister and Rethwisch 2013,
Dietz 1972, Weissbach et al. 2015). The general taxonomy given by Callister (Callister 2001) into
particle-, fiber-reinforced and structural composites meets with the classification of wood based
composites (Niemz and Wagenführ 2008, Paulitsch and Barbu 2015, Barbu et al. 2014). Veneer
299
based products are defined as laminar composites (Paulitsch and Barbu 2015, Barbu et al. 2014,
Stokke et al. 2014) using adhesives for bonding of the single layers. The combination between the
laminar veneer based composites with fibre reinforcement results in a compound with improved
mechanical properties.
Fibre reinforcement
Based on the systematic of composites by Callister (2001), fibre reinforced composites can be
continuous (aligned) or discontinuous (short), subdivided into aligned and randomly oriented. Fibre
used for reinforcement can be classified as synthetic, artificial or natural origin. Synthetic fibre are
based on synthetic polymers derived from fossil resources (Belgacem and Pizzi 2016). Natural fibre
are extracted from organic (plant or animal based) and inorganic sources (mineral fibre) (Müssig and
Slootmaker 2010, Sanjay et al. 2016, Aditya et al. 2017). Depending on the application of the fibre
reinforcement, different semi-finished textile products are used, such as rovings, non woven and
woven fibre fabrics (Kastner 2008, Lehmann and Herzberg 2011, Pietsch and Fuchs 2011, Neitzel
2014). The further focus is narrowly drawn on veneer based products reinforced with woven and non
woven fibre fabrics. The entire field of fibre polymer matrix composites such as wood plastic
composites will not be displayed.
The concept of fibre reinforcement for improving wood and wood based materials properties is
not new. Barbu et al. (2014) mentioned that a patent for wooden shavings glued on flax fabric was
introduced in 1889 and a similar lay-up for plywood followed later.
Bal et al. (2015) gives an overview about research on fibre reinforced wood based products,
carried out since the 1960s. Wangaard (1964) and Biblis (1965) started the research on the
mechanical properties of wood fibre-glass beams with epoxy resin. Theakston (1965) studied the
feasibility for strengthening timber beams with fibre-glass. The research of Spaun (1981) and Bulleit
(1980) was focused on fiberglass reinforcement for particleboards. These studies were a
th
consequence of progresses in the field of synthetic resins and synthetic fibre between the 1930 and
th
1950 . A study carried out by Rowlands et al. (1986) stated that epoxy resins are adequate for
®
reinforcing wood composites with glass, glass-fibre and other synthetic fibre such as Kevlar . The
th
introduction of LVL in the 1940s in the aviation and and in the 1970s 1970 in building sector for
structural applications lead to research on reinforcing LVL beams with synthetic fibre, e.g. by
Laufenberg et al. (1984) or Bal (2014, 2014) or for plywood and particle-board by Boehme & Schulz
(1974). Xu et al. (1998) studied the effects of fibre length and orientation on elasticity of carbon fibre-
reinforced plywood.
Economical pressure caused by rising raw material prices and resources availability shifted the
focus on fast-growing tree species for wood based products. The disadvantage of lower mechanical
properties are compensated with fibre reinforcement. Bal et al. (2015) used woven glass-fibre fabric
for different orientated poplar plywood bonded with phenol-formaldehyde-resin. MoR and MoE
increased, while SMoR and SMoE decreased. The reinforcement for poplar LVL with woven glass-
fibre fabric bonded with PF-resin in the study conducted by Bal (2014) resulted in increased impact
bending and shear strength. Additionally, tangential, volumetric swelling and water absorption
decreased of reinforced LVL. Meekum & Mingmonokol (2011) studied the influence of hot press
process parameters (pressure, temperature, press time) on the flexural properties of rubber wood
fibre-glass reinforced LVL bonded with epoxy resin. This study led to the conclusion that the major
impact effect on product properties is caused by pressure (decreasing pressure leads to increasing
mechanical properties) and press time. Aiming to improve the dimensional stability and bio durability
of veneer due to heat treatment Percin & Altunok (2019) investigated the effect of carbon fibre
reinforcement for the production of LVL made from heat treated beech veneer on its mechanical and
physical properties. Stating a positive influence of carbon fibre reinforced on the properties. Liu et al.
(2017) evaluated the flexural properties of carbon-fibre fabric reinforced fast growing
poplar/eucalyptus species as composite formwork plywood bonded by epoxy resin. To analyse the
mechanical properties for several combinations of wood species and reinforcing fibre is important to
measure the modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE). Surface layer reinforcement
is mandatory for ultimate load carrying capacity.. Each research paper dealt with local wood species
analysed by authors.
Research on fibre reinforced plywood focuses not only on mechanical properties. Furthermore,
fibre reinforcement can influence surface durability. Král & Hrázský (2008) proposed a testing
methodology for water-proof plywood material based on a phenol-formaldehyde foil surface finish
combined with unwoven and woven glass-fibre. They stated that fibre reinforcement depends strongly
on the application and economic aspects.
300
Another field of research for fibre reinforced veneer based products are applications as
lightweight panels. One approach to weight reduction for wood based panels are sandwich cores
(Paulitsch and Barbu 2015).
Zudrags et al. (2009) introduce a design methodology based on numerical experiments using
finite elements method for different plywood sandwich panels configurations, in order to develop a
simulation tool for optimizing the sandwich panel geometry without cost intensive testing during the
optimization process. Validating the model by physical experiments. Šliseris & Rocēns (2011) present
an optimization method for geometrical and mechanical parameters of plywood panel consisting of
plywood faces and a cylindrical moulded plywood core. Labans & Kalnins (2013) introduced
experimental sandwich prototypes, combining plywood faces with glass-fibre reinforced plastic
stiffeners as core layer. The initial plywood core was replaced with corrugated glass fibre composite.
Using finite element code and design of computer experiments for product optimization led to 65%
weight reduction, while stiffness was kept unchanged. Further development in prototyping and
experimental testing, Labans et al. (2017) introduces a single step manufacturing procedure for a
three dimensional sandwich panel core formed by thermoplastic glass fibre / polypropylene composite
3
bonded to plywood faces. The board density was reduced to 235 kg/m , with additional foam as space
3
filler reaching a density of 325kg/m . In this way sandwich composite boards are competitive to solid
wood based panels. Numerical analysis is suitable as a tool for evaluating mechanical performance for
design optimization. Kavermann (2013) carried out similar research on lightweight sandwich panels
with corrugated core and foam as space filler.
Natural fibre reinforcement

The performance behaviour of lignocellulosic flax fibre reinforcement compared to glass-fibre in
order to improve the tension value perpendicular to grain strength for glulam timber was carried out by
André (2007). The unidirectional fibres were glued with epoxy resin to the GLT specimen. Flax fibre
proved to be comparable to glass-fibre reinforcement and enhance the strength of the timber
structure. Speranzini & Tralascia (2010) used flax, hemp and basal fibre for reinforcing LVL and solid
wood with epoxy resin to compare with glass and carbon fibers for bending behavior. They reported
comparable results for natural fibre reinforcement. Wang et al. (2011) reinforced poplar LVL with ramie
fibre bonded with phenol-formaldehyde resin in different layups. MoE improved up to 21%, MoR up to
15% and shear strength perpendicular to grain up to 40.5%. Upitis & Dolacis (2012) studied birch
plywood composite material with hemp fibre reinforcement. A bio component binder was used, to
compare the effect of the long fibre of dried hemp and hemp yarn woven technical fabrics embedded
in a matrix, to determine the changes in the mechanical properties of plywood composite. Increasing
the bending strength increased about 21.8%, and MoE static bending by 23%. Basterra et al. (2012)
reinforced longitudinal poplar duo beams with flax (dry and wet application method), glass and carbon
fibre. The tests for MoR and MoE were carried out according to European standard EN408 with
determining a significant increasing for MoE and MoR only for carbon fibre reinforcement. The
reinforcement with flax influenced MoE and MoR, whereas dry application resulted in significant higher
values. Borri et al. (2013) used flax, hemp, bamboo and basalt fibre fabrics in different layups to
examine reinforcement in flexure of timber beams. Significant increases regarding load-carrying
capacity and deflection ductility were recorded.
Chen et al. (2017) conducted a feasibility study for a high-performance composite on the effects
of veneer orientation and loading direction on the mechanical properties of bamboo-bundle/poplar
LVL. The bamboo laminated surface layers increased the mechanical performance in terms of MoE,
MoR and surface soundness. Moezzipour et al. (2017) reinforced horn beam plywood with date palm
and kenaf fibre bonded with urea formaldehyde resin. Kenaf fibre improved the physical and
mechanical properties of reinforced plywood. So it was demonstrated the potential of the effective
utilization of natural fibre for reinforced plywood production. Liu et al. (2019) used fiber surface
treatment to improve the bonding strength of basalt fibre reinforced bamboo and poplar veneer with
positive side effect on dry and wet shear strength and MoR. An alternative raw material for the
plywood production could be Jabon wood (Anthocephalus cadamba) and coconut (Cocos nucifera sp.)
fibre. Dungani et al. (2019) examined the stability and mechanical properties of the hybrid composite
plywood material using non-/woven coconut mats bonded by urea formaldehyde and phenol
formaldehyde resin. Dimensional stability and mechanical properties of plywood improved due to
hybridization of Jabon trunk and coconut.
Current industrial applications

The use of fibre reinforcement in the veneer based industry for wide ranging applications is
respectively low. The major upgrades for veneer based products are non-fibre reinforced plywood for
301
applications ranging from construction, furniture, packing, transport and flooring material, as well as
LVL as construction material. The fibre reinforced panels can be considered as niche market products
for transport, lightweight furniture e.g. chairs or table decks. These reinforcement can be considered
as preservation solution for ancient wooden beams.
Veneer based products used in the automotive sector are mainly used for design and esthetical
purpose with no demand for fibre reinforcement. The use of fibre composite materials of synthetic and
natural fibre is quite common. Similar utilizations are in the aviation and nautical sector. In case of
sports equipment, the use of fibre reinforced veneer based products for ski/snowboard cores is since
years in application. Other utilizations of fibre reinforced veneers are for surfboards or skateboard
decks. This constructive solution is used for handmade sports equipment such as ski cores,
surfboards or bicycles.
CONCLUSION
Research on fibre reinforcement of veneer based products had been taken place since the
beginning of their industrial production. On main importance were the developments during the mid of
th
the 20 century and the introduction and broad availability of synthetic resins as well as the
development of synthetic fibers. The awareness of the limitation and endlessness of fossil based
resources, consumer awareness and concerns about environmental issues and growing demand the
development of high performance materials made from natural resources is increasing worldwide.
New developments for the industrial application of natural fibre reinforced veneer based products are
considered as an opportunity in the context of resources scarcity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thanks for the support to Mathias Haupt and Vladimir Nedic from Salzburg
University of Applied Sciences, Green Business Solutions Co. from Zell am See, the Innovation
Voucher of the Austria Research Promotion Agency (FFG) Vienna and to Dr. Eugenia Tudor from
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences / University “Transilvania” of Brasov for the suggestions
during the editing of this paper.
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304
MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PARAFFIN/MELAMINE-UREA-

FORMALDEHYDE CAPSULES BY IN SITU POLYMERIZATION
Shenjie HAN
Chinese Academy of Forestry, Research Institute of Wood Industry
100091, Beijing, China
Tel: +86 10 62889973, Fax: +86 10 62881937, E-mail: han0932313@163.com
Shaoyi LYU
Tel: +86 10 62889973, Fax: +86 10 62881937, E-mail: lvsy@caf.ac.cn
Feng FU
Tel: +86 10 62889973, Fax: +86 10 62881937, E-mail: feng@caf.ac.cn
Siqun WANG
University of Tennessee, Center for Renewable Carbon
37996, Knoxville, Tennessee USA
Tel: 865-9461120, Fax: 865-9461129, E-mail: swang@utk.edu
Abstract
Capsules containing phase change material (PCM) paraffin and melamine-urea-formaldehyde

(MUF) were synthesized by in situ polymerization. In this study, one purpose was to obtain thermally
stable MUF/paraffin microcapsules modified with cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). Another purpose was
to investigate the effects of emulsification variables (output power of ultrasonic treatment) on the
appearances, mean droplet diameter and thermos-physical properties of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules.
The characterization results showed that MUF/paraffin microcapsules were successfully fabricated
and CNCs had no impact on the chemical structure or crystal type of MUF/paraffin microcapsules.
When the CNC addition was 0.2 wt%, the phase change latent heat values of melting and
crystallization of MUF/paraffin microcapsules were respectively about 104.5 J/g and 102.8 J/g and the
encapsulation efficiency was about 59.8%. In addition, the MUF/paraffin nanocapsules achieved the
highest encapsulation efficiency (35.8%) when the ultrasonic output power was 600 W.
Key words: microcapsule; nanocapsule; melamine-urea-formaldehyde; cellulose nanocrystal; phase

change material; ultrasound.
INTRODUCTION
Due to the global energy crisis, phase change materials (PCMs) have become a hotspot in the
fields of thermal regulation and thermal energy storage in recent years (Chen et al. 2015, Jiang et al.
2015). Microencapsulation of PCMs can effectively protect PCMs from leakage, control the problem of
the volume change of PCMs, and increase the heat transfer area (Jiang et al. 2015). Therefore,
compared with the direct use of PCMs, microencapsulated PCMs have attracted more attention and
broadened the potential application scope of PCMs.
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis of natural cellulose,
leaving anionic sulphate half-ester groups on the surface of CNCs (Brinkmann et al. 2016; Hu et al.
2017). Because of 100% renewable, and low coefficient of thermal expansion, there is growing
interest in developing sustainable, environmentally friendly, and versatile polymer composites used
CNCs as reinforce polymeric materials to form a dense network (Moonet et al. 2011; Qiang et al.
2013). Therefore, CNCs can provide a novel route to manufacture microcapsules and broaden the
application scope of microcapsule products. Recently, Yoo et al. (Yoo et al. 2017) synthesized new
release-controlled microcapsules through polyurea-urethane interfacial polymerization with modified
CNCs as shell-forming materials. Subsequently, they encapsulated phase change materials based on
methyl laurate core and PU shells containing modified CNCs via interfacial polymerization of NCO-
terminated polyol. In addition, Yoo et al. (Yoo et al. 2017) also fabricated eco-friendly microcapsules
polymeric shell reinforced by surface hydrophobic treated CNCs. These microcapsules with PU shell
modified by hydrophobic CNCs had higher rupture strength, elastic modulus, and low strain to failure
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based on single-capsule compression tests. However, to the best of our knowledge, the application of
CNCs in microencapsulated and nanoencapsulated PCMs with MUF shell has not been reported.
In addition, capsule size, divided into macro- (> 1000μm), micro- (> 1μm) or nanosized
(<1μm), plays an important role in functionality and could expand the frontiers of encapsulated PCM
applications (Jamekhorshid et al. 2014). These functional materials with the smaller capsules have the
higher surface-area-to-volume-ratio as well as the higher heat transfer efficiency (Shchukina et al.
2018). For instance, if PCMs were encapsulated into 10-mm nanocapsules, the surface-area-to-
2 3
volume-ratio was increased by 300m per m compared with the bulk PCM (Xu et al. 2018).
Sukhorukov et al. found that the 10-nm capsules showed the significantly smaller deformation than 10-
μm capsules under the same force. With the higher surface area, nanocapsules showed the higher
structural stability compared with microcapsules and were difficult to be fractured in the course of flow
and during the incorporation in a heating system (Sukhorukovet et al. 2005). In addition, nanocapsules
could be uniformly dispersed in the matrix materials and facilitate faster heat transfer (Fang et al.
2009). Therefore, it is necessary to develop nano-encapsulated PCMs.
In this study, one purpose was to obtain thermally stable MUF/paraffin microcapsules modified
with cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). Another purpose was to investigate the effects of emulsification
variables (ultrasound time and output power of ultrasonic treatment) on the stability of the
MUF/paraffin nanoemulsions and the appearances, mean droplet diameter and thermos-physical
properties of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules.

Materials
Industrial grade paraffin (Model 28, melting point is 29°C) was provided by Shanghai Joule
Wax Industry Co., Ltd. and used as the core material. Melamine (M), urea (U), formaldehyde solution
(F) (37 wt% in H2O) and anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) were purchased from Xilong
Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Guangdong, China. Melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) was employed
as shell materials. Styrene/maleic anhydride (SMA，Scripset 520) copolymer used as emulsifying
agents was obtained from Tian Hengjian Technology Development Co., Ltd., Beijing, China. 10 wt%
acetic acid solution (used as acidic catalyst for MUF curing) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were
purchased from Sinopharm Group Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. All chemical reagents were of
analytical grade and were directly used without further purification. Never-dried CNCs (11.8 wt% in
H2O, dimension: 102 ± 5nm (L) ×7 ± 1nm (d), aspect ratio = 14.9) produced by the sulfuric acid
hydrolysis method, which was in sulfate half-ester form with 1 wt % sulfur and had sodium as counter
ion, were purchased from the University of Maine process development center and produced by
USDA Forest Service-Forest Products Laboratory (FPL).
Fabrication of MUF/paraffin microcapsules modified with CNCs:

15.5g melamine, 14.8g urea, and 60.0mL formaldehyde were mixed with 435mL of distilled
water. The pH value of mixture was adjusted to 8–9 using anhydrous sodium carbonate. Then the
mixture was heated to 70°C and stirred until a clear MUF pre-polymer solution formed. 10g SMA solid
was dissolved in 40mL of distilled water to obtain a yellow viscous liquid and the pH value was
adjusted to 10 with the help of NaOH. CNCs were dispersed in MUF prepolymer aqueous solution.
The solution was mildly ultra-sonicated to disperse CNCs at 60kHz for 30min with an output power of
1200 W in an ice/water bath. The as-prepared SMA solution and paraffin were added into the
CNCs/MUF prepolymer solution in a beaker and the reaction solution was homogenized to form a
milky oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion with an Ultra Turrax homogenizer (IKA T25 Digital, Staufen,
Germany) at 50°C for 30min. The emulsion was transferred to the beaker and continuously stirred at a
rate of 300 rpm and the pH of the emulsion was adjusted to 5.5 with 10 wt% acetic acid solution, the
emulsion was stirred and reacted at 80°C for 2h. Finally, the obtained MUF/paraffin microcapsules
were filtered and washed with 30 wt% ethanol–water solution at approximately 50°C until pH reached
7. According to the weight ratios of CNCs in the MUF/paraffin microcapsules (0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, and
1.0 wt%), the microcapsules were marked as Micro-00, Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10,
respectively.
Fabrication of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules

The MUF/paraffin nanoemulsions were formulated with the mechanical stirring emulsification
process or ultrasonic emulsification method. In the mechanical stirring process, paraffin was dispersed
in MUF prepolymer aqueous solution containing SMA solution according to a certain proportion under
the 30-min homogenization treatment with an Ultra Turrax homogenizer (IKA T25 Digital, Staufen,
Germany) at a given rate of 8000 rpm to form a milky oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. In the
306
ultrasonication procedure, paraffin was dispersed in MUF prepolymer aqueous solution containing
SMA solution in a certain proportion with VCX 1500 ultrasonic machine (Sonics & Materials, Inc.
Newtown, CT, USA). To investigate the effect of ultrasonic intensity on the fabrication of MUF/paraffin
nanocapsules, the ultrasound output power was set at 300, 600, 900, and 1200 W, respectively. Then,
the pH of MUF/paraffin emulsions was adjusted to 5.5 with potassium hydrogen phthalate treated with
the mechanical stirring process or ultrasonication. The reaction solution was transferred into the water
bath at 80°C to allow the reaction under mechanical stirring conditions (120min at 900rpm; Eurostar
Digital, IKA Labortechnik).
Characterization
The optical micrographs of microcapsules were obtained under an Olympus CX 31 optical
microscope. The surface morphologies of Micro-00, Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10 were
observed by FE-SEM (Hitachi S-4800, Japan) at an accelerating voltage of 10kV. The particles were
sprinkled onto double-sided conductive tape and sputter-coated with a layer of gold. With deionized
water, MicroC0, MicroC300, MicroC600 MicroC900 and MicroC1200 were diluted to 0.01 wt%. TEM
sample was prepared by depositing onto carbon-coated TEM grids and observed under an FEI Tecnai
G2 electron microscope operating at an accelerating voltage of 100kV. The phase change
temperature and phase change enthalpies of paraffin, Micro- and nanocapsules were determined by
using a Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC-Q2000, TA, USA) according to a heating-cooling rate
-1 -1
of ±10°C min in the range of -10–60°C in a nitrogen flow of 50mL min . The determination of the
paraffin content in the micro- and nano-capsules was calculated as:
∆H m ,Capsule + ∆H c ,Capsule
ƞ= ×100 (1)
∆H m , Paraffin + ∆H c , Paraffin
where: ƞ was encapsulation ratio of the paraffin; ∆H m ,Capsule and ∆H c , Capsule were respectively melting
enthalpies and crystallization enthalpies of micro- and nano-capsules in DSC curves; ∆H m ,Paraffin and
∆H c ,Paraffin were respectively melting enthalpies and crystallization enthalpies of paraffin in DSC
curves.

Morphology of microcapsules
Fig. 1.
Optical micrographs (a-e), FE-SEM images (f-j) and particle size distribution (k-o) of Micro-00,
Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10.
307
Optical micrographs (Fig. 1(a)–(e)) clearly reveal that all microcapsules show spherical shape.
As shown in Fig. 1(f)–(j), FE-SEM micrographs of microcapsules exhibit that microcapsules were
relatively rough and many irregular MUF polymer particles were on the surfaces. Compared with other
samples, Micro-01 showed the smoother surfaces and significantly reduced irregular particles. Many
auto-polymer particles on the surfaces of Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10 were observed. However,
the presence of sulphate half-ester groups with negative charge on the surface of CNCs from sulfuric
acid hydrolysis would cause the electrostatic attraction with MUF prepolymer with positive charge.
With the increase in the addition of CNCs, CNCs might accelerate the self-aggregation of MUF
prepolymer, so the surface became rough (Yu et al. 2013). This change caused the unsmooth wall of
MUF/paraffin microcapsule, indicating that paraffin was successfully encapsulated into the
MUF/paraffin microcapsules. Therefore, even though the core material was subjected to the phase
change process, the MUF/paraffin microcapsules would not break. Particle size distributions of all
microcapsules are shown in Fig. 1(k)–(o). The particle size distribution of Micro-01 was relatively
broadened and the average particle size was 15.8μm. Increasing the addition of CNCs, the particle
size distribution of Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10 became concentrated and the average particle
size decreased slightly. At the same SMA addition, under low CNC concentrations, paraffin droplets
will tended to coalescence or flocculation clearly, which caused phase separation. Under high CNC
concentrations, viscosity of continuous phase surrounding the paraffin droplets increased and their
movements were restricted (Kasiri and Fathi 2018). Therefore, the morphology of MUF/paraffin
microcapsule was the most ideal and the particle size distribution was relatively uniform under the
addition of 0.1 wt% CNCs.
Thermal properties of microcapsules
Fig. 2.
DSC thermograms of paraffin, Micro-00, Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10.
Table 1
Phase change properties of paraffin, Micro-00, Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10
Sample Melting process Solidifying process
Tom Tpm Tem ∆Hm (Jg
- o o o
Toc ( C) Tpc ( C) Tec ( C) ∆Hc ƞ
o o o 1 -1
( C) ( C) ( C) ) (Jg )
Paraffin 7.36 24.4 28.4 174.1 38.7 32.3 16.2 172.5 0
Micro- 10.8 23.4 32.6 42.5 38.2 30.5 26.6 44.0 25.0
00
Micro- 12.8 23.1 33.1 85.6 34.7 30.4 24.4 85.7 49.4
01
Micro- 11.6 23.8 31.6 104.5 33.4 29.7 23.3 102.8 59.8
02
Micro- 12.9 28.2 32.8 49.9 38.5 30.3 24.6 48.8 28.5
05
Micro- 11.8 22.7 33.0 28.3 34.4 29.2 20.7 26.0 15.7
10
Tom : onset melting temperature of DSC curve; Tpm : melting peak temperature of DSC curve; Tem : endset melting temperature of
DSC curve.
Toc : onset crystallizing temperature of DSC curve; Tpc : crystallizing peak temperature of DSC curve; Tec : endset crystallizing
temperature of DSC curve.
308
As shown in Fig. 2, the DSC curves of paraffin and all microcapsules demonstrated two broad
phase change peaks in both melting and solidification processes because paraffin was a mixture of
paraffinic hydrocarbons with different numbers of carbon atoms (Wang et al. 2016) . Furthermore, the
phase change heat of MUF/paraffin microcapsules cannot be released at once, and the melting and
crystallization process must be completed by releasing heat in multiple times. Paraffin, Micro-00,
Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10 respectively had the melting points of 24.4, 23.4, 23.1,
o o
23.8, 28.2, and 22.7 C and the crystallization points of 32.3, 30.5, 30.4, 29.7, 30.3, and 29.2 C. The
melting points and crystallization points of Micro-00, Micro-01, Micro-02, Micro-05, and Micro-10
decreased or increased slightly compared with those of the pristine paraffin, indicating that there was
no reaction among paraffin, MUF, and CNC.
The phase change enthalpies corresponding to solid–liquid transition (melting and solidifying)
of microcapsules and the percentage of PCMs in the microcapsules were provided in Table 1.
Compared with the enthalpies of paraffin, Micro-00, all microcapsules were significantly decreased.
The differences may be ascribed to the phase change behaviors confined by the inner space of the
MUF/paraffin microcapsules. In addition, with the increase in the addition of CNCs, the melting
enthalpies, crystallizing enthalpies, and encapsulation efficiency of MUF/paraffin microcapsules firstly
increased and then dropped. When the CNC addition was 0.2 wt%, the phase change latent heat
values of melting and crystallization of Micro-02 were respectively about 104.5 J/g and 102.8 J/g and
the encapsulation efficiency of Micro-02 was about 59.8%.
Morphology of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules
Fig. 3.
SEM micrographs of (a) MicroC0, (b) MicroC300, (c) MicroC600, (d) MicroC900, and (e)
MicroC1200; (f) mean diameter of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules.
The morphology of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules prepared by a mechanical or an ultrasonic

homogenizer was observed with SEM. The MUF/paraffin nanocapsules (Fig. 3a) with an average
diameter of 413.3 ± 1.3nm were obtained via mechanically stirring at 8,000 rpm. According to the
ultrasonic dispersion procedure, the MUF/paraffin nanocapsules with average diameters of 340.4 ±
3.2, 370.4 ± 6.4, 368.0 ± 2.3, 455.7 ± 25.1nm (marked as MicroC300, MicroC600 MicroC900 and
MicroC1200) were prepared. As the ultrasonic output power increased, the average diameter of
MUF/paraffin nanocapsules increased. Meanwhile, the agglomeration of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules
was enhanced with the increase in the diameter of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules (Fig. 3e). Although
increasing the ultrasonic output power could reduce the droplet diameter, the mechanical stirring rate
of 900rpm during the production of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules might not decrease the resistance to
309
droplet re-coalescence. MUF/paraffin nanocapsules with the smaller diameter increased the surface-
area-to-volume-ratio and had the stronger interaction (Shchukina et al. 2018). With the decrease in the
diameter of MUF/paraffin nanocapsules, the surface-area-to-volume-ratio increased rapidly.
Therefore, MUF/paraffin nanocapsules were thermodynamically unstable and easy to contact with
each other and cause mutual aggregation (Zhu et al. 2012).
Thermal properties of nanocapsules

As shown in Fig. 4, the DSC curves of paraffin and all the microcapsules demonstrate two
broad phase change peaks in both melting and solidification processes because paraffin is a mixture
of paraffinic hydrocarbons containing different numbers of carbon atoms (Wang et al. 2016). The
phase change heat of MicroCn (n=0, 300, 600, 900, and 1200) cannot be released at once, meanwhile
the melting and crystallization process must be completed by releasing heat in multiple times.
Compared with the pristine paraffin, the melting points of MicroCn (n=0, 300, 600, 900, and 1200)
decreased or increased slightly and their crystallization points remained unchanged. In addition, the
low thermal conductivity of the MUF polymer could slow down heat transfer through MicroCn (n=0,
300, 600, 900, and 1200). Under the fixed content of the core material (paraffin), more MUF resin was
required for preparing nanocapsules with the smaller particle sizes, thus resulting in a decrease in the
encapsulation efficiency. When the ultrasonic output power was 600 W, the MicroC600 achieved the
highest encapsulation efficiency (35.8%).
The 10 melting/crystallizing cycles of MicroC600 were conducted to demonstrate the
endurance and sealing tightness of the MUF shell (Fig. 4b). The peak temperatures of melting and
o o
crystallization of the MicroC600 were respectively 27.0 C and 30.2 C and the latent heats of melting
and crystallization of the MicroC600 were respectively 79.8 J/g and 75.0 J/g after 10
melting/crystallizing cycles. The MicroC600 exhibited the excellent thermal stability and reproducibility
in terms of the change in thermal properties after at least 10 thermal cycles. The results further
support the high endurance and good sealing tightness of MUF shell owing to its dense and cross-
linked structure.
a 40 Paraffin b 15
30 MicroC0 MicroC600
MicroC300 10 1 cycle
20 MicroC600 10 cycles
MicroC900 5
10
Heat Flow (mW)
MicroC1200
Heat Flow (mW)
0
0
-5
-10
-10
-20
-15
-30
-20
-40
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)
Fig. 4.
DSC curves of (a) paraffin, MicroC0, MicroC300, MicroC600, MicroC900, and MicroC1200; (b)
MicroC600 nanocapsules at various melting/solidification cycles.
CONCLUSION
A series of microcapsules with paraffin core material and MUF shell material were
manufactured with different contents of CNCs or under different emulsification process variables via in
situ polymerization. The addition of CNCs had no remarkable impact on the crystal type of all
MUF/paraffin microcapsules, and the crystallization peak position of the paraffin in the microcapsules
was close to that of the paraffin. When the CNC addition was 0.2 wt%, the phase change latent heat
values of melting and crystallization of Micro02 were respectively about 104.5 J/g and 102.8 J/g and
the encapsulation efficiency of Micro02 was about 59.8%. When the ultrasonic output power was 600
W, the phase change latent heat values of melting and crystallization of the MicroC600 were
respectively about 80.3 J/g and 75.1 J/g and the encapsulation efficiency was about 35.8%. After a
period of no fewer than 10 repetitive melting/crystallizing cycles, the MicroC600 exhibited excellent
thermal stability and reproducibility in terms of the change in thermal properties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Hatch
project 1012359 and the Special Fund for Forest Scientific Research in the Public Welfare (No.
201504603).
310
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ASSESSING THE VIBROACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF BAMBOO BASED

COMPOSITE SOUNDBOARDS IN VIOLIN
Way LONG
National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Assistant Prof. of Wood Science and Design
1, Shue Fu Rd., Neipu, Pingtung, 91201, Taiwan
Tel: 886-926-063620, Fax: 886 8 7740132, E-mail: waylong@mail.npust.edu.tw
Chun-Chun CHIEN
Fooyin University, Associate Prof. of Child Care and Industries
51 Jinxue Rd., Daliao Dist., Kaohsiung City, 83102, Taiwan
Tel: 886 7 7811151, Fax: 886 7 7814513, E-mail: chien518@gmail.com
Frances CHEN
National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Graduate St. of Wood Science and Design
1, Shue Fu Rd., Neipu, Pingtung, 91201, Taiwan
Tel: 886 8 7703201, Fax: 886 8 7740132, E-mail: luckywind0123@gmail.com
Abstract
In this research, the application of the method in microphone array to the sound quality of the
violin soundboard will be evaluated by the vibro-acoustic properties of the bamboo. The appropriate
methods in corresponding process are composed of bamboo physical properties, texture, soundboard
processing, surface geometry procedures and soundboard thickness which further establish the sound
characteristics of handmade violin. To create the best sound quality of violin, the properties of Taiwan
Moso bamboo species, sound quality and processes have to be combined. The acoustic features, fine
aesthetics and sound quality of violin will be highlighted. Furthermore, this research will predict the
performance of sound quality by integrated the factors as the vibro-acoustic of the bamboo
soundboard, processes and the sub-assembly structure etc. However, the entire evaluation of violin
sound quality will be recorded via the analysis, vibro-acoustic characteristics, bamboo histological,
processing technology and matched combination. Therefore, the sound characteristics and current
status of violin (such as moisture content, dimensional stability) are monitored by the microphone
array measurement to establish the reference of handmade violin quality by bamboo. The bamboo
violin tones are periodic which the harmonics are more consist and coupling to correlate the bright and
clear sound performances. The wooden violin acoustic has richer anharmonic and overtones which
the peaks and overtones are correlated to create the better loudness and thickness sound
performances. Further study about the sound performance of violin which is made by the combination
of bamboo and wood for more advanced explanations about timbre characteristics.
Key words: soundboard; bamboo; vibroacoustic; microphone array; violin.
INTRODUCTION
Bamboo is an anisotropic, heterogeneous and viscoelastic material. Due to its excellent
physical and mechanical properties, bamboo is extensively used as the construction and building
materials. It is a plant of rapid growth hence its use will contribute to the reduction of the use of non-
renewable and polluting materials such as steel and concrete (Aditanoyo et al. 2017). Considering
these characteristics, bamboo can be created as diversity functional materials. In addition, increased
the various applications of bamboo will reduce the global warming caused by the indiscriminate use of
industrialized materials. However, few studies have been carried out to establish the physical and
mechanical properties of bamboo with the objective of optimizing its use as music instrument
applications.
The properties of bamboo are always varying in the directions of parallel and perpendicular to
the grain. Therefore, traditional modal frequencies and damping constants would not satisfy into the
particular soundboard with the characteristic performing sound, which is dependent of the shape and
the boundary conditions. Detections of violin’s sound characters are hierarchically depended on the
vibration and acoustic properties of soundboards (Schwarze et al. 2008; Tsai et al. 2005). According
to the previous research was widely used the accelerometer to measure the instruments vibration
property (Guan et al. 2015). However, the transducer mass effects are significant impact factor and
mathematic model theory could affect the accuracy of the measurement and results which would be to
312
practical estimate the vibro-acoustic properties and sound performance of the violin objectivity
(Yoshikawa 2007). Each instrument is a unique product of plant genetics, the terrain and climate that
grew the tree, and the skill of the maker (Obataya et al. 2000; Ono 1996). As the most string
instruments, the researches were studying about the vibration and acoustic of violin soundboard which
relevant evaluation indexes from the vibration’s traits of efficiency, tone, the diffusivity of sound and so
on. (Zhou et al. 2014)
The vibro-acoustic behavior of the violin’s structure is often quite complicated. (Suzuki 2007).
The physical properties, texture, process, surface geometry procedures and thickness (or depth of
figure) of violin soundboards obtained significant influences on the quality and character of its sound
(Tandona and Choudhury 1999; Yost and Zhong 2014). The acoustic properties of soundboard are
influence on the factors, as (1) dynamic specific modulus, (2) acoustic impedance, (3) radiation ratio,
(4) damping ratio, and (5) acoustic conversion efficiency (Ouis 2002; Rossing 2010). By the way, only
few researches specific focus on the process technology of the boards with the geometry of board,
thickness, surface characters, combinative methods and punching conditions.
As a luthier engraves the soundboards which regards to depth of figure that is accurate to the
tenth of a millimeter. Along with the sound post, bass bar and bridge, the thickness of the soundboard
figure strongly correlates to the instrument’s sound (Peeling et al. 2007). Varying wood soundboards
bring considerable range of sound quality despite similar thicknesses and homogenous wood grain
appearances (Legg and Bradley 2016; Ono and Isomura 2004). Especially, there are few reports
which have studied the Taiwan bamboo vibroacoustic of the violin. The top of the soundboard was
usually graduated to about 2.4~2.7mm except in the area around the sound post, which is usually
thicker. The back’s thickness was shaped differently: thicker towards the middle and thinner at the
edges. There were several methods (such as caliper, vibrating mode shapes…etc.) used to determine
the optimal thickness distribution on the soundboards (Noguchi et al. 2012; Schwarze et al. 2008).
The microphone array method is based on the acoustic mapping techniques which combined
with near sound source method, supervised learning network, and blind source separation. In this
method, according to the vibro-acoustic properties of the soundboards that can be modified on the
region and indicated whether and where the shape and thickness of the soundboards need adjusting
which would be defined though the acoustic mapping results (Liu et al. 2008; Long and Chien 2018).
In this experimental method, the microphone array measured the response of the violin
soundboard above the surface points to construct acoustic response holographic mapping. This
research was focused on the violin making procedures which related to the bamboo, shape and
thickness of soundboard to its sound performance. Although, the regulation of the sound quality with
modified the shape, thickness and various types of bamboo features was not an easy task. The results
were obtained the acoustic parameters by using the microphone array method which could be
provided to the luthier during the engraving soundboard process.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to evaluate the acoustic characteristics on
Moso bamboo violin soundboard, not only the relations between the vibration and thickness, also a
comparison with a spruce plate, to study the acoustic performance between both soundboards. In final
expectations, we hope to see how the resonance appears on the board carved and the relations
between how much it was carved, or how much should the thickness and the curve be to get a
brighter sound, and developed templates and methods for bamboo violin. The final acoustic evaluation
tests which will compare the sound performance of a wooden (as spruce-maple) and a bamboo made
violin which be demonstrated by the professional violinist.
Spruce, traditional material for violin top plate, has low density and low characteristic
impedance, which makes it classified as the best material for radiating sound. Please note that sound
radiation coefficient is speed of sound divided by density. The traditional materials such as spruce and
maple have similar characteristics which well sound radiator and has sufficiently high characteristic
impedance to act as a reflector for air oscillations in the hollow body (Rujinirun et al. 2005). Some
comparison of how bamboo performs well as soundboard material versus other common materials
have been done (Widijaja 2000). It was found that bamboo has a high sound radiation coefficient,
closes enough to that soundboard materials, back plate materials (Jun 2006; Wegst 2008). In addition,
impedance matching of the strings and the soundboard which is proportional to the characteristic
sound impedance and to the square of the soundboard’s thickness.
In this research, vibro-acoustics characteristics of a bamboo-based violin are studied
particularly related with the soundboard an acoustic analyzing. The spectrum consists of fundamental
frequency along with overtones at integer multiples of the fundamental. The fundamental frequency
313
defines the pitch while the overtones gives the sensation of timbre. A comparison of results to both
bamboo and wooden violins are also provided. It is expected that the sound characteristic of bamboo
violin can be described in more detail.

Soundboard Specimens
This research used two types of soundboard samples; Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis),
Spruce (Picea abies) and Maple (Acer opalus ssp. obtusatum) panels were purchased from Taiwan
and EU. The radial direction of wood panel was selected as the specimens. Laminate bamboo penal
by used polyvinyl-acetate adhesive (PVA). The soundboard specimens were cut into 410mm (length),
240mm (width), 18mm (thickness). There have been many attempts to modify the basic shape and
geometry of violins by Guarneri 'del Gesù', whose models were used in this research (Fig. 1). The
construction differences between bamboo and maple specimens were obtained carefully studied,
including the geometry and physical properties (Zhou et al. 2014), depth of figure (6), varnishing
methods (7), and so on. During the experiment, all the specimens were controlled under the same
o
atmospheric environmental conditions at 24 C and 65% RH.
(a). Arching the sound board construction
(b). Graduating the sound board thickness
Fig. 1.
The arching and graduating are modified basic shape and geometry of violins by Guarneri 'del
Gesù'.
Testing Apparatus and Vibroacoustic Measurement

The vibration test was used to first conducted on each full size of panel under free-free
support condition. The vibration model shaker was located at the sound-post of the board to generate
the vibration (Fig.2). The vibration response was detected by the laser vibrometer (PDV-100,
Polytech). The measuring frequency varied from 0 to 3,200 Hz on the dimensions of the specimens
which the experimental data were collected using FFT analyses (PULSE 3560C, B&K). The vibration
properties were post-calculated by the frequency response function (FRF)(Brüel & Kjær,1999).
Furthermore, the damping ratio (tanδ), acoustic impedance, radiation ratio, acoustical conversion
efficient (AED) were calculated (Noguchi et al. 2012).
314
FFT analyzer (Brüel & Kjær, 3560C)

PC (Pulse, Brüel & Kjær)
Power amplifier (UNIKA MT-1000)
Laser vibrometer, Sound board specimens

(PDV-100, Polytech)
Vibration Exciter, (Brüel & Kjær type 4809)
Fig. 2.
Free-free vibration method for uncontacted measuring the vibration properties of the
soundboards.
Microphone Array Test

The research developed the microphone array method apparatus in the laboratory for
evaluating the vibroacoustic properties with the depth of soundboard figure. The apparatus consisted
of 12 free-field 1/4” microphones (44pp QC microphone, GRAS) showed as Fig.3. Then the conduct
the comparison between the analysis of vibroacoustic, tone quality with the database which the
estimate about the position of audio vibration and the quality. Then the soundboard specimens were
arched and graduated from full size panel according to Guarneri's. It estimated the change of acoustic
properties which was affected by the vibroacoustic which was acquired by the depth of soundboard
figure that is accuracy as well as the significance influence with the sound quality. A LabView based
software was written and used to collect and process both the acoustic signal and calculated the
acoustic mapping program (Acoustic mapping, Xwin) which was integrated with near sound source
method, supervised learning network and blind source separation method.
Fig. 3.
The microphone array measuring setup for the acoustic mapping of violin soundboards.
The Evaluation Test of the Violin Sound Performances

In this research, the figure of bamboo violin has been modified for creating the acoustic
characteristics as Guarneri’s. A wooden (spruce-maple) violin which made by Fei Shen 1989, is used
for comparison. The evaluator, who is a professional performer, the tested both the spruce and
bamboo violins which were used same strings set and bow. Each of four strings played the note at G3
(196Hz), D4 (293Hz), A4 (440Hz), and E5 (660Hz). The radiated sound of violin was recorded by an
315
omnidirectional acoustic digital recorder which placed at a distance 120 cm and a high 120cm. All of
the measurement was done in the hemi-anechoic chamber that could avoid undesired environmental
noise. The set of measurement can be seen in Fig. 4.
120
cm
120 cm
Fig. 4.
The violin performing measurement was done in the hemi-anechoic chamber that could avoid
undesired environmental noise.

Vibrational Properties of Bamboo Soundboard
Table 1 lists the characteristics of the tested soundboard specimens. The spruce samples
showed lower MOEd, lower tanδL, and slightly higher R than the bamboo samples. As the MOEd and R
of bamboo strongly depend on its density (ρ), the higher MOEd and R values of the spruce which may
be attributed to their high ρ values. However, the high ρ values do not account for the high sound
velocity (VL = (EL / ρ) ) and low tanδL of the aged wood because VL and tanδL do not depend on ρ,
1/2
but on the viscoelastic properties of the wood cell wall [10]. Because the microfibril angle (MFA) of the
bamboo was almost the same. However, the MFA was not a major reason for the high VL and low
tanδL of the bamboo.
Table 1
The acoustic properties of various specimens for the violin soundboards
Acoustic
Density Sound velocity 1) 2) Damping 4)
Wood MOEd radiation 3) ACE
(ρ) (VL) coefficient
Species 3 (GPa) (R) -3 (km/s)
(kg/m ) (km/s) 4 (tanδL) x10
(m /s.kg)
Moso
0.8(0.1) 5.2(0.2) 21.3(1.0) 6.5(1.2) 3.1(1.7) 2096(99)
Bamboo
Spruce 0.4(0.1) 5.1(0.3) 10.2(1.3) 12.6(1.5) 4.7(1.3) 2686(202)
Maple 0.6(0.1) 4.3(0.4) 11.1(1.2) 7.2(1.8) 5.7(1.9) 1257(142)
2
1)
MOEd (GPa)= VL 𝜌
2)
Acoustic impedance (R) = (MOEd / 𝜌3 )1/2
3)
Damping coefficient (tanδL) = 1/Q, Qfactor = fcentel/∆f , f = frequency (Hz)
4)
Acoustic conversion efficiency (ACE) = R / tanδL
The obtained results show that the density of the bamboo was higher values than spruce and
maple soundboards. By comparing the sound velocity obtained for the bamboo is between spruce and
maple. There is significant relationship between sound velocity and MOEd. Furthermore, acoustic
radiation (R) is extractives effect the acoustical properties of resonance soundboards. The
effectiveness of sound radiation is evaluated by the acoustic conversion efficiency (ACE) defined as
R/tanδL. Therefore, theoretical calculation has shown that low ρ, high MOEd/ ρ (= VL ), and low tanδL
2
result in increased sound radiation from spruce soundboards. ACE is an important factor in the
316
evaluation of the “loudness” of a soundboard; however, it is not a direct indication of the viscoelastic
properties of the wood cell wall because it strongly depends on ρ. Therefore, ACE is proportional of ρ
and it can be directly correlated with the viscoelastic properties of the wood cell wall [13]. The ACE
values of the wood samples are listed in Table 1. The higher ACE values of the wood soundboards
are indicative of their superior acoustic quality. The results show ACE value of maple is lower than
bamboo. Therefore, the bamboo is higher VL and lower tanδL than maple indicate that the
effectiveness of sound radiation from the wood was better than that from the wood.
Acoustic Mapping of Soundboard

The sound quality of a soundboard mainly depends on its frequency response. The quality of
the soundboard is not only determined by the loudness of the sound but also by the quality of the tone.
In other words, the sound quality factor that represents the anisotropic nature of the wood or bamboo
cell wall. This research obtained the soundboard vibroacoustic features of violin and its shape and
depth of figure which will be applied to conduct the assessment and improvement the loudness and
sound quality of the soundboards. As shown in Fig. 5, that obtained a more uniform distribution of
sound field with the thickness disparity under the tenth of a millimeter. Furthermore, increased the
curvature thickness of the middle, and reduced the arch of the belly, and modified the depth of figure
could modified the sound quality of the soundboard. The above-mentioned results indicate that
microphone array method is an effective way to improve the acoustic quality of soundboards. It
enhances the loudness without degrading the tone quality. This fact coincides with luthier’ empirical
observation that the quality of the soundboards improves with the figure and thickness.
Fig. 6.
The acoustic images on different thickness on Moso bamboo and Spruce soundboards.
The thickness effect on bamboo board, the contour map spreads out at the center of the plate
which contacts the sound post, the amplitude at this stage is 98dB. Carved the outside of the plate
and the inside of the plate leaving 2mm to the final thickness, the contour map has spread wider and
the amplitude is 108 dB. At 1mm to the final thickness, in addition to the position of the sound post, the
upper and lower ends of the plate also have a loud sound phenomenon, sound amplitude at 103 dB.
317
(dB) (dB)
(a)
(Hz) (Hz)
Wooden Wooden
(a) (b)
(dB) (dB)
(Hz) (Hz)
Wooden Wooden
(c) (d)
Fig. 7.
Comparison of acoustic spectrums on open string of wooden(spruce-maple) violin and
bamboo violin (a) G3 (196 Hz); (b) D4 (293 Hz); (c) A4 (440 Hz); (d) E5 (660 Hz).
The Evaluation Test of the Violin Sound Performances

The sound tone from a violin is complex, arising from the bow pulls at the violin string. It is well
known that any periodic waveform can be built up from a number of waves each of whose frequencies
is a multiple of a fundamental. The multiples are called harmonics or overtones. A note on the violin
may have 12 or more harmonics. Fig.7 shows the spectrums of the open G3, D4, A4 and E5 string of
the violins and under the frequency range from 0 to 3200 Hz. The bamboo and wooden violins create
different harmonics or overtones. The figure is shown the partial frequencies of wooden violin are not
simple integer multiples of a fundamental which are called anharmonic. The wooden violin in the
fundamental G3(196Hz), the anharmonic frequencies obtain in Table 2 which is exactly the 1st to 17th
th
harmonics of G3 (196 Hz – 3200Hz). For D4 the 11 partial frequency has been alternately raised by 7
Hz to (C7)2058Hz. There is a slight rise (sharpening) in pitch by about half a semitone (3%). For A4
th
the 7 harmonic frequency has been raised by 5 Hz to 2205Hz. And E5, the anharmonic frequencies
are not obvious as many as above. Therefore, the spectrums of the harmonic or anharmonic tones are
found from the both wooden and bamboo violins. The bamboo violin tones are periodic which the
harmonics are more consist and coupling to correlate the bright and clear sound performances.
Anyway, the wooden violin acoustic has richer anharmonic and overtones which the peaks and
overtones are correlated to create the better loudness and thickness sound performances.
318
Table 2
The difference values between partial frequency and the integer multiple of a fundamental of
wooden and bamboo violin
CONCLUSIONS
This research used the microphone array method to promote the acoustic characters of flow
about producing violin’s backboard. The vibroacoustic properties of Moso bamboo was compared with
Spruce and Maple. The bamboo shows greater stiffness (MOEd), higher sound velocity (VL), and lower
damping (tanδL) than wood. ACE is an important factor in the evaluation of the loudness of a
soundboard. The ACE of bamboo is lower than Spruce but higher than Maple. However, ACE values
were only sufficiently for the full size of soundboards. The acoustic properties of the soundboard were
strongly depended on not only the ACE, but also the depth of soundboard figure. Anyway, ACE value
was only sufficiently for the full size of soundboards. This research used the microphone array method
to obtain the acoustic mapping characters accurately the soundboard producing. According to the
unique combination of different structural can be adjusted the vibroacoustic response by the improved
sound quality of the soundboard in an engraving stage. Both bamboo and wooden violin have different
spectrum patterns at same tones. The differences can be occurred during the histological, physical
and distinctive figure of the soundboard. The bamboo violin tones are periodic which the harmonics
are more consist and coupling to correlate the bright and clear sound performances. The wooden
violin acoustic has richer anharmonic and overtones which the peaks and overtones are correlated to
create the better loudness and thickness sound performances. Further study about the sound
performance of violin which is made by the combination of bamboo and wood for more advanced
explanations about timbre characteristics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thank for Shen-Gyan HUANG, who is a luthier and professional violin performer supported this
research for producing and evaluating the violins.
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320
ALIEN WOOD SPECIES FOR PARTICLEBOARDS

Sergej MEDVED
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Department of Wood Science and Technology
Rožna dolina, Cesta VIII/34, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Tel: 00386 1 320 36 17, Fax: 00386 1 257 22 97, E-mail: sergej.medved@bf.uni-lj.si
Grega VILMAN
E-mail: vgrega1@gmail.com
Maks MERELA
E-mail: maks.merela@bf.uni-lj.si
Abstract
Under the frame of Project APPLAUSE, we tested the possibility to use four alien/invasive wood
species for particleboard production. For that purpose, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), honey
locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) and tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima)
were used. Preparation of particles and particleboards was done in laboratory conditions. The
properties of particleboards were influenced by the selection of wood species. Differences already
appeared with the morphological characteristics of the particles. Best properties, in general, were
obtained using staghorn sumac (highest bending strength and modulus of elasticity, relatively high
internal bond and relatively low thickness swelling). Relatively good properties were also determined
at particleboards made from tree of heaven (relatively high bending strength and modulus of elasticity,
highest internal bond) and honey locust (low thickness swelling relatively high bending strength and
modulus of elasticity), although some improvements needs to be made, with regard to the board
composition and manufacturing process.
INTRODUCTION
The quest for wood raw material is constantly increasing, especially when low quality wood is in
question. Therefore, wood-based panel producers, especially producers of particleboards, are under
huge pressure, because they need a substantial amount of wooden raw material at affordable (low)
price in order to keep relatively low price of product. Although particleboards are a good example of
wood recycling, since they can use every kind of wood shape and size (from logs, towards sawmill
residues and residues from woodworking facilities as well as reclaimed wood and wooden based
furniture), the quality of particleboards strongly depends on the wood species used as well as on type
of used wooden raw material (Buschbeck et al. (1961a, 1961b), Kehr (1962), Moslemi (1974), Niemz
(1993), Schöberl (2000), Xu and Suchsland (1998), Barboutis & Philippou (2005), Medved (2007)).
The relation of wood species used, and particleboard quality is due its density, anatomical structure,
morphological characteristics of obtained particles and their compressibility.
Last decades Europe faced overgrowing of alien/invasive wood species, especially in rural area.
The overgrowing of alien wood species raised an interesting challenge, namely what can be done with
those wood species. City of Ljubljana realized that problems, hence starting the project called Alien
PLAnt SpEcies - from harmful to useful with citizens' led activities (acronym APPLAUSE). The project
addresses unsolved questions regarding invasive alien plant species in terms of the zero-waste
approach and circular economy. The project addresses issues in recognition of invasive non-native
plants, their removal and potential processing into product or semi-products like panels. An efficient
way to use alien wood species is to break them down into particles and fibres and use them for
different wood-based composites such as wood-plastic composites, fibreboards and particleboards.
And as mentioned before, for production of particleboards all types (from sawmill residues, shavings,
chips towards round wood) can be used.
The aim of paper is to present the possibility to use some alien wood species for manufacturing
of particleboards.
321

For the purpose of investigation four alien wood species (Fig. 1) were used:
- black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia),
- honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos),
- staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) and
- tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima).
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.
Macroscopic structure of wood species used in investigation (a) black locust, (b) honey locust,
(c) staghorn sumac and (d) tree of heaven (P - cross, R - radial and T - tangential section).
Image presents true colour and average texture of wood in all three sections (Merela et al.
2019).
The chips obtained from company Tisa, d.o.o. (Ljubljana, Slovenia) were break down into
particles in a laboratory chipper. The average moisture content was 60±5%. Afterwards particles were
sieved in order to separate particles appropriate for surface and those appropriate for core layer. The
particles that remained on sieve with mesh size 1, 1.27 and 1.5mm were used as surface layer
particles, while particles that remained on sieve with mesh size 2, 4 and 6.14mm were used as core
layer. After screening particles were dried for 24 hours at 70°C.
Particles were manually blended and mixed with melamine-urea formaldehyde resin. Blending
ratio for core layer particles was 6%, while blending ratio for surface layer particles was 10%. Resin
was obtained from local producer Melamin d.d. (Kočevje, Slovenia), with solid content 58%. To the
resin for core layer 3% of ammonium sulphate (20% water solution) was added as hardener. Particles
2 -3
were afterwards hand formed into mat with dimensions 500×500 mm . Target density was 0.7 g·cm ,
while target thickness was 16mm. Thickness, during pressing, was controlled by thickness bars. Mat
-2
was pressed at 180°C and 3 N·mm for 4 minutes (closing, degassing and opening included). Panels
were than left for 60 minutes at room conditions to cool down and afterwards stored at normal climate
conditions (temperature 20±2°C and relative humidity 65±5%) for 14 days. Following properties were
determined:
- thickness and density (EN 323: 1996),
- moisture content (EN 322: 1996),
- thickness swelling and water uptake (EN 317: 1996),
- internal bond (EN 319: 1996),
- bending strength and modulus of elasticity at bending (EN 310: 1996)
Thickness swelling and water uptake was determined after 2- and 24-hour immersion. From the
results the resistance against water was calculated according to equation 1.
(1)
where:
- WU stands for water uptake in %
- TS stands for thickness swelling in %
- i stands for 2- or 24-hour immersion
- Rwater stands for resistance against water (% of water uptake needed to increase the thickness for
1%).
In addition to above mentioned panel properties we also analysed the size of particles and pH
value. Particles for each layer were spread over the scanner surface in order to obtain particle image.
Length, width, visible area and aspect ratio of particles was determined using Image J software.
Aspect ratio is defined as ratio between particle length and particle width.
322
The pH value of particles was determined by Subramanian’s method. Owen dried particles (25
g) were placed into 800 mL beaker with 250 g of distilled water and left in water for 24 hours. The
solution was than filtrated, followed by the determination of filtrate pH value.
RESULTS
The visual analysis of particles showed differences between wood species used (Fig. 2 and Fig.
3).
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 2.
Core layer particles (a) black locust, (b) honey locust, (c) staghorn sumac and (d) tree of
heaven.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.
Core layer particles (a) black locust, (b) honey locust, (c) staghorn sumac and (d) tree of
heaven.
The observations of visual analysis are supported by the data obtained by image analysis
(Table 1 and Table 2).
Table 1
Core layer particle morphology results
Density Area Length Width Aspect ratio
(Gorišek et
al., 2019)
3 2
g·cm mm mm mm mm/mm
Black locust 0.678 20.21 12.82 2.23 7.10
Honey locust 0.641 99.32 23.84 5.78 6.98
Staghorn sumac 0.514 30.12 12.52 3.61 4.23
Tree of heaven 0.602 51.36 14.27 5.20 4.32
323
Table 2
Surface layer particle morphology results
Density Area Length Width Aspect ratio
(Gorišek et
al., 2019)
3 2
g·cm mm mm mm mm/mm
Black locust 0.678 3.83 4.62 1.15 5.12
Honey locust 0.641 2.73 3.43 1.13 3.83
Staghorn sumac 0.514 5.30 4.48 1.62 3.30
Tree of heaven 0.602 5.24 4.14 1.80 2.74
The particles from honey locust were on one side the biggest (core layer), but also the smallest
(surface layer). Largest surface layer particles were obtained from staghorn sumac and tree of
heaven. Smallest core layer particles were obtained at black locust. At core layer particles (up to
-3
density 0.65 g·cm ) an increase in density resulted in area, length and width increase (Fig. 2), while
black locust (having highest density) resulted in loves area and width and highest aspect ratio.
120
100
Aspect ratio in mm/mm
80
Length in mm
Area in mm2
Width in mm
60
40
20
0
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70
Density in g·cm-3
Area Length Width Aspect ratio
Fig. 4.
Morphological characteristics of core layer particles.
-3
At smaller particles (surface layer) use of wood species with density bellow 0.61 g·cm resulted
in particles with higher area, width and aspect ratio (Fig. 5). The increase in particle length with
increasing density could be observed.
5
Aspect ratio in mm/mm
4
Length in mm
Area in mm2
Width in mm
0
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70
Density in g·cm-3
Area Length Width Aspect ratio
Fig. 5.
Morphological characteristics of surface layer particles.
The determination of pH value showed the highest pH value at particles made from tree of
heaven (5.30), while pH value of other three gave the values 4.39 (honey locust), 4.43 (black locust)
and 4.64 (staghorn sumac).
As was reported previously wood species used for production of particleboards plays important
role. Differences can be observed already at thickness, density, moisture content and compaction ratio
(Table 3).
324
Table 3
Surface layer particle morphology results (value in bracket represents standard deviation
value)
Thickness Density Moisture Compaction
content ratio
3
mm g·cm %
Black locust 15.93 0.555 8,83 0.82
(0.160) (0.014) (0.147)
Honey locust 16.78 0.707 8.52 1.10
(0.086) (0.022) (0.175)
Staghorn sumac 17.04 0,686 9,79 1.33
(0.064) (0.017) (0.199)
Tree of heaven 16,91 0.702 9.68 1.17
(0.080) (0.057) (0.226)
Internal bond strength was higher than it was observed at boards made from coniferous wood
-2
species, where it was 0.20 N·mm (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6.
Internal bond strength regarding wood species used.
Highest internal bond values were determined at staghorn sumac and tree of heaven were
calculated compaction ration (ratio between panel density and density of wood species) was relatively
high (above 1.2). Higher compaction ratio means that less voids exist between particles, hence less
week areas in panel, especially in core layer. Higher compaction ratio also means that distance
between particles is smaller, hence bond between particles is more efficient. Although compaction is
important, important factor in relation towards bond quality was the wood species pH value (Fig. 7).
0.50
y = 0.2374x - 0.7943
0.45 R² = 0.9437
Internal bond in N·mm-2
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4
pH value
Fig. 7.
Internal bond strength regarding wood species pH value.
Bending strength and modulus of elasticity were also affected by the wood species used (Fig. 8)
and compaction ratio (Fig. 9).
325
Fig. 8.
Bending strength and modulus of elasticity regarding wood species used.
16 2800
15 y = 20.039x - 11.774
Modulus of elasticity in in N·mm-2

R² = 0.9172 2600
14
Bending strength in N·mm-2
13 2400
12 2200
11 2000
10
9 1800
y = 2529.3x - 960.4
8 R² = 0.9117 1600
7 1400
6
5 1200
4 1000
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Compaction ratio
Bending strength Modulus of elasticity
Fig. 9.
Bending strength and modulus of elasticity regarding compaction ratio.
As it was already determined by Moslemi (1974), Niemz (1993), Barboutis & Philippou (2005),
Medved (2007), Fan et al. (2009)), wood species is important factor affecting the properties of
particleboard. On one side the impact relates to size of particles that can be obtained from individual
wood species and on other side it also depends on the particle resistance against compression. In
presented research the increase in compression resulted in increase in bending strength and modulus
of elasticity. As mentioned before higher compressibility means less voids between particles, smaller
distance between particles hence higher resin efficiency. Comparing the results of bending strength
and modulus of elasticity from alien wood species with results at panels from coniferous wood species
shows lower values at alien wood species (bending strength at panel from coniferous wood species
-2 -2
was 14.26 N·mm , while modulus of elasticity was 2831 N·mm .
Wood species is also important in relation towards exposure to water (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10.
Thickness swelling regarding wood species used.
326
Although lowest swelling (after 2- and 24- hour immersion) was determined when particles from
black locust were used their resistance against water is not the highest (it was 4.97). Highest water
resistance was determined at honey locust (6.40). Resistance against water at staghorn sumac was
3.46 and at tree of heaven 2.85. Thickness swelling of panel from coniferous wood species was
significantly higher. After 2-hour immersion it was 40.09%, and after 24-hour immersion 47.43%.
Statistical analysis (Tukey HSD teste at α=0.05) showed following results:
- Significant difference between board made from black locust and other tree wood species
- At bending strength and modulus of elasticity, little or no statistically significant differences
were observed at honey locust and tree of heaven
- Little or no statistically significant differences, at internal bond, were determined at board
made from black locust and honey locust. Similar was determined for thickness swelling
CONCLUSIONS
Based on presented results following conclusions can be made
- Morphological characteristic (area, length, width, aspect ratio) of particles depends on
wood species used.
- Highest bending strength and modulus of elasticity was determined at staghorn sumac,
while the lowest was determined at black locust
- The lowest internal bond strength was at honey locust and the highest at tree of heaven
- Panels from black locust and honey locust had the lowest thickness swelling, while the
highest was determined at tree of heaven.
- Most suitable wood species is staghorn sumac, while at other some optimisation needs to
be done.
- Boards made from alien wood species had higher internal bond than boards made from
coniferous wood species under same conditions
- Boards made from alien wood species had lower thickness swelling, bending strength and
modulus of elasticity compared to board made from coniferous wood species under same
conditions
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is supported by Project APPLAUSE (UIA02-228), program scheme Urban Innovative
Action, which is financial supported by European Union – European Regional Development Fund.
Authors would also like to thank for the support to Slovenian Research Agency within program P4-
0015 (Wood and lignocellulosic composites) and company Melamin d.d. Kočevje (Slovenia).
We would also like to state our appreciation to Krže Luka and Planinšič Jože for all technical
help.
REFERENCES
Barboutis JA, Philippou JL (2005) Evergreen Mediterranean hardwoods as particleboard raw material.
Building and environment.
Buschbeck L, Kehr E, Jensen U (1961a) Untersuchungen über die Eignung verschiedener Holzarten
und Sortimente zur Herstellung von Spanplatten – 1. Mitteilung: Rotbuche und Kiefer.
Holztechnologie, 2(2):99–110
Buschbeck L, Kehr E, Jensen U (1961b) Untersuchungen über die Eignung verschiedener Holzarten
und Sortimente zur Herstellung von Spanplatten – 2. Mitteilung: Kiefernreiserholz. Holztechnologie,
2(3):195–201
Fan M, Ohlmeyer M, Irle M, Haelvoet W, Athanassiadou E, Rochester I (2009) Performance in use
and new products of wood based composites. London, Brunel University Press: 325 p.
Gorišek Ž, Merela M, Straže A, Krže L, Planinšič J, Čufar K, Plavčak D (2019) Laboratory analysis of
suitability for processing into wood product for 17 woody IAPS – Physical-mechanical properties &
drying characteristics. UIA02-228 APPLAUSE Activity report: 16 p.
Kehr E. (1962) Untersuvhungen über die Eignung verschiedener Holzarten und sortimente zur
Herstellung von Splanplatten. Holztechnologie, 3(1):22–28
327
Medved S (2007) Impact of wood species used in surface layer on density distribution of particleboard.
Drewno 50(178):17-26
Merela M, Thaler N, Balzano A, Čufar K, Krže L, Planinšič J, Plavčak D (2019) Laboratory analysis of
suitability for processing into wood product for 17 woody IAPS – Wood anatomy. UIA02-228
APPLAUSE Activity report: 41 p.
Moslemi, AA (1974) Particleboard: Volume 2: Materials. Amsterdam, London, Southern Illinois
University Press: 244 p.
Niemz P (1993). Physik des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe. Leinfelden – Echterdingen, DRW –
Verlag: 27–33
Schöberl M 2000 Elastische Rückfederung verdichteter Spänvliese aus Siebfraktionen verschiedener
Span– und Holzarten. Holz als Roh– und Werkstoff, 58(1):46
Xu W, Suchsland O (1998) Variability of particleboard properties from single– and mixed–species
process. Forest Products Journal, 48(9):68–74
EN 310. Wood-based panels – Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending and of bending
strenght. 1993: 8 p.
EN 317. Particleboards and fibreboards – Determination of swelling in thickness after immersion in
water. 1993: 5p.
EN 319. Particleboards and fibreboards – Determination of tensile strenght perpendicular to the plane
of the board. 1993: 7 p.
EN 322. Wood-based panels – Determination of moisture content. 1993: 6 p.
EN 323. Wood-based panels – Determination of density. 1993: 7 p.
328
FURNITURE DESIGN WITH PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

BY USING PAPER PULP
Alena SOBOTKOVÁ
Ing. - Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology
Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, CZECH REPUBLIC
Tel: +420 721 511 147, E-mail: xsobotk6@mendelu.cz
Milan ŠIMEK
PhD. - Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology
Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, CZECH REPUBLIC
Tel: +420 777 878 207, E-mail: milan.simek@mendelu.cz
Marius-Catalin BARBU
Prof. Dr.- FH Salzburg, Campus Kuchl, Markt 136a, A-5431 Kuchl, AUSTRIA
Tel.: +43-50-2211-2102, E-mail: marius.barbu@fh-salzburg.ac.at
Abstract
This paper presents manufacture and testing of paper boards made from recycled paper pulp.
The aim was to create material for creating paper boards which could be used in furniture design with
various shapes. The used types of pulp were deinked pulp (DIP) and old corrugated cardboards
(OCC). Several test pieces – paper boards were made with different combinations of materials and its
mechanical and physical properties were tested. The used glue for each material was urea
formaldehyde glue and starch in combination with glucose.
The tests which were done were determination of density and density profile (EN 323:2005),
moisture content (EN 322:2005), modulus of elasticity in bending and bending strength (EN
310:1993), thickness swelling and water absorption (EN317:2005), internal bond (EN 319:2005) and
screw withdrawal resistance (EN 320:2011). The aim was to create material for creating boards which
could be used in furniture design with various shapes.
The result of this paper shows possible material combinations which could be used for
furniture parts. Paper boards will be used for table top of side table in following steps.
Key words: paper; pulp; furniture; sustainability; board; recycling.
INTRODUCTION
Our environment is being polluted with waste material more and more each year. Especially
packaging material is causing a lot of waste which ends up in the landfills. Designers are creating new
furniture every year and the market is overloaded with different furniture pieces. People are always
looking for new products only because of fashionable reason very often which also contributes to a lot
of waste products and furniture. That is why designers should look for alternatives in furniture
production. In this paper the focus is given to paper which can serve as a substitute for some furniture
parts or even the whole furniture pieces.
Paper has one of the biggest amounts of waste per person every year. Theoretically paper
can be recycled many times, but its fibres are getting smaller each time and therefore they are losing
its strength. Furniture which is made traditionally leaves often a lot of waste which is not possible to
reuse. During the design process it is important to think about the most efficient use of material as
possible (Koo et.al 2017).
The focus in this work is given to paper pulp which could be used in furniture design. Pulp is
fibrous cellulose based material which results from several different manufacturing processes. 90 % of
pulp is made from wood, the rest out of other plants. The pulp industry is great example of sustainable
development. It is self-sustaining industry (Sixta 2006).
Pulp can be made from recycled papers such as old corrugated cardboards (OCC) or old
magazines and newspapers (DIP = deinked pulp). Deinked pulp is made from old magazines,
newspapers or office paper. During the pulping process it is necessary to remove all chemicals from
paper, such as glue, pigments and printing inks. This process changes the structure of the paper and
lowers the strength of cellulose fibres (Dukarska et al. 2018).
329
Even though the paper is recycled in paper industry, there is still a lot of wastepaper which is
not used. Although consideration of use of paper together with wood industry, the result is different.
The use of paper in board manufacturing industry should be easier to implement (Nicewicz et. al
2006).
This study is investigating the possible use of paper pulp for boards which could be combined
with wood structures. The focus was also given to a sustainable and natural glues in comparison with
industrially used glues such as urea-formaldehyde resin.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of our research is to reuse paper pulp in furniture design industry. The use
of paper pulp boards should be for table top of side table. The main idea is to use recycled material for
furniture design because of the need of sustainable development in furniture industry.

The used paper pulp was deinked pulp (DIP), old corrugated cardboards (OCC) and
thermomechanical pulp (TMP). Although this material was not considered for further testing, because
its consistency was not suitable for the boards. During the pressing the boards exploded because of
high moisture content which was around 60 %. Because of the size of fibres and its wooden structure,
the water couldn’t get out of the material and it caused the explosion. All the testing pieces where
made from deinked pulp old corrugated cardboards which was the original idea – to use recycled
material.
For testing the boards, the single opening press (Höfer HLOP 280) was used. The first test
samples were done in the dimensions of 20 x 20cm. The thickness of the board was 20mm. The
density of the boards was 0,75g/m3. First trials were done without any additives and with different
temperatures. The testing started with 60°C, continued with 120°C and ended with 180°C. The
pressing time depends on the thickness of the board. In case of 7mm thick board the pressing time
was 5 minutes. In case of 20mm board the pressing time was 15 minutes. The samples were made in
combination of DIP with starch glue and glucose, the same also for OCC and they were compared to
board made from DIP and OCC mixed with urea formaldehyde glue which is used in wood-based
3
panel industry. The thickness of the board was also 20mm and the density was 0,75g/cm .
Another testing was done with the 7mm boards made also from DIP and OCC. The frame
used for pressing had dimensions of 32 x 32cm. The boards were made with urea-formaldehyde glue.
After that there was a trial of 7mm boards made with starch glue and glucose. Unfortunately, the
thickness didn’t allow the moisture to come out of the board and the boards exploded while pressing
as well. That is why there are only results of testing the 7mm boards made from UF glue.
In the end 20mm boards with urea formaldehyde glue were manufactured with dimensions of
50 x 50cm. They were made both from DIP and OCC.
From the boards mentioned above, eighty testing samples were cut and tested. The testing
was done by the universal testing device Zwick/Roell Z 250. The testing samples were made
according to European standards with dimensions 50 x 50mm and several tests of its mechanical
properties were done after that – determination of density and density profile (EN 323:2005), moisture
content (EN 322:2005), thickness swelling and water absorption (EN317:2005), internal bond (EN
319:2005) and screw withdrawal resistance (EN 320:2011). For testing of modulus of elasticity in
bending and bending strength (EN 310:1993) the test samples had dimensions according the standard
for each thickness. The width was 50mm and the length are always 20 times thickness of the board
plus 50mm.
330
Fig. 1.
Paper Boards:
a – Paper boards DIP and OCC with starch glue; b – Testing samples OCC, DIP (180°C, 120°C,
60°C).
a. b.
Fig. 2.
UF Paper Board:
a – Paper boards DIP with UF glue 7mm thick.; b – Testing of swelling in thickness.

In this chapter there are the results for each paper board combination. The results of this
project are different paper boards which can be used for furniture. The testing paper boards were
made from DIP and OCC with thickness of 7 and 20mm. Both materials were mixed with starch glue
and urea formaldehyde glue. Eighty testing samples were made and for each test three samples were
used. The testing was done according to European standards.
The following graphs are showing density profile of each paper boards. The project started
with testing mixed paper pulp only with water and without any additives. Also, the temperature while
pressing was lower – 120°C and 180°C after that. In the first graph (Fig. 3), it is seen that the testing
3
samples without any additives had the lowest density which was around 450kg/m . Other samples in
the first graph were made with starch glue. Their density was much higher in comparison with the first
3
trials of 120°C and 180°C without any glue. The average value was 700kg/m .
331
Fig. 3.
Density profile of 20mm starch boards.
Following graph (Fig. 4) is showing the density profile of paper boards from DIP and OCC with
3
urea formaldehyde glue. The average value was 800kg/m .
Fig. 4.
Density profile of 20mm UF boards.
The last graph is showing the density of urea formaldehyde boards with 7mm thickness. The
3
average value was around 1000kg/m .
Fig. 5
Density profile of 7 mm UF board.
332
Table 1
Comparison of testing the mechanical properties for DIP and OCC boards with 7 mm and 20
mm thickness using UF and starch glue
TESTING METHOD Internal Screw Density Swelling Bending Modulus of
Bond EN withdrawal profile in strength elasticity EN
319 EN 320 EN 323 thickness EN 310 310
EN 317
material/thickness/units [N/mm²] [N] [kg/m3] [%] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
120 DIP 20 mm 0,01 182,26 422,30 31,12 - -
180 DIP 20 mm 0,01 127,08 439,76 27,90 - -
180 S DIP 20 mm 0,37 1031,93 730,59 22,52 - -
180 UF DIP 20 mm 0,39 1899,97 841,96 29,50 6,13 1189,07
180 S OCC 20 mm 0,33 953,35 641,16 19,97 - -
180 UF OCC 20 mm 0,51 1277,94 659,10 21,03 5,89 750,83
EGGER MDF ST E1 >19 - >0,55 >1080 600 - 800 <10 >18 >2100
30 mm
180 S DIP 7 mm - - - - - -
180 UF DIP 7 mm 0,41 542,95 1078,67 52,93 14,29 3019,93
EGGER MDF ST E1 >6 - 9 >0,65 - 600 - 800 <17 >23 >2700

mm
In this research there were manufactured paper boards from two different materials (DIP and
OCC). Two types of different glue were used (starch and urea formaldehyde) and the thickness of
paper boards was 7 and 20mm. Eighty testing samples were prepared according to European
standards and their mechanical and physical properties were tested. For each testing method three
samples were used.
In the table above (Table 1) can be seen that the samples made without any additives (glue)
and with lower temperature at first had much lower values than the samples made with glue. The
3
density of DIP sample pressed with 120°C was around 400kg/m while the samples pressed with one
3 3
of the mentioned glues varies from 700kg/m to 1000kg/m . That is why the following samples were
made with either starch glue or urea formaldehyde glue.
The values for the 7mm board from DIP and UF glue were quite good in comparison with other
samples. Its results can be compared with industrially manufactured fibreboards. The comparison was
3
made with EGGER MDF ST E1 >6 - 9mm. The density of the board is 1078,67kg/m . The internal
2 2
bond was 0,41N/mm . Thanks to its high density the bending strength was 14,29N/mm and the
2
modulus of elasticity was 3019,93N/mm . Swelling in thickness in this case was around 52,93% which
was higher in comparisons with other samples. Screw withdrawal resistance was the lowest in
comparison with other samples made with glue – 542,95N. The 20mm boards had higher resistance
because of their thickness.
As it was mentioned before, the 7mm thick board with starch glue was not working because of
the moisture content of the paper pulp. The moisture content was around 60%. Because of the small
thickness of 7mm, the steam could not easily get out of the board while pressing which led to
explosion of the board. That is why there are only results of DIP board with UF glue and 7mm
thickness.
333
In case of 20mm boards made from DIP and OCC with the two types of glue, the results were
quite similar. Bending strength could be done only for the UF glue for this paper but there will be more
testing samples done as part of the project. The highest value of screw withdrawal resistance had DIP
3
board with UF glue where the resistance was 1899,97N. Average density was 841,96kg/m . The
lowest swelling in thickness had the OCC samples with starch glue – 19,97%. Highest result of
2
internal bond which was 0,51N/mm had sample from OCC UF glue. This result was closest to the
2
EGGER MDF ST E1 >19 - 30mm which should be higher than 0,55N/mm . Bending strength of DIP
2 2
and OCC was 6,13N/mm in case of DIP and 5,89N/mm in case of OCC. DIP sample with UF glue
2
had higher modulus of elasticity than UF OCC sample – 1189,07N/mm . OCC sample with UF glue
2
had modulus of elasticity 750,83N/mm . The highest value had 7mm UF samples.
The results are not complete because of some troubles during pressing the boards and lack of
provided material. Other boards will be done as following part of the project. Although these results
still give a good idea about the strength of the paper boards and the best option. The most significant
results show the 7mm thick board made from deinked pulp and urea-formaldehyde glue. The second
material would be old corrugated cardboard boards with starch glue and the 20mm thickness.
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained from this project are different paper boards which can be used as a table
top for furniture, in this case for side table. There were manufactured boards from deinked pulp and
old corrugated cardboards with 7mm and 20mm thickness. The used glue was urea-formaldehyde
resin and starch together with glucose.
With consideration of the results, the best option would be the use of UF glue in either 7mm
thickness or 20mm, which would be better for a top of table. Because of the short time of research, it
was hard to make all the combinations on time. That is why the project will continue and there will be
done other tests as well.
The result of this project will be furniture piece according the previous research. The idea is to
design and manufacture side table. Inspiration for the project comes from the Canadian company
Dear Human and their paper pulp furniture (Dear Human 2016).
a. b.
Fig. 6.
Paper pulp furniture:
a – Dear Human paper pulp Tea tables (Dear Human 2016); b – Dear Human Paper Rock table
(Dear Human 2017).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Foremost, I would like to thank to my supervisor Ing. Milan Šimek, Ph.D. his support, valuable
information and leading while working on this project.
Other thanks go to FH-Prof. Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing.habil Dr. Marius-Catalin Barbu for the support
during the internship at FH Salzburg, help with getting the material and valuable advices.
Special thanks go to Mr. Thomas Wimmer who helped with the laboratory work and testing of
mechanical properties during the internship as well.
Last, but not the least special thanks go to Dr. Knoblauch who helped with getting the
material.
This project was supported by the Specific University Research Fund of the FFWT Mendel
University in Brno. It is part of the project. IGA LDF_VP_2019009.
334
REFERENCES
Ashby MF (2013) Materials and the environment: eco-informed material choice. Elsevier/Butterworth-
Heinemann, Boston.
Braungart M, Mcdonough W (2002) Cradle to cradle - Remaking the way we make things. North Point
Press, New York.
Dear human (2017) Paper Rock table. Online at: https://www.dearhuman.ca/paper-rock/
Dear human (2016) Tea tables. Online at: https://www.dearhuman.ca/tea-tables/
Dukarska D, Buszka K, Modzelewska I (2018) Kraft scrap paper pulp as a substitute of wood chips in
manufacture of particleboards resinated with hybrid PF/pMDI resin. pp. 161 -170.
European standard EN 310:2005. Wood-based panels. Determination of modulus of elasticity in

bending and of bending strength. CEN European Committee for Standardisation.
European standard EN 317:2005. Particleboards and fibreboards. Determination of swelling in

thickness after immersion in water. CEN European Committee for Standardisation.
European standard EN 319:2005. Particleboards and fibreboards. Determination of tensile strength

perpendicular to the plane of the board. CEN European Committee for Standardisation.
European standard EN 320:2011. Particleboards and fibreboards. Determination of resistance to axial

withdrawal of screws. CEN European Committee for Standardisation.
European standard EN 323: 2005. Wood-based panels. Determination of density. CEN European
Committee for Standardisation.
Koo B, Hergel J, Lefebvre S et al. (2017) Towards Zero-Waste Furniture Design. IEEE transactions on
visualization and computer graphics., pp. 2627-2640.
Niecewicz D, Pawlicki J, Borysiuk P, Zado A (2006) Application of waste paper in manufacturing of
particleboards. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum, Silvarum Colendarum Ratio et Industra Lignaria 5(1):
163-171.
Sixta H (2006) Handbook of pulp. John Wiley, Chichester.
335
SECONDARY METABOLITES OF APRICOT TREES (PRUNUS PERSICA L.)

PRUNING: POSSIBLE SUSTAINABLE USE IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTORS
Maria Roberta BRUNO
School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata
V.le dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
E-mail: mariaroberta.bruno@unibas.it
Paola CETERA
E-mail: paola.cetera@unibas.it
Valentina LO GIUDICE
E-mail: valentina.logiudice@unibas.it
Luigi TODARO
E-mail: luigi.todaro@unibas.it
Luigi MILELLA
Department of Science, Università degli Studi della Basilicata
V.le Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
E-mail:luigi.milella@unibas.it
Abstract
Orchards are typical Mediterranean crops and a major feature of the heritage in the
Mediterranean basin, where they play an important environmental and economic role. Orchards'
biomass byproduct use, such as apricot tree wood, mainly from pruning, could improve the economic
and environmental aspects of the biomass disposing. To achieve this objective, the main anti-oxidative
properties and the chemical compounds of the extractives coming from apricot orchards biomass were
analyzed. Furthermore, the influences of four different extraction techniques in combination with
different solvents have been measured. Results demonstrated the potential antioxidant activity of the
bark and wood extracts of apricot trees biomass. In addition, the chemical characterization by LC-MS
showed the presence of different natural compounds. Therefore, the development of innovative
applications that use the biomass derivatives, could lead to possible uses of these in the market as a
commodity for the chemical, pharmaceutical or cosmetic industries, giving new added values to
current use of biomass from agricultural practice. Our research was focused: i) on the recognition and
mapping of the orchard cultivation of the Basilicata Region; ii) on the identification of their extractives
traits; iii) on the definition of the appropriate extraction techniques.
INTRODUCTION
The EU policy after the Paris agreement, have as objective within the 2020, to reduce the waste
and improve the model of circular economy (an economic system designed to regenerate on its own).
In The EU the orchard cover an area equal to 5,994,564.87 hectares (Eurostat 2012). Of these
hectares, 67,592.98 ha are cultivated with Apricot Trees (Prunus Persica L.). Especially in country as
Italy and Spain the Apricot orchards have an agricultural area of 25% and 30% on the total area of the
European orchards. In the last years, to due the price very low of the apricot fruits, many farmers have
been forced, especially in Italy, to extirpate these trees. Over this, the pruning of these trees produce a
huge quantitative of woody material. These wood material and the trees extirpated have an only one
way to be eliminated: to be burn it. So, to avoid waste of natural resources, it was thought to analysed
the woody material of apricot to investigated the secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites are
chemical compounds produced by several plant tissues (e.g. leaves, bark, roots, buds, wood) that
provide different medicinal applications, including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antifungal
and other properties (Todaro et al. 2017). The multitude of secondary metabolite is utilised by human
336
kind to improve their health (antibiotics, enzyme inhibitors, immunomodulators, antitumor agents, et
al.) (Thirumurugan et al. 2018). On the other hand, the woody material of the orchards is poorly
investigated. The only studies about orchards are mainly concentred on the evaluation of the fruits
juices, part of the fruits (peel, seeds etc.) and sometimes on the leaves but, rarely on the physical and
chemical proprieties from the wood. Last studies about the apricot wood have investigated the
technical characteristics for use the apricot wood, rich of fibrous, noting in the apricot wood a good
material for industrial paper production (Tajik et al. 2015).
OBJECTIVE
To achieve this objective, the main anti-oxidative properties and the chemical compounds of
the extractives coming from biomass of apricot were analyzed. Results demonstrated the potential
antioxidant activity of the extracts of bark and wood of apricot trees. In addition, the chemical
characterization by LC-MS showed the presence of different natural compounds like flavonoids.
Trough these studies it was understood that the derivatives of the biomass examined, contains
functional chemical compounds that can be added to products for cosmetics, for feed and agriculture
to raise their quality in a perspective to "zero waste".

The analyse it was started by the choose of pruning material that came from a Mediterranean
Italian region (Basilicata). Aliquots of similarly sized particles of each sample were prepared and
subjected to four different solid/liquid extraction techniques: maceration extraction (ME), ultrasound
assisted extraction (UAE), Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) and Autoclave (AT). The solvent
used for the ME, UAe and Ase was etanol/ water 70:30, while for the Autoclave the solvent utilized
was water. For all the extraction procedures (ME, UAE, ASE, AT) the extraction process was repeated
three times. All extracts were filtered through a paper filter. Solvent was removed with a rotary
evaporator at 37°C. All the extracts was freeze-dried for 48 h. Dried extracts were kept in the dark at
room temperature until their use (Fig.1). Total polyphenol (TPC) were evaluated. The antioxidant
activities of all samples were investigated using the stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Chemicals compounds of the extractives were
analysed by means of Ultra High Performance Liquid Cromatography (U-HPLC).
Fig. 1.
From left to right, show the entire process of the extraction from the raw material of
apricot branches bark and wood until to the dried extractive.
337

Yield Extracts
In the Fig. 2 the extraction yields of wood and bark obtained with different extraction techniques
(ME, UAE, ASE, AT) is reported. The bark ASE showed the higher extraction yields (13.5%). All bark
extractives have given a greater extraction yield compared to the wood extractives. These data are in
accordance with a previous study (Klarić et al. 2016) showing that the bark contains more extractives
than the wood as consequence of its main biological functions to protect tree's essential living systems
from extreme temperatures as well as from attacks from fungi, insects and animals explaining its high
extractives contents.
Extractions performed with the ASE lead to the higher extractives yields independently of the
nature of the substrate used (wood or bark). As reported by Dai and Mumper (2010), the high
temperature would improve the viscosities and the surface tensions enhancing the capacity of the
solvent to penetrate in the matrices increasing the extraction yield. Whereas, lower extractive yields
were extracted in wood and bark using autoclave extraction (AT). Despite the high temperature
involved in this extraction technique, the utilization of water alone as solvent may explain this lower
extraction yield. Horvath, (2005) explained that the mixture of solvent have a mayor extractive capacity
than a pure solvent alone.
Total Polyphenol Content (TPC)

The highest quantity of total polyphenols was measured in the apricot bark ASE (274.5 ± 14.2
mgGAE/g), while the lowest TPC was recorded in the apricot wood extracted with ultrasound
extraction (153.2 ± 4.88 mgGAE/g) (Fig. 3). These results demonstrated that the extractions with ASE
have a major quantitative of polyphenol. It has been previously demonstrated as polyphenols are more
soluble in methanol and ethanol than in water, and our results are congruent with previous data (Dai
and Mumper 2010; Horvath 2005). Moreover, the quantity of the phenolic compounds is influenced by
the extraction time and temperature (Klarić et al. 2016), but if the solubilisation can be improved, the
degradation due to the oxidation and hydrolysis can be accelerated, and vice versa (Robards 2003).
However, as reported by Sulaiman et al. (2015), the nitrogen gas in the ASE can reduce the oxidation
of the compound at high temperature. According Tuyen et al. (2017), TPC and antioxidant activity are
positively correlated.
DPPH radical-scavenging assay

In all apricot tree wood and bark samples, extractives were analysed for their antioxidant
capacity through three different tests as DPPH and FRAP. DPPH is a purple colour stable free radical
that in presence of antioxidant compound it is decolorated. The DPPH scavenging activity (Fig. 4)
showed the higher value was obtained for the bark extracted with ME (5440.2 ± 185.6 mgTE/g). The
lower value is measured in the in wood ASE extracts (1597.5 ± 77.6 mgTE/g).
FRAP Ferric reducing antioxidant power

The antioxidant capacity measured by means of FRAP is valued on the base on reducing
ferric ion, where antioxidants are the reducing agent. Antioxidants are molecules able to donating a
single electron or hydrogen atom for reduction. For FRAP assay (Fig. 5), the highest antioxidant
values were obtained for apricot bark ME 1212.6 ± 114.0 mgTE/g, while the lowest values were for
apricot wood AT antioxidant values 302.8 ± 27.7 mgTE/g.
338
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Yield (%) of wood (W) and bark (B) of Total polyphenolic content (TPC) of wood
apricot trees extractives obtained by (W) and bark (B) of apricot trees. Where:
using various extraction techniques. maceration extraction (ME), ultrasound
Where: maceration extraction (ME), assisted extraction (UAE), accelerated
ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE), solvent extraction (ASE) and autoclave.
accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and
autoclave (AT).
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) FRAP (Ferric reducing antioxidant power ) of
scavenging activity of wood (W) and wood (W) and bark (B) of apricot trees
bark (B) of apricot trees extractives extractives obtained by using various
obtained by using various extraction extraction techniques. Where: maceration
techniques. Where: maceration extraction (ME), ultrasound assisted
extraction (ME), ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE), accelerated solvent
extraction (UAE), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and autoclave (AT).
extraction (ASE) and autoclave (AT).
LC-MS Analysis
The LC-MS analysis is still in progress but the first datas show that especially inside the
apricot bark extractives there are some flavonoids compounds such as catechine, epicatechine,
naringenin and phlorentin. Flavonoids have a different functions in regulating plant development,
pigmentation, and UV protection, to an array of roles in defence and signalling between plants and
microorganisms (Mathesius 2018). In also, them have a widely healthy effects. One of these is the
antioxidant activity that prevent the risk of age-related vascular disease development (Da Pozzo et al.
2018). In add, these compounds have applications in food stabilization due to their ability to protect
339
against peroxidation of oxygen sensitive foods (Benavente-García et al. 1997). The identification and
quantification of the compounds present in the apricot wood and bark extractives goes on due to
permit understanding the possible uses of this molecules in the industrial sectors.
CONCLUSION
The aim of this study has been to analyse the wood and bark extractives of apricot orchards
tree pruning to find a use sustainable of this waste material, in according with the EU waste policy.
From data is emerged that the bark have a higher quantitative of total phenolic compounds and
antioxidant activity than the wood. This is confirmed in all extraction techniques (ME, UAE, ASE, AT),
at the same extraction condition. Between all samples, bark ASE has the major quantity of phenolic
compounds due to probably, the mixture of solvent MeOH/H2O (70:30 v/v) and temperature (100°C).
The datas coming from LC-MS analysis demonstrate that the extractives contains interesting
flavonoids. Flavonoids are secondary metabolites product from plant that have several properties, one
on all a great antioxidant activity. The analyses and test affected on the pruning residue from apricot
orchards have demonstrated that there is the possibility to use a waste product in the industrial
sectors.
The results obtained are encouraging and lead us to continue the study of these materials, to
better understand the compounds present inside the pruning biomass of apricot orchards and their
possibly uses.
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Flavonoids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45, 4505–4515. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf970373s
Da Pozzo E, De Leo M, Faraone I, Milella L, Cavallini C, Piragine E, Testai L, Calderone V, Pistelli L,
Braca A, Martini C (2018) Antioxidant and Antisenescence Effects of Bergamot Juice [WWW
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Properties. Molecules 15, 7313–7352. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules15107313
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Extraction of Milled European Black Alder Wood and Bark using Different Solvents. Bioresources 11,
9244–9254. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.11.4.9244-9254
Mathesius U (2018) Flavonoid Functions in Plants and Their Interactions with Other Organisms. Plants
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Robards K (2003) Strategies for the determination of bioactive phenols in plants, fruit and vegetables.
J. Chromatogr. A 1000, 657–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(03)00058-X
Sulaiman N, Idayu MI, Ramlan A, Fashya MN, Farahiyah AN, Mailina J, Azah MN (2015) EFFECTS
OF EXTRACTION METHODS ON YIELD AND CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OF GAHARU (AQUILARIA
MALACCENSIS). J. Trop. For. Sci. 7.
Tajik M, Kiaei M, Jalali H (2015) Apricot wood - A potential source of fibrous raw material for paper
industry. Comptes Rendus Académie Bulg. Sci. Sci. Mathématiques Nat. 68:329–336.
Tuyen PT, Xuan TD, Khang DT, Ahmad A, Quan NV, Tu Anh TT, Anh LH, Minh TN (2017) Phenolic
Compositions and Antioxidant Properties in Bark, Flower, Inner Skin, Kernel and Leaf Extracts of
Castanea crenata Sieb. et Zucc. Antioxidants 6, 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox6020031
340
EFFECT OF FREEZE DRYING ON THE MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF NANOCOMPOSITE MADE FROM POLYETHYTLENE AND
CELLULOSE NANOCRYSTALL
Marjan ABEDI
Department of Wood and Paper Science and Technology,Faculty of Natural Resources
University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
E-mail: marjan.abedi@ut.ac.ir
*
Mehdi JONOOBI
Department of Wood and Paper Science and Technology,Faculty of Natural Resources
University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
E-mail: mehdi.jonoobi@ut.ac.ir
Alireza ASHORI
Department of Chemical Technologies,Iranian Research Organization for Science
and Technology (IROST),Tehran, Iran
Valentina SIRACUSA
Department of Chemical Science, University of Catania
Viale A.Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy
E-mail: vsiracus@dmfci.unict.it
Abstract
In this study, it was attempted to investigate and characterize cellulose nanocrystal reinforced
polyethylene (CNC/PE) nanocomposites films. Samples were prepared by freeze drying technique,
using different amount of CNC (1, 3, 5 wt.%), in order to obtain the desired dispersion in CNC/PE
nanocomposites. To improve CNC dispersion into the polymer matrix, maleic anhydride was added as
coupling agent. Subsequently, a wide range of analytical methods including Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR), tensile test, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), contact
angle and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) were employed to understand both how the different
CNC concentration could influence the material behavior and the effect of maleic anhydride addition
on the properties of CNC/PE nanocomposites. The results revealed that the addition of CNC, even at
low level (1 wt.%), could increase the hydrophilicity of nanocomposite films, enhanced by increasing
the amount of CNC concentration. Consequently, mechanical properties of CNC/PE nanocomposite
were improved compared to polyethylene
Key words: cellulose nanocrystal; freeze drying; mechanical properties; nanocomposite; polymers.
INTRODUCTION
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) is considered a suitable candidate for the processing of polymer
nanocomposites due to its low weight, renewability and reinforcing capability (Ben Azouz et al. 2012,
Lee et al. 2011, Khoshkava & Kamal 2014, Iwamoto et al. 2014). In addition, CNCs are the subject of
intensive research for replacing inorganic fillers or reinforcements (e.g. mica, talc and glass fibers).
Hence, using CNCs as reinforcement in polymers received attention over the years (Fonseca-Valero
et al. 2015, Lei et al. 2007, Sobczak et al. 2013, Jonoobi et al. 2010). Therefore, the nanocomposite of
polymer and CNCs can be prepared to improve the mechanical properties (Maia et al. 2017).
Unfortunately, studies that correlate processing, structure and mechanical properties of CNC
nanocomposites are infrequent. As for any nanoparticles, the main challenge in developing polymeric
nanocomposites with noteworthy properties is related to their homogeneous dispersion in polymer
matrix (Khoshkava & Kamal 2014, Benhamou et al. 2015). However, it is too difficult to fabricate
composites with polar CNCs in polymer matrixes such as low density polyethylene (LDPE), due to its
hydrophobic nature (Sobczak et al. 2013, Sato et al. 2016). Hence, in order to increase filler-matrix
interactions, different treatment have been developed during the years (Sapkota et al. 2017, Sato et
*
Corresponding authors
341
al. 2016). Basically, all methods used to improve dispersibility of CNCs in polymer matrix are related to
the interaction between hydroxyl functional group of nanocrystal and the nonpolar polymer chain. The
hydrophobic polymeric matrix and the rather polar filler particles appear to be difficult to mix, but it is
shown that composites with significantly improved mechanical characteristics and better dispersion
can be produced by employing various physical and chemical treatments (Beg & Pickering 2008). In
addition, the compatibility between fillers and matrix, which has a remarkable effect on the mechanical
properties of the composites, can be improved with the addition of polymeric compatibilizers due to
their reactive functional groups that can interact with both components such as CNCs and polymer
matrix, as for instance maleic anhydride and polyethylene in our study (Chen et al. 2013, Lu et al.
2005, Mohanty et al. 2006).
During the production of nanocomposite it is important to attain a uniform drying to reach a
homogeneous appearance. A new process called freeze drying could be employed. Freeze drying of
nanocomposites is a very complex process that requires a correct component formulation and a
correct control of process conditions (Khoshkava & Kamal 2014). Maia et al. (2017) investigated the
use of an aqueous dispersion of polyethylene (PE) copolymer with high content of acrylic acid as a
compatibilizer to obtain polyethylene cellulose nanofibers (CNF) nanocomposites. PE\CNF films
indicated a good dispersion of CNF but a poor distribution with PE-rich and CNF-rich regions up to 20
wt.% of CNF observed by SEM. Sapkota et al. (2017) studied the preparation of LDPE\CNC
nanocomposites by dispersion in microcrystalline cellulose. Dadbin et al. (2008) studied how replace
PE multi-layer films used in food packaging with single layer PE nanocomposite films. Linear LDPE
was grafted with maleic anhydride (LLDPE-G-MA). In this case, MA was used as compatibilizer to
achieve better interactions. Lee et al. (2014) studied CNF reinforced polycaprolactone/polypropylene
(CNF/PCL/PP) hybrid nanocomposite. For better CNF dispersion in the polymer matrix, CNFs were
distributed in PCL and then the obtained composite was mixed with PP. The distribution of CNF in PP
was improved by the addition of maleic anhydride, and an increment of the elastic modulus was
recorded.
OBJECTIVE
The main goal of this paper was to characterize the effect of CNC on the physical and
mechanical properties of CNC/PE. To the best of our knowledge, for the first time we fabricated
cellulose nanocomposite by using liquid nitrogen for flash frozen of CNC/PE mixture to avoid any
sediment of CNC and obtain better dispersion and distribution of CNC into PE matrix . In order to
characterize of produced nanocomposite, dynamic and mechanical properties of polyethylene and
polyethylene grafted with maleic anhydride were investigated. In addition, to define the CNC/PE
interface, the water absorption, and structure of PE and MAPE were determined by various chemical
and mechanical tests such as fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), field emission scanning
electron microscopy (FESEM), contact angle, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and tensile test.

-1
LDPE (lupolen 2420F) with density of 0.92 g.cm and melt flow index (MFI) of 0.75 g/10 min at
190 C°/2.16 kg was supplied by Amirkabir Petrochemical Company, Iran. Maleated polyethylene
-1
produced by Karangin Company with 0.92 g.cm and 1.7% coupled maleic anhydride was used as a
compatibilizer.
LDPE (5 g) was solved in toluene at 40 C° for 24 hr. After dissolving completely various ratios of
CNC (1, 3, 5 wt.%) in addition to 10 wt.% of lubricant(gelycerol) was used to made nanocomposite
films.the resulted mixture was introduced to PVC teflons and was dried by liquid Nitrogen so samples
were placed in freezer for 24 hours at -80 °C.(Table 1)
Subsequently samples were dried at -60 C°In a freeze dryer for 48 hours Then the melting
process of the obtained samples was accomplished in hot press at 130 C°and pressure 40 bar for 3
minutes.. Eventually the samples were cooled in a pressure 20 bar and at 20 C°for only one minute.
Similarly, the preparation of maleic anhydride grafted with PE has the same procedure as above.
342
Table 1
Sample codes and the composition in the composites
Sample Compositions (%)
PE GLC CNC
PECNC1GLC 89 10 1
PECNC3GLC 87 10 3
PECNC5GLC 85 10 5
MAPECNC1GLC 89 10 1
MAPECNC3GLC 87 10 3
MAPECNC5GLC 85 10 5
Contact angle measurements

Contact angle measurements on polyethylene nanocomposites were performed at 23°C by
using instrument (VEHO USB MICROSCOPE 400X). after 1-3 droplets of distilled water were dropped
on the surface of the prepared film , the water contact angles were measured every 4 s. Each samples
was measured 3 times and the measured contact angles were averaged 3 points on each specimen
were tested.
Fourier transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

FTIR spectra were recorded at room temperature on a FTIR perkin elmer spectrum one
spectrometer (BRUKER) to characterize PE and MAPE matrix and cellulose nanocrystal. All the
-1
samples were characterized by FTIR using a spectral width ranging from 600 to 4000 cm , with a 4
cm resolution and accumulation of 16 scans.
Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM)

The morphology of freeze dried CNCs dispersed in polyethylene were investigated using field
emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). Fractured surfaces from tensile testing analyzed by
scanning electron microscopy (TESCAN, MIRA2LMU) under an acceleration of 5 kV. The samples
were sputter-coated with gold to avoid charging.

FTIR
The FTIR spectra were carried out to characterize the chemical structure and functional
groups which presented in each sample. Figure 1 shows the ATR spectra of PE and MAPE original
and cellulose nanocrystal and PE matrix without coupling agent and with MAPE PECNC1GLC and
1
PECNC3GLC and original PE and MAPE matrix show absorption band around 1720 cm . These
absorption bands in this part of the spectra are characteristic of carbonyl groups (1714) aldehyds and
/or esters (1733), carbonyl groups (1700). The absorption band in (3378) corresponds to the O-H
vibration bands.the bands at 2921 and 2850 is related to C-H bands.
343
Fig. 1.
ATR spectra of films made by CNC/LDPE nanocomposites.
FESEM
Fig. 1 shows FESEM images of tensile fractured surfaces of the original and coupled agent
LDPE nanocomposites studied in this work. The fractured surface examinations by FESEM provide
information about the effects of morphology in composites and on the CNC/matrix interface. The
micrographs corresponding to non-coupled composites (Fig. 2) do not show a homogeneous
dispersion of CNCs in the composite and there exist areas by a circle on the FESEM. Where the
CNCs tend to agglomerated and they are in contact with each other. The magnified view shows
pointed by arrows, the separation between the LDPE matrix and the CNCs Due to incompatibility
between the hydrophobic polymer and hydrophilic CNCs.
Fig. 2.
FESEM micrographs of fractured surfaces of original LDPE nanocomposites(a-b-c) containing
(a)1 wt% of CNC (b) 3 wt% CNC and (c) 5wt% CNC.coupled agent LDPE(MAPE) containing (d) 1
wt% CNC,(e)3 wt% CNC and (f) 5 wt% CN.
344
In addition, big gaps between the CNCs and the matrix appear at the surface of the composite
material, confirming that the interfacial adhesion between cellulose CNCs and LDPE matrix is poor.
Fig. 2 shows areas such as that marked by a circle on the FESEM picture, where the coupling agent
nanocomposites gives improved of CNCs by the matrix, however, some CNCs can also be observed
on the composite surface, such as those pointed by arrows the longest length being 3.31µm.
Contact angle measurments
Table 2
Contact angle of polymeric films containing various weight percent of CNC in the composites
Sample Contact angle (°)
PECNC1 62± 1
PECNC3 39 ± 1
PECNC5 45
MAPECNC1 65 ± 1
MAPECNC3 45± 2
MAPECNC5 35±1
More the weight percentage of nanocrystal in nanocomposites which have a coupling agent,
more hydrophilic nanocomposite films become. It means that the contact angle was decreased. Table
2 indicated that the contact angle of MAPECNC1 was 65°, when the percentage of nanocrystal has
been increased to 5 wt.%, the contact angle become less than half of initial value.
By enhancing the weight percentage of nanocrystal in PE nanocomposite, films became more
hydrophilic, however, in PECNC5 the contact angle was increased (Table 2), which means that this
film became more hydrophobic which is resulted in having some agglomeration in this sample that
could be proved in (Fig. 2).
CONCLUSIONS
This study attempted to disperse CNCs in LDPE homogenously in order to obtain PE/CNC
nanocomposite with imroved physical and mechanical properties. To have a desire dispersion of
cellulose nanocrystals in polyethylene matrix, maleic anhydride was used as a coupling agent. In
according to FESEM, using MAPE as a coupling agent, the CNCs dispersion in nanocomposite films
was improved. Finally, the hydrophobicity of nanocomposite films was measured by static contact
angle. it was found that by increasing nanocrystal concentration the water contact angle decreased
and nanocomposite films get more hydrophilic.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge to the University of Tehran for the financial support of the Research.
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346
COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON THE MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT

PANEL BOARDS (CHIPBOARD, BLOCKBOARD)
Radu Dan BARABOI
Tel: 0040 268 415315, Fax: 0040 268 415315,
E-mail: insightdan@yahoo.com
Aurel LUNGULEASA
Cosmin SPIRCHEZ
E-mail: cosmin.spirchez@unitbv.ro
Abstract
Lignocellulosic composite materials have gained increasing attractiveness due to their physical
and mechanical properties as well as their aesthetic properties for diverse applications. An essential
quality of these is the possibility of manufacture in the form of panels of different thicknesses but with
large surfaces, which, for solid wood can only be achieved by jointing. This research paper aims to
perform a comparative study of the mechanical strengths of the most common lignocellulosic
composites at this time in major use for specific markets from different producers. Their mechanical
properties make these composites a strong competitor with traditional materials. Knowledge of
mechanical properties is essential for those who are designing products that incorporate them.
Key words: composite material; bending strength; HDF; blockboard; chipboard.
INTRODUCTION
Although composite materials can be obtained from low-quality wood or wood residues, with the
final product can have improved properties. Effective applications for them are based on knowing the
properties, so there is a need to know the various physical and mechanical properties. The current
composite materials are state-of-the-art materials, incorporating in their structure high and innovative
technologies. There are also older composite materials made by laminating but these are part of the
older generation, and may be termed e the 'classic' composites. From this point of view, composite
materials are classified as classic composite materials (PB, PFL, plywood etc.) and modern (OSB,
MDF etc.). Each of these materials has their industrial importance and their own fields of use, but uses
can also be complementary.
The properties of the composite materials depend on many factors, but the most important ones
are given by the nature of the materials comprising the matrix and the binder, the manufacturing
procedure and the bond between the constituents. Usually, composite materials have properties
different from those of the component materials, usually improved. Among the properties to be
improved with wood composite materials are: high resistance to humidity, sound absorption, heat
resistance/insulation, shock and fatigue resistance, mechanical properties (elasticity, plasticity, and
mechanic resistances), ecological properties (biodegradability), durability and hardness, special
aesthetic and design possibilities through form and finishing etc. Many authors have written about
particleboards and panels (Youngquist 2011, Thoemen et al. 2010) both about the manufacturing
technology and the tests performed on them.
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this work was to make a comparison between different existing composite
materials (chipboard and blockboard) from the point of view of their physical and mechanical
properties, for their effective use. Investigations were made into resistance to static bending, internal
347
bond strength, and resistance to impact through the method of two-pendulum hammers type Charpy,
nails withdrawing, moisture absorption and thickness swelling.

The composite materials were procured from the company Holzindustrie and consisted of
boards of size 500x500mm from PB with thicknesses of 12 and 18mm (denoted as Chipb 12 and
Chipb 18) and veneered panels (denoted as Blocb 12V or Blocb 18V) or laminated with HDF (denoted
as Blocb 12H or Blocb 18H), that were divided into test-pieces for the performance of the laboratory
tests. The main properties taken into consideration were resistance to static banding, internal bond
strength, impact resistance moisture absorption and thickness swelling.
Resistance to breaking through static bending. To determine the resistance to bending of
the composite boards, an IMAL universal testing machine was used, according to Fig.1.a that could
perform a complex series of mechanical tests, among which was resistance to static bending.
a b
Fig.1.
Equipment for strength testing: a. IMAL-testing machine for resistance to breaking through
static bending; b. Two- hammer pendulum device to test impact strength.
Resistance to static bending used the European methodology SR EN 310, whose determination
principle is showed in Fig 2 and resistance to breaking was determined with the help of Eq. 1:
Fig 2.
The principle for determining resistance to bending (three point bending): P-force, g-
thickness; l-distance between supports.
348
3 Pmax ⋅ l
σi = ⋅ [ N / mm 2 ] (1)
2 b⋅ g2
Determination of resistance to impact. Resistance to impact was determined with an

Izod/Charpy machine (Fig 1.b) equipped with two pendulum hammers. The principle of the method is
based on the work of transfer of the energy on impact between the two swinging hammers used to
break the test sample and the residual mechanical work transferred to the second pendulum hammer.
The mechanical work of the two-hammer pendulum was expressed through the two angles α1 and α2
visible on the two dials with active and worn indicators. To determine resistance to puncture of the
composite boards, the two-hammers pendulum device was used, which measures the energy
consumed to penetrate the test sample, resulting from the difference between the mechanical work
initially read on the dial of the first hammer and the value of the mechanical work read on the dial of
the second hammer.
The relationship for determination of resistance to impact, also called resilience to impact, was
the following:
L
K= [MPa] (2)
g
where: L is the mechanical work consumed to break the test sample through dynamic efforts,
expressed in N.mm; g- thickness of the transversal section of the test sample.
Determination of transversal internal bond of the composite boards. This determination

measures the adhesion of the surface of veneers or interior chips. Transverse internal bond (SR EN
319) or resistance to traction perpendicular on the surface of the board is given by the force that
produces the break of the test sample and they area of the surface of the broken, A. The test samples
must contain humidity in accordance with the standard and so were conditioned to a relative humidity
of 55% and 20ºC temperature.
In Fig. 3 shows test device and Fig 4.a shows the mechanical testing machinery for determining
(internal bond).
Fig 3.
Transverse internal bond of the test samples.
349
a. b.
Fig. 4.
Determination of internal bond (a) and the resistance to nails withdrawal (b) of the composite
boards.
Resistance to screw withdrawal in different types of boards. Determination of resistance to

withdrawal of the screws is done both perpendicular to the plane of the board and parallel with the
surface (core) Tests for screw withdrawal is done immediately after insertion into the test sample. All
the dimensions were measured to an accuracy of 0.1mm. In Fig. 4.b shows the device for the testing
screw and nail withdrawal.
Water absorption and thickness swelling. Dimensional stability of the composite materials
can be expressed as the mass of the water absorbed after 2 or 24 hours, as well as the variation in
thickness, depending on the amount of water absorbed. The experimental method consists of
measuring the dimensional variation of the test samples immersed into water, and the mass variations
of the 50x50mm test samples. The measurement of volume, as well as the weight of the tested
samples is done at certain time intervals, so as to make a correlation between the dimensional stability
of panels. Fig. 5 shows the apparatus used for absorption and thickness swelling.
Fig. 5.
Equipment used to determine water absorption and thickness swelling.
Relationships to determine water absorption and thickness swelling are showed below (Eq. 3).
mi − m f gi − g f
A= ⋅ 100 [%] U g = ⋅ 100 [%] (3)
mi gi
Within Eq. 3 we have the followingː
mI – initial mass of the test samples, in g;

mf – final mass of the test samples after immersion, in g;
gi – initial thickness of test samples, in mm;
gf – the final thickness of the test samples after water immersion, in mm.
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Density
Density of the two types of wood composites was different (Fig. 6). Determination was done on
10 samples, of which the extreme values of the experiments as removed (Table 1).
Table 1
Determination of density of the composite boards
No. Chipb 12 Chipb 18 Blockb V18 Blockb H18
m ρ m ρ m ρ m ρ
(g) (kg/m3) (g) (kg/m3) (g) (kg/m3) (g) (kg/m3)
1 17.44 569.9 28.1 626.2 20.97 487.6 25.84 587.2
2 17.68 570.3 27.89 648.60 25.52 607.6 24.44 568.3
3 17.41 580.3 27.99 666.46 17.42 395.9 24.57 599.2
4 17.35 598.2 28.05 652.32 18.75 436.0 26.55 632.1
5 17.52 584 28.41 692.98 17.96 427.6 25.33 575.6
6 17.49 603.1 28.43 661.18 17.59 409.0 30.67 681.5
7 17.31 577 28.28 642.73 17.33 393.8 25.8 600
8 17.46 623.5 27.96 650.26 18.11 402.4 25.74 585
9 17.37 579 28.1 638.64 18.16 442.9 25.5 621.9
Med 587.2 653.29 444.7 605.6
Fig. 6.
Comparative density of composite material.
Static bending strength

Resistance to breaking through static bending of the samples made of PB, panel with veneered
faces and panel with HDF faces, results are a shown in Table 2 and Fig. 7.
351
Table 2
Force and bending strength of veneered hardboard of 12 mm thickness cut longitudinal to
core ( example of Hardb V 12L)
Nr crt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mean
Force, 149 108.2 173 187 153 182.6 140 117 166 152.8
daN
Bending 506.1 367.5 587.6 635.1 519.6 620.2 475.5 397.4 563.8 519.2
strength,
2
daN/cm
It can be seen that the higher results were obtained on the test samples made of veneer faced
panels longitudinally divided, parallel with the direction of the core strakes.
Fig. 7.
Resistance to static bending.
The net higher results were obtained on samples made of veneered faced panels longitudinally
divided, followed by the test samples made of HDF faced panels, and in last place were the
chipboards test samples. The superiority of both the veneer faced panels, and the HDF faced ones
can be seen as regards resistance to breaking through static bending compared to other
lignocellulosic composite materials with similar use, in our case chipboards.
In Table 3 we can see the results obtained following the determination of the resistance to
penetration of different composite boards. It can be seen that the higher results were obtained on test
samples made of HDF faced panels, followed by test samples made of veneer faced panels, and in
last place the test samples made of chipboards.
Table 3
Resistance to impact
Chipb 18 Chipb 12 Blockb V12 Blockb V18 Blockb H18
daN kgm/ da kgm kgm/ daN kgm Kgm/c daN kgm Kgm/c daN kgm Kgm/
cm N cm m m cm
1 70 59.4 78 79.4 44.1 90 91.7 50.9 100 101.9 56. 6 150 152.8 84.9
2 69 58.5 75 76.4 42.4 75 76.4 42.4 86 87.6 48.66 130 132.4 73.5
3 70 59.4 70 71.3 39.6 77 78.4 43.5 80 81.5 45.2 120 122.2 67.9
4 70 59.4 70 71.3 39.6 80 81.5 45.2 103 104.9 58.34 110 112.0 62.2
5 70 59.4 70 71.3 39.6 90 91.7 50.9 80 81.5 45.2 130 132.4 73.5
6 70 59.4 77 78.4 43.5 80 81.5 45.2 90 91.7 50.95 120 122.2 67.9
352
7 70 59.4 77 78.4 43.5 95 96.8 53.7 110 112.0 62.2 140 142.6 79.2
8 69 58.5 78 79.4 41.1 90 91.7 50.9 110 112.0 62.2 135 137.5 76.4
9 70 59.4 80 81.5 45.2 80 81.5 45.2 100 101.9 56.6 140 142.6 79.2
Me 69. 59.2 75 76.4 42.4 84.1 85.7 47.6 95. 97.2 54.0 130. 133.0 73.9
an
Transversal internal cohesion

Table 4 shows the results obtained following determination of internal bond strength of the
board. It can be seen that these tests highlight the internal bond of the component layers of the
composite material and show the superiority of the veneer faced panels. The results obtained confirm
good internal cohesion between the layers of the panel, both between the core strakes and the
veneer faces, and HDF.
Table 4
Tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the board
No Chipboard Venered blockboard HDF blockboard
daN kgf/cm2 daN kgf/cm2 daN Kgf/cm2
1 112 45.612 200 81.52 180 73.768
2 120 48.912 325 132.47 190 77.444
3 96 39.1296 270 110.052 187 76.2212
4 110 44.836 310 126.356 165 67.254
5 85 34.646 290 118.204 187 76.2212
6 118 48.0968 302 123.0952 176 71.7376
7 105 42.798 289 117.7964 158 64.4008
8 110 44.836 305 124.318 167 68.0692
9 92 37.4992 287 116.9812 174 70.9224
Media 105.333 42.933 286.444 116.754 176 71.7376
Fig. 8
Comparative values of the tensile strength perpendicular
to the plane of the board.
Water absorption and thickness swelling

As regards dimensional stability that depends on density and humidity, the results obtained are
shown in Table 5. It can be seen that after a period of immersion of the test samples in water, they
changed their volume, weight and density changed. The highest dimensional stability was found with
the test samples made of HDF faced panels, followed by those with veneered faces and finally, the
PB. These experimental results confirm that both the HDF faced panels, as well as the veneer faced
panels have a better performance in a humid environment, compared to the traditional PB boards.
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Table 5
The parameters of the test samples before water immersion
PAL 12 PAL 18 PAF 18 PAH 18
Sa V (m3) m ρ V m V m ρ V G ρ
mpl ρ
e (g) kg/m3 (m3) (g) (m3) (g) kg/m3 (m3) (g) kg/m3
3
kg/m
1 0.0000306 17.44 569.9 0.00004 28.1 626.2 0.00004 20.9 487.6 0.00004 25.8 587.2
5 8 3 7 4
2 0.000031 17.68 570.3 0.00004 27.8 648.6 0.00004 25.5 607.6 0.00004 24.4 568.3
3 9 2 2 3
3 0.00003 17.41 580.3 0.00004 27.9 666.4 0.00004 17.4 395.9 0.00004 24.5 599.2
2 9 4 2 1
4 0.000029 17.35 598.2 0.00004 28.0 652.3 0.00004 18.7 436.0 0.00004 26.5 632.1
3 5 3 5 2
5 0.00003 17.52 584 0.00004 28.4 692.9 0.00004 17.9 427.6 0.00004 25.3 575.6
1 1 2 6 4
6 0.000029 17.4 603.1 0.00004 28.4 661.1 0.00004 17.5 409.0 0.00004 30.67 681.5
3 3 9 5
7 0.00003 17.3 577 0.00004 28.2 642.7 0.00044 17.3 393.8 0.00004 25.8 600
4 3 3
8 0.000028 17.4 623.5 0.00004 27.9 650.2 0.00004 18.1 402.4 0.00004 25.74 585
3 5 1 4
9 0.00003 17.3 579 0.00004 28.1 638.6 0.00004 18.1 442.9 0.00004 25.5 621.9
4 1 6 1
Mea 17.4 587.2 28.1 653.2 0.00004 19.0 444.7 0.00004 26.04 605.6
n 3 9 3 889
Table 6
The parameters of the test samples after water immersion
CHIPBOARD 12 CHIPBOARD 18 VENEERED BLOCKBOARD 18 HDF BLOCKBOARD
SAMPLE V (M3) G Ρ V G Ρ V G Ρ V G Ρ
3
(G) KG/M (M3) (G) (KG/M3) (M3) (G) (KG/M3) (M3) (G) (KG/M3)
1 0.000036 31.2 866.6 0.000052 39.6 762.5 0.000048 28.07 584.7 0.000049 30.2 617.9
2 0.000033 32.12 973.3 0.000051 38.7 758.8 0.000044 28.6 650 0.00005 31.2 624.2
3 0.000035 33.2 948.5 0.000049 39.4 804.6 0.000043 27.9 648.8 0.000048 39.9 832.9
4 0.000036 33.1 919.4 0.000048 38.4 800.8 0.000049 28.54 582.4 0.000047 30.7 654.4
5 0.000034 32.5 555.8 0.000051 39.4 772.7 0.000039 28.30 725.6 0.000049 29.7 607.1
6 0.000035 32.75 935.7 0.000054 38.2 708.3 0.000042 27.91 664.5 0.000045 30.6 681.1
7 0.000033 33.21 1006.3 0.00005 37.9 759.6 0.000044 28.71 652.5 0.000048 28.9 660.2
8 0.000035 32.75 935.7 0.000048 39.4 821.2 0.000045 28.43 631.7 0.000047 29.7 633.1
9 0.000034 33.76 992.9 0.000051 38.2 749.4 0.000041 38.21 684.0 0.000048 30.4 633.9
MEAN 32.732 948.2 38.8 770.9 28.2 647.6 31.6 659.9
Resistance to screw withdrawal

The experimental data on screw withdrawal is showed in Table 7 and Fig. 9. It can be seen that
the higher resistance is obtained by the test samples made of HDF faced panels, followed by the one
with veneered faces, and in the last place, the PB.
354
Table 7
Resistance to screw withdrawal
Blockboard with HDF
Chipboard Veneered Bolockboard faces
Sample Force, Force, Strength, Force, Strength,
daN Strength,kgf/cm daN Kgf/cm daN Kgf/cm
1 116 65.66889 171 96.805 195 110.3917
2 135 76.425 205 116.0528 165 93.40833
3 180 101.9 166 93.97444 170 96.23889
4 125 70.76389 153 86.615 195 110.3917
5 152 86.04889 172 97.37111 210 118.8833
6 143 80.95389 186 105.2967 204 115.4867
7 137 77.55722 192 108.6933 193 109.2594
8 164 92.84222 175 99.06944 187 105.8628
9 128 72.46222 189 106.995 206 116.6189
Mean 142.222 80.513 178.777 101.208 191.666 108.504
Fig. 9 shows a graphical representation of the resistance to screw withdrawal of different test
samples, namely chipboards, HDF faced panels and veneer faced panels, to compare the two
categories of wood composites.
Fig. 9.
Graphical representation of resistance to screw withdrawal.
CONCLUSIONS
Following the experimental tests performed, the following were concluded:
- a good performance of the HDF faced panels to humid environment in comparison with
chipboards;
- internal cohesion of the layers forming the veneered panel was superior to the HDF panels
and chipboards;
- resistance to penetration of the HDF panel is better than chipboards or veneered blockboard;
- good resistance to breaking through static bending was achieved by test samples when the
veneer are longitudinally oriented, parallel with the core strakes;
- good mechanical resistance highlighted by the experimental tests make from blockboard a
competitive material for a large range of performance use, this being a successful replacer of many
traditional materials existing currently.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The research was performed within the project Schweighofer Grants 2017-2018.
355
REFERENCES
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Rotational Dowel Welding, Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 25:2745–2753,
DOI: 10.1163/016942410X537323.
Bowyer JL, Stokke D (1982) The effect of core block length on strength of face-glued blockboard,
Wood and Fiber Science 1:60-69.
ESB, Nantes-France (2016) Testing Panels Products, https://www.ecoledubois.fr/.
Lunguleasa A (2012) Composites obtained by lamination, Transilvania Print House of Brasov
Thoemen H, Irle M, Sernek M (2010) Wood-based panels. An introduction for specialists, Edited by
Brunel University Press.
Wulf M (1997) Investigation of the wetting characteristics of MDF by means of contact angle
measurements, HolzRoh-Werkst,vol.55:331-33.
Yongquist JA (1987) Wood based compositesː The panel and building components of the future.
Proceedings of the IUFRO, pp. 5-22.
Yongquist JA, Krzysik AM (1993) Properties of wood and polymer fiber composites, Wood-
Fiber/Polymer Composites, pp.79-88.
Youngquist JA (2011) Wood-based Composites and Panel Products, Chapter 10,
https://www.drjengineering.org/sites/default/files/uploads/attachments/field_collection/563/fpl_wood_h
andbook_ch10.pdf.
Zeleniuc O (2016) Materials used in wood industry, Course, Transilvania Print House of Brasov.
356
SECTION 6.
WOOD
PRESERVATION,
CHEMICAL WOOD
MODIFICATION,
WOOD GLUING
AND COATING
TREATMENT OF THERMALLY MODIFIED WOOD WITH A SUSPENSION OF

TITANIA NANOPARTICLES TO IMPROVE ITS SELECTED PROPERTIES
Marko PETRIČ
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty
Jamnikarjeva ul. 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Tel: 00386 1 320 3620, E-mail: marko.petric@bf.uni-lj.si
Angela BALZANO
E-mail: angela.balzano@bf.uni-lj.si
Miha HUMAR
E-mail: miha.humar@bf.uni-lj.si
Jernej KRIŽAN
E-mail: jernej.krizan0@gmail.com
Davor KRŽIŠNIK
E-mail: davor.krzisnik@bf.uni-lj.si
Matjaž PAVLIČ
E-mail: matjaz.pavlic@bf.uni-lj.si
Jure ŽIGON
E-mail: jure.zigon@bf.uni-lj.si
Abstract
Results of the research aimed to increase the resistance of beech and thermally modified
(TM) beech wood to UV-light and weathering with impregnation with commercially available nano TiO2
suspensions, originally intended to be used as UV protective coating additives, are presented in this
paper. Beech wood and TM beech wood samples were vacuum-pressure impregnated with
suspensions, containing around 3% of TiO2, and in one series, the specimens were at first
impregnated and thermally modified afterwards. In general, resistance to UV-light, as demonstrated by
visual observation and by colour measurements was increased. Contact angle of water, liquid water
absorption, and water vapour sorption also importantly influence on weathering behaviour of wood and
it was shown that in general, impregnation with TiO2 particles has a positive influence with this
respect. Anyway, some results of this preliminary research were ambiguous, and subsequent
investigations of this novel protection method are needed and planned.
Key words: beech wood; thermal modification; impregnation with TiO2; UV-protection.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal modification (TM) of wood improves its properties, for instance dimensional stability
and resistance to wood-decay fungi or wood boring insects. Thermal modification (or thermal
treatment) of wood has become commercially important, the number of heat-treating companies is
increasing and commercialization of TM wood is growing (Esteves and Pereira 2009). Based on the
359
3
estimations of Sandberg (2019), there is approximately 500.000m of TM wood produced annually,
representing 50% of overall modified wood produced. At University of Ljubljana (Biotechnical Faculty)
the method of wood modification in intact vacuum was developed and has been commercialised (Rep
et al. 2012). TM wood retains as a natural product and the grain, original colour variances and
characteristics of the wood are still present. However, due to exposure to thermal treatment, wood
becomes darker (Bekhta and Niemz 2003, Esteves and Pereira 2009). TM wood is suitable for above
ground outdoor applications, however it is well known that it is susceptible to weathering. The problem
of photo-degradation of wood in the exterior has been a topic of numerous investigations (George et
al. 2005, Pandey 2005, Cogulet et al. 2018). Similarly to non-modified wood, exposure to UV- and
day-light causes greying of TM wood surfaces (Ayadi et al. 2003, Huang et al. 2012, Srinivas and
Pandey 2012). Some studies report that TM wood is more resistant to photo-degradation than
untreated wood (Ayadi et al. 2003, Nuopponen et al 2004) because heat treatment modifies
chromophoric lignin structure that may interfere with the light absorbing process. On the other hand,
there are quite many reports saying that TM wood is susceptible to photo-discolourations (Shen et al.
2018a, Tomak et al. 2018). Protection of wood against weathering has been extensively investigated
and the possibilities for anti-weathering improvement are well known. The most common approach is
to use wood coatings with UV-protecting additives, and the related reports can be found elsewhere
(George et al. 2005). With the emerging field of nanotechnology, various nanoscale protection
additives have also been intensively investigated (e.g. Saha et al. 2013, Rao et al. 2018). Among
other nano UV protecting particles, nano TiO2 has attracted considerable attention (Terzi et al. 2016,
Zanatta et al. 2017 etc.). The ways to protect TM wood in exterior exposure to weathering have also
been studied, but to a lesser extent than the protection of non-modified wood (Miklečić et al. 2017,
Shen et al. 2018a, Shen et al. 2018b). Application of nanoparticles for photo-protection of TM wood is
not an exempt, including the utilisation of nano TiO2 for protection purposes (Miklečić et al. 2017, Shen
et al. 2018a, Shen et al. 2018b).
Wood protecting formulations can be delivered to wood by various process, including vacuum
pressure impregnation, or just by immersing the specimens in the treatment formulation (Shen et al.
2018a). When dealing with TM wood, thermal modification can be carried out prior to impregnation
with the protective solution, but the process could be also reversed. If impregnation with anti-
weathering substances is performed, it is a question what would be the penetration depth of a
protective substance. Because photo-degradation of wood is a surface phenomenon (Pandey 2005),
the so called envelope treatment of wood appears to be an interesting option. The envelope treatment
is known from the field of wood protection to biological organisms (e.g. De Vetter et al. 2011,
Kotlarewski et al. 2019). Envelope treatment means that only a few mm thick protective envelope is
created around the treated wood piece and the rest remains non-impregnated.
Improvement of anti-weathering performance of TM wood by TiO2 sol or/and paraffin emulsion
was considered in the paper of Shen and co-authors (2018a). Their approach was the immersion of
TM wood Scots pine wood in a TiO2 sol and in some cases also the creation of a hydrophobic
envelope on the specimens’ surfaces. In contrast, our investigations included pre-treatment of wood
with TiO2 nanoparticles prior to thermal modification. We were focused to common beech (Fagus
sylvatica L.) wood, because its economic importance is increasing (Husmann and Möhring 2017), and
because it is expected that its total growing stock may increase in the forests in Central Europe due to
the global climate change (Prislan et al. 2019).
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this preliminary research was to investigate if it is possible to increase
the resistance of TM beech wood to UV-light by a novel approach of vacuum-pressure impregnation of
TM beech wood specimens with a commercial TiO2 nanoparticle suspension, which is intended to be
used as an additive in coating formulations. The research was aimed also to check if the so called
envelope protection can be carried out and to evaluate some selected parameters of TM and
impregnated wood that are important during exterior applications.

The wood of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) was used to prepare the specimens of
50mm x 25mm x 15mm (longitudinal (L), semi-radial (SR), SR) for the majority of measurements, and
of 100mm x 100mm x 10mm (L, SR, SR) for determination of colour changes during exposure to UV-
light. For impregnation, a commercial aqueous dispersion of nano TiO2 was used (CCR 220 MN,
produced by Cinkarna Celje d.d., Celje, Slovenia). The nano particles in the dispersion were modified
360
in order to ensure high protection to UV-light. The original dispersions were diluted with water to 3%
final concentration of TiO2 and the additives in impregnating formulations. Several sets of the
specimens were prepared: control - untreated and non-modified wood, TM wood, wood that was
impregnated with the TiO2 dispersion, the specimens that were at first TM and impregnated
afterwards, and the samples that were impregnated at first, and TM subsequently. Impregnation was
performed by the vacuum pressure process, as follows: 15min in the dispersion, exposed to vacuum (-
0.8 bar = -80kPa), to pressure for 1 hour (10 bar = 1MPa), 15min in a vacuum (-0.8 bar), and 30min of
immersion at normal pressure. Than the samples were dried for 10 days at normal laboratory
conditions. Before further manipulations and measurements, the samples were dried for 24 hours at
(103±2)°C. The process of heat treatment in intact vacuum (Rep et al. 2012) was applied as the wood
modification method: the samples were in vacuum exposed for 30min at 35°C, then at 103°C (30min),
followed by exposure at 150°C (20min), at 170°C (20min), at 190°C (20min), and at 210°C for 3 hours.
Afterwards the samples were left to cool down to the normal room temperature in one day. Some
details of the specimen preparation are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Preparation of beech wood specimens
Type of TiO2 and concentration in Uptake of the treatment
Sample 3
the formulation (dry matter, in %) solution (g/cm )
Control (C) / /
Thermally modified (TM) / /
Non-modified – impregnated (IM) CCR 220 MN, 3 % 0.64
Thermally modified and
CCR 220 MN, 3 % 0.68
impregnated (TM-IM)
Impregnated and thermally
CCR 220 MN, 3 % 0.66
modified (IM-TM)
The following investigations were performed only after preparation of the specimens and not
after exposure to UV-light: SEM observation to investigate the influence of thermal modification on
wood structure and to evaluate penetration depth of the TiO2 particles and their form, size, and
positions within the wood structure; moisture content (MC) of the specimens after exposure to almost
100% relative air humidity for various times; uptake of liquid water (“long term water uptake”); capillary
uptake of water (“short term water uptake”), and dynamic contact angles CM on semi-radial surfaces.
Resistance to UV-light was followed by colour measurements.
SEM investigations: carried out with the FEI Quanta 250 SEM microscope (Hilsboro, Oregon,
U.S.A.), equipped with the Energy Dispersive X-ray spectrometer, at a working distance of 10mm (low
voltage (10kV), low vacuum (50Pa), a large field (LFD) or a circular backscatter (CBS) detector (for
EDAX).
MC of the specimens after exposure to almost 100% relative air humidity: the absolutely dry
specimens were put into a chamber with saturated humidity (98-100% relative humidity) for 1, 7, 14,
21, and 28 days. MC of wood was determined after each exposure period. The average values were
calculated from 5 individual results per each specimen type.
Uptake of liquid water: the long-term water uptake was determined gravimetrically after
immersion of the specimens in water for 1 and 24 hours and for 1 and 2 weeks. 6 parallel
measurements per each set of the specimens were carried out and the average values of absorbed
water calculated.
The short-term capillary water uptake tests were performed at room temperature (20°C) at a
relative humidity of (50 ± 5)%, on a Tensiometer K100MK2 device (Krüss, Hamburg, Germany). The
axial surfaces of the specimens (50mm × 25mm × 15mm) were positioned to be in contact with
distilled water and their masses were subsequently measured continuously every 2s for 200s. The
other parameters used were: velocity before contact 6mm/min, the sensitivity of contact 0.005g and
depth of immersion 1mm. 5 parallel measurements were performed in order to get the average values.
Dynamic contact angles of water: the Theta (Optical Tensiometer) CA goniometer from Biolin
Scientific Oy, Espoo - Finland was used to determine the CA of distilled water on the surfaces. When
the goniometer microscope was focused and adjusted on the image of the drop, it was ensured that
the CA on each side of the drop were approximately the same. The CA were measured by means of
computer-aided analysis (OneAttension, Version 2.4 (r4931), Biolin Scientific, Young−Laplace CA
analysis mode) of shapes of liquid drops, as observed in an optical goniometer and recorded by a
361
digital camera installed in the axial extension of the lens. The drops of about 4−6μL (the volumes were
calculated from images of drops) were applied by means of a dispenser. Image recording was set for
60s, and the time when CA started to be calculated (0s) was after detachment of the dispenser tip
from the drop, which happened approximately 4s after the first contact of the drop with a substrate.
The read-outs were taken for 15 pictures for different drops of water, and the arithmetic mean value
was reported. The measurements were taken at a constant temperature of 23°C.
UV irradiation (without exposure to water): the specimens were irradiated in a chamber with
one Osram Ultra-Vitalux 300W sunlamp, equipped with UV-A (315nm – 400nm) and UV-B (280nm -
315nm) radiation of 13.6W and 3W, respectively, at a distance of approximately 45cm. The irradiation
times were 24, 48, and 72 hours, and 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 days. After each exposure period, the
positions of the specimens were changed in order to ensure uniform irradiation.
Colour measurements: the colour of irradiated surfaces of the test samples was measured
with an X-Rite SP Series Spectrophotometer (X-Rite Incorporated, S.W. Grandville, Michigan, USA).
The reflection spectrum was acquired from a measuring spot of 14mm in 390nm – 710nm regions. Six
measurements at precisely defined spots on the irradiated surface of each sample (6 samples per one
set of specimens) were carried out after an interval of 50 hours throughout the experimental period.
The colour changes were monitored in the intervals listed previously (24, 48, and 72 hours, and 7, 14,
21, 28, and 35 days), with the help of L*, a* and b* parameters as per the CIE (Commission
Internationale de l’Eclairage) L*a*b* system. Then, the overall colour differences ΔE* were computed
using the following expression (Brock et al. 2000),
2 2 2 1/2
ΔE* = (ΔL* + Δa* + Δb* ) (1)
where: ΔL*, Δa*, and Δb* are the changes between the initial and the final values of L*, a* and b*,
respectively.

Moisture Content of Wood
EMC of untreated control beech wood reached the values even close to 44% (Fig. 1). These
are very high values, but similar ones can also be found in literature (Báder and Németh 2017). High
variation of EMC of the samples is the consequence of the fact that it is very difficult to condition the
samples close to the saturation due to problems with keeping the temperature stable enough to
achieve equilibrium in the over-hygroscopic relative humidity (RH) range (98–100% RH) (Thybring et
al. 2018). Impregnation with the TiO2 suspension decreased this value to about 28%. As could be
expected (Olek et al. 2012) thermal modification significantly reduced the EMC of wood, regardless of
impregnation with TiO2, to the values between 17% and 19%.
Uptake of Liquid Water and Capillary Uptake of Water

Uptake of water during the submersion test is in Fig. 2 presented in absolute values, but the
results are comparable because the specimens were of the same dimensions. As in the case of water
vapour uptake into the samples kept in the water-saturated atmosphere, the uptake of liquid water was
the smallest one and comparable into all three types of TM wood (TM, TM-IM, and IM-TM). The
uptake was higher in the case of control untreated beech wood and the highest one when beech wood
was impregnated with the TiO2 suspension. Also in the case of the short-term capillary water uptake
test, the uptake of water was expectedly the lowest one into the TM specimens (Fig. 3), and only
slightly higher into untreated beech wood. However, distinctively higher was the capillary uptake of
water into beech wood, impregnated with TiO2. During the experiment it was clearly seen that the
uptake is of water is high and fast: in the region of the capillary uptake, the samples looked wet and
became heavily distorted (insert in Fig. 3). At the moment we do not have an explanation for such
behaviour, but it might be connected to the TiO2 deposits in the vessels forming new capillaries
influencing short water uptake (see Fig. 5).
Contact Angles of Water

CA of water on untreated wood were around 80° (Fig. 4) and impregnation with TiO2 as well
as thermal modification made the specimens hydrophobic. In addition, impregnated and TM wood
were hydrophobic with CA somewhat above 120°. However, due to unexplained reasons, the CA of
water were low, only about 40° on the specimens that were TM and afterward impregnated with titania
suspension.
362
Fig. 1.
Moisture content in control and treated beech wood specimens after exposure to almost 100 %
relative air humidity for 1 to 28 days.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Uptake of water during the Short-term capillary water uptake. In the insert, there is
submersion test. the IM sample immediately after the test.
Fig. 4.
Contact angles of water on variously treated specimens.
TiO2 in Wood
The thickness of the samples was 10mm and the SEM micrographs and EDAX analyses
showed (Fig. 5) that the TiO2 particles were present in impregnated, TM and impregnated, and
impregnated and TM samples at all distances from the surface. Therefore, we cannot talk here about
envelope treatment. In continuation of the research, it is planned to impregnate larger samples and to
change the impregnation parameters with the aim to impregnate only the envelopes. However, it
should be considered that beech wood has rather good permeability. At refractory wood species
smaller penetration is expected. As can be also seen in Fig. 6, TiO2 was present in cell lumens in the
form of micrometer size scale (roughly between 1μm to 50μm) and not in the nanometer scale. This
means that during the impregnation process or later, during drying, agglomeration of the particles
363
occurred in the lumens. Nevertheless, titania retained its UV-protective efficacy, as demonstrated in
Figs. 6 and 7.
Fig. 5.
SEM micrographs of the specimens. The magnifications were 50x (IM-TM in the third row), 100x
(C and IM in the first row, and TM and TM-IM in the third row) and 1000X (all other
micrographs). The inserted graph is showing a typical EDX spectrum taken on the particles in
the vessels.
Visual Appearance of the Specimens and Colour Changes
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
Visual appearance of beech wood (C), Colour changes of variously treated
impregnated (IM), thermally modified (TM), specimens after exposure to UV light for 1 to
impregnated and thermally modified (IM-TM), 35 days.
and thermally modified and impregnated
samples (TM-IM) before (upper row) and after
35 days of exposure to UV-light (bottom row).
The visual appearance of all specimen types before exposure to UV-light and after exposure
for 35 days is presented in Fig. 6. The specimens were not exposed to water, which can accelerate
effects of UV-light (Cogulet et al. 2018) and can cause leaching of TiO2 (Shen et al. 2018b).
Impregnation of beech wood with the suspension of TiO2 resulted in its improved resistance to colour
364
changes imposed by UV-light. On the other hand, the situation with TM wood was somewhat different.
Impregnation of TM samples with the titania suspension caused the samples to become lighter (last
two samples in the upper row), and also exposure to UV-light resulted in their lightness. Anyway, it
seems that the samples that were at first TM and afterwards impregnated performed the best among
all three types of modified wood. Detailed analysis of colour changes is presented in Fig. 7. The
response of the samples in terms of colour changes was pretty much the same in the cases of non-
impregnated and non-modified (control) wood and of impregnated and subsequently TM wood. It
seems that the process of thermal modification induced the loss of the protective efficacy of TiO2 and
the reasons for such performance should be investigated in further studies. TM wood exhibited the
lowest ΔE* value, similarly as in some other studies (Ayadi et al. 2003, Nuopponen et al. 2004),
reporting that TM wood is more resistant to photo-degradation than untreated wood. The protective
effect of TiO2 on UV resistance of non-modified wood was obvious, and we could not detect any
essential negative impacts on UV resistance of TM wood, as was the case at IM-TM220. Finally, it has
to be noted, that the values of ΔE* only are misleading when we think of the visual colour impression.
For instance, in Fig. 6 it looks like the sample TM-220 performed better than the TM wood (TM), but
the ΔE* values (Fig. 7) show just the opposite. However, the colour itself is not a sufficient measure of
photo-degradation. In order to fully elucidate this phenomenon, other methods (FT-IR, roughness
determination,…) will be applied in our future investigations.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this preliminary research demonstrated that it is possible to impregnate beech
and thermally modified beech wood with the TiO2 nanoparticle suspension, commercially intended to
be a UV protective coating additive. In all types of impregnated specimens, TiO2 formed 1-50μm large
agglomerates in cell lumens. TiO2 in wood exhibited UV protective efficacy. During outdoor exposure,
weathering performance of wood is importantly influenced also by the wood – water or wood – water
vapour relationships and in general, after treatment, the specimens became more hydrophobic and
the liquid water absorption was decreased. It is believed that the results are promising enough to
continue our initial research of protection of beech and thermally modified beech wood with vacuum-
pressure impregnation with commercial TiO2 suspensions, currently used as UV-protective additives in
coatings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research
program funding No. P4–0015, “Wood and lignocellulose composites”).
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NANOFILM FORMATION BY SOL-GEL PROCESSES FOR PROMOTING

ADHESION OF FURNITURE COATINGS
*
Hadi GHOLAMIYAN 0F

Department of Wood and Paper Science & Technology, Karaj, Iran
Tel & Fax: 0098 263 2249311, E-mail: Hadi_gholamiyan@ut.ac.ir
Asghar TARMIAN
Department of Wood and Paper Science & Technology, Karaj, Iran
Tel & Fax: 0098 263 2249311
Carsten MAI
University of Göttingen, Institute of Wood Biology and Technology
Büsgenweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
Abstract
In this paper, the potential use of Nanofilm formation by sol-gel processes for improving the
adhesion properties of furniture coatings was evaluated. The sol-gel treatment was primer-coated and
solvent and waterborne was top-coated on wood surface. Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) and
glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GLYMO) served as sol-gel materials. In order to characterize the
quality of the coatings, contact angle, tensile adhesion (Pull off), CLSM and XPS tests were performed
before and after weathering. The highest tensile adhesions were found for the combined nanofilm with
polyurethane coatings. The silane nanofilm materials improved the adhesion strength and the XPS
analysis demonstrated that the wood surface was covered with silicon oxides (SiO2) attached to
hydrocarbon chains.
Key words: nanofilm; adhesion; furniture; wood; coating.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is hygroscopic material containing hydroxyl groups and sensitive to humidity and
temperature. Adhesion failure between wood and coating is one of the major causes of coating
failures. From a theoretical point of view, liquid coating is partly absorbed by capillary forces and the
adhesion is the result of surface energy action and a wetting process at the wood-coating interface
(Pecina and Paprzycki 1995). In general, water-borne coating has much lower adhesion strength than
solvent-borne one, probably due to some differences in the coating penetration or in swelling stresses
(Meijer and Militz 1998). Typically, priming film is a good choice to increase surface energy and to
improve adhesion of a coating. Recently, sol-gel processes have been developed to improve
resistance properties of wood against moisture and UV irradiation (Bücker et al. 2003; Tshabalala et
al. 2003; Donath et al. 2004, 2006; Tshabalala and Sung 2007; Lu et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2013;
Tshabalala et al. 2011). The sol-gel process allows deposition of hybrid inorganic–organic thin films
also on wood at room-temperature. Tshabalala and Sung (2007) claimed that sol-gel deposits can be
tailored to enhance not only moisture and UV resistance, but also color stability of wood surfaces.
Wang et al. (2011) developed super hydrophobic wood surfaces in a two-step process: (1) preparation
of silica coatings on the wood surface by a sol-gel process; (2) fluorination treatment of silica coatings
with the surface modifying agent of POTS (perfluoroalkyltriethoxysilanes). Nano-sized precursors
derived from tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) were also helpful in sol-gel processes to get inorganic-wood
composites with improved properties (Bücker et al. 2003). Donath et al. (2004) and Pries and Mai
(2013) applied sols derived from different silanes, TEOS, methyl triethoxysilane (MTES), and propyl
trimethoxysilane (PTEO) in the course of sol-gel processes. These treatments improved significantly
the anti-swelling efficiency (ASE), decaying fungi and moisture uptake. Mahltig et al. (2008) also
pointed out the need to improve the weathering resistance of coating in outdoor application. The sol-
gel technology proved also of value in case of polyesters and textiles (Chou and Cao 2003; Xu et al.
2005; Montarsolo et al. 2013). However, there is a little information about the potential of this
*
367
technique for improving adhesion strength of coatings on wood. Rasmussen et al. (2014) used
titanium-based coupling agent (titanium agent, TA) to improve adhesion properties of wood coating by
employing sol–gel route. Jamali and Evans (2008) showed that aluminum isopropoxide as sol-gel
precursor is able to improve surface adhesion of a water-borne coating to oil-thermal-treated wood.
OBJECTIVE
The main purpose of the present study is to examine how the adhesion strength of alkyd and
polyurethane coatings can be improved by silane nanofilm formation by means of the sol-gel approach
for furniture coatings.

Wood
3
Norway spruce wood (Picea abies L.) samples measuring 20 × 100 × 150 (T × R × L) mm
were prepared. The samples were ultrasonically washed with acetone (50%), ethanol (25%) and
deionised water (25%) for 5min and stored in a conditioning room at 65% relative humility (RH) at
20°C until they reached equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of 12%.
Coating materials
Sol-gel materials [tetraethoxysilane, TEOS) and glycidoxypropyl-trimethoxysilane (GLYMO)]
were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. Waterborne polyurethane manufactured was obtained from
Bona Mega Co. Solvent-borne coatings, including polyurethane and alkyd were prepared by Pars
Eshen Co. The diagram of coating stages is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
The diagram of wood coating stages.
Sol-gel process and coating methods.

First, the wood samples were coated with mixture solution of 90ml ethanol, 10ml TEOS, 10ml
4
deionized water, and 10ml NH OH. Then, the coated samples were maintained in the ambient
temperature for 6h. After that, the wood surfaces were washed by deionized water twice, blown to dry
2
by N and dried in an oven at 60°C for 12h. A similar sol-gel process was also applied with GLYMO.
Twelve different coating systems ─ as shown in Table 1 ─ were investigated. A 200µm wet pre-cure
coating layer was generated by an automatic film applicator at the speed of 150mm s-1. All coatings
were dried into a climate chamber (25°C and 65% RH) for about one day. Polyurethane and alkyd
(solvent borne) coatings were diluted by a thinner before application. Each treatment was repeated on
10 samples.
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Table 1
Guide for treatments. TEOS tetraethoxysilane; GLYMO glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane;
c. coating; PU polyurethane
Coating
type Coating materials
Control None
T sol-gel c. with TEOS
G sol-gel c. with GLYMO
AS solvent-borne alkyd
PS solvent-borne PU
PW water-borne PU
TAS sol-gel c. TEOS + solvent-borne PU
TPS sol-gel c. TEOS + solvent-borne PU
TPW sol-gel c. TEOS + water-borne PU
GAS sol-gel c. GLYMO + solvent-borne PU
GPS sol-gel c. GLYMO + solvent-borne PU
GPW sol-gel c. GLYMO + water-borne PU
METHOD:
Contact angle (CA)
The wetting behavior of coated samples conditioned at 65% RH and 20°C was characterized
by the contact angle (CA) method (goniometer technique).The CA values were determined with a KSV
Cam-101 Scientific Instrument (Helsinki, Finland). Initial CA is defined as the angle measured within
40s after a test probe is deposited on the wood surface.
Pull-off test
Pull-off adhesion testing of coatings was performed according to the procedure described in
ASTM D 4541, with a pulling speed of 0.5mm min-1. The dollies of 20mm diameter were degreased
by acetone and then glued to the surface of the coated surface with a two-component epoxy based
adhesive. After adhesive curing, a testing apparatus was attached to the loading fixture until the
coating material had detached from the wood surface.
Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)

A Keyence model VK-9700 instrument was employed to characterize the topographic profiles before
and after coating. The measurement was carried out with 18,000 x magnification and 0.001µm
precision. The microscope performs a variety of non-contact 3D measurements that include surface
profile, roughness, 3D and other comparative measurements.
XPS analysis
XPS analysis was performed by PHI Quantum 2000 Scanning Spectrometer equipped with a
nonmonochromatic AlKK α X-ray source operating at 300W (15kV, 20mA). Charge neutralization was
performed by an electron filament and an electron gun. The pass energy was 117.4eV and 23.5eV for
low and high resolution, respectively. Spectral deconvolution was performed by the Spectra Data
Processor Version 2.3 (curve-fitting software). The composition was calculated from the survey
spectra based on the sum of all peaks after scaling equal to 100%. The spectra fitting and component
analysis were performed based on the high-resolution spectra.

Sol-gel reactions
As illustrated below, sol-gel deposition consists of several steps, which begin with the
hydrolysis of alkoxy groups by bound water within the wood cell wall and leads to the formation of free
silanols and alcohol. The silanols undergo condensation and form polysilanols, which then fixed to
wood surface via hydrogen bonds. Upon heating, these surface hydrogen bonded polysilanols lose
water resulting in covalent bonds to the wood surface.
(1) Si - [OC2H5]4 + 4 H2O → Si – (OH)4 + 4 C2H5OH
(2) Si – (OH)4 + Si - [OC2H5]4 → ≡ Si-O-Si ≡ +4 C2H5OH
(3) Si – (OH)4 + Si – (OH)4 → ≡ Si-O-Si ≡ +4 H2O
369
Sol-gel treatment may strengthen the surface layer, which leads to reduce cohesive failure of
the wood surface. Also, the sol-gel layer on the surface of wood acts as a barrier and reduces the
migration of low molecular weight compounds from the bulk wood to the surface and this improves the
adhesion of alkyd and polyurethane coatings to the wooden substrate. Silanol groups may also react
to isocyanate groups onto polyurethane coating or results in hydrogen bonds with the alkyd coatings.
Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)

The surface roughness values (Sa) for each coating are listed in Table 2. After coating, the Sa
values decreased; however, the smoothest surfaces were obtained with nanosol, while the existing
cavities were filled. Based on CLSM micrographs, the control sample (25.9) and PS coating (12.4)
exhibited the highest and lowest Sa parameters. The silica component of nanosol covered the whole
wooden surface homogeneously, while other coatings deposited preferentially in surface depressions.
Table 2
The surface roughness variables (Sa) for coated specimens
and their adhesion assessment by cross-cut-tests
Coating
Sa
type
Control 25.9 ±4.1
T 22.6 ±5.5
G 24.4 ±6.2
AS 13.3±2.2
PS 12.4±3.1
PW 17.2±2.5
TAS 15.7±3.3
TPS 14.7±1.9
TPW 18.6±4.7
GAS 19.7±1.1
GPS 19.4±6.5
GPW 20.3±7.1
Figures 2 show LSCM surface images in 3D profiles. The average roughness values of
control, sol-gel coating with TEOS (T), sol-gel coating TEOS + water-borne PU (TPW), and water-
borne PU (PW) were quite different with Sa data of 25.9 and 23.5, 18.06, and 14.3µm, respectively.
Fig. 2.
LSCM micrographs of different coatings.
370
Adhesion test
The adhesion strengths obtained by pull-off adhesion test are presented in Figure 3, where
the data vary between 1.5 and 3.9MPa, depending on the coating and substrate types. Improvement
in adhesion by 70 to 90% was found for coatings obtained by sol-gel pretreatment. TPW coating
showed even greater improvements. Altogether, the sol-gel coating has a pronounced effect on
coating. O'Leary (2006) also found that silanes are especially effective in improving recovery of
adhesion for some coatings. The surface of dollies after pull-off tests shows three different types of
topography (Nelson et al. 1995; Bullett and Prosser 1972). The first and second types are cohesive
fracture (smooth dolly surface) and cohesive fracture in the substrate (rough dolly surface). In the third
type, the substrate/coating adhesion fracture with a very smooth dolly surface can be observed. In the
present study, the best case ‘cohesive fracture in the substrate’ was observed for the four categories
of pulled dollies.
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
Adhesion (MPa)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
AS PS PW TAS TPS TPW GAS GPS GPW
Coating
Fig. 3.
Adhesion strength (pull-off) of different coatings.
This could be explained by good bonding between (1) coating layers in one case and (2) wood
surface/coating in another. Figures 4a, b refers to the fracture theory. Figure 7a shows that surface of
dollies after pull-off test is very smooth, indicating the surface adhesion of waterborne polyurethane
coating. In contrast, the surface is rougher in Figure 4b with the attached wood layer. The spreading
and penetration of sol-gel coating is more efficient. All adhesion strength values of sol-gel coatings
containing nanosilica were higher than those of other coatings. It seems that the surface modification
of silica nanoparticles, which increases the number of acrylate functions and consequently the number
of reactive groups, is responsible for these results. Thus, adhesion depends on the porosity properties
of the wood substrate and also on rheological properties of the liquid coating.
Fig. 4.
Photograph of
adhesion (pull-off)
test.
371
Wettability
The results of wettability tests are listed in Figure 5. Only the sol-gel coatings show
hydrophilicity. The effectiveness of sol-gel treatment was verified through contact angel (CA) tests.
The wettability of wood decreased by all coating systems (Figure 5), except T and G. Similar findings
were observed in some previous studies (Chou and Cao 2003; Chan et. al. 2000). Cireli et al. (2006)
reported that plasma and sol-gel treatments have been widely used for polymer surface treatment to
improve wetting properties. The CA of control sample dropped from 74º to 30º after 40s and that of T
and G from 78º to 0º after 27s and 77º to 0º after 36s, respectively. PS, TPS, and TPS exhibited the
highest CAs after coating. For control sample, the CA change was larger than 44º in a wetting period
of 40s but for PS, the CA change was 4º in a wetting period of 40s. For all coatings, the static CA was
in a decreasing function of wetting time.
PS
GPS
80 TPS
AS
TAS
GAS
TPW
Contact angle (degree)
PW
60 GPW
40
Control
20
T G
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (s)
Fig. 5.
Contact angle of water drops on different coatings.
Surface chemistry by XPS

The XPS elemental composition and the concentrations of C1–C4 components from C1s high
resolution spectra of the specimens are summarized in Table 3. The data demonstrate significant
changes in the surface chemistry.
Table 3
Surface chemistry of control and sol-gel treatment (T and G) measured by XPS
C1 C2 C3 C4
Samples C O Si (%) (%) (%) (%)
Control 75.1 24.9 ˂0.1 61.1 25.5 6.9 6.3
Sol-gel (T) 31.9 49.1 19.0 76.9 13.6 4.2 5.2
Sol-gel (G) 44.3 40.7 15.1 84.8 12.3 2.1 1.9
The silicon content of the sol-gel coated specimens was approximately 19% (T) and 15.1%
(G), whereas practically no silicon was observed on the control specimens. The surface carbon
content of sol-gel treated specimens decreased 43% (T) and 31% (G). On the other hand, the oxygen
content increased by 24% (T) and 16% (G). The decrease in the surface carbon content indicates that
the coated wood surfaces are completely covered by the sol–gel coatings. Figures 6a and 6b show
representative XPS survey C1s spectra. C1 corresponds to carbon linked to hydrogen or carbon (–C–
H or –C–C), C2 to carbon linked to one oxygen (–C–O), C3 to carbon linked to two non-carbonyl
oxygen atoms (–O–C–O–), or one carbonyl oxygen (–C=O), and C4 to carbon linked to carbonyl and
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non-carbonyl oxygen (O=C–O–). The high resolution XPS spectra show that both sol-gel coatings led
to a decrease of the C2–C4 components of the C1s peaks (Figure 6b). The increase in the surface
concentration of the C1 component, from 75.1% (control) to 31.9% (T) and 44.3% (G), is evidence of
the presence C-C and C-H structures arising from the hydrocarbon chains of the coatings. A decrease
in the intensity of the C2 component of the C1s peak (Fig. 6b) is consistent with the presence of C-O-
Si or O-C-Si linkages. The decrease in the surface concentration of the C2 component from 25.5%
(control) to 13.6% (T) and 12.3% (G) is evidence of the presence of C-O-Si structures, while the C3
and C4 components are decreasing.
Fig. 6.
C1s high-resolution spectrum of control and so-gel treatment specimen.
CONCLUSIONS
The sol-gel derived hybrid inorganic–organic thin film was shown to enhance the adhesion
strength of coatings to wood surface. New composite coatings were prepared by mixing pre-
hydrolyzed tetraethoxysilane (T) sol and glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (G) under specific conditions.
The heating phase was neglected during the condensation stage of sol-gel process and coating
materials (alkyd and polyurethane) were applied, instead. Consequently, the adhesion of coatings was
improved due to the increased wettability and some additional changes in the surfaces chemistry. On
the whole, it can be concluded that T and G sol-gel coatings are effective promoters for hydrophilicity
and adhesion. However, the adhesion of water- and solvent-borne coatings in outdoor applications
needs further investigation.
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IMPROVEMENT OF PLASMA TREATMENT EFFICIENCY OF WOOD AND

COATING PROCESS BY SODIUM CHLORIDE AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Jure ŽIGON
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty – Department of Wood Science and Technology
University of Ljubljana – Plasma Center
Rožna dolina c. VIII/34, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Tel: +386 1 320 3612, E-mail: jure.zigon@bf.uni-lj.si
Sebastian DAHLE
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty – Department of Wood Science and Technology
University of Ljubljana – Plasma Center
Rožna dolina c. VIII/34, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: sebastian.dahle@bf.uni-lj.si
Abstract
The results of this study showed that the appearance of discharge during treatment of wood
with plasma highly depends on density distribution along the cross section of wood. By increasing the
distance between the insulated high voltage electrode and substrate´s surface, the plasma streamers
become more and more present in the regions of denser latewood, and at the some point these
completely disappear. Modification of wood with differently concentrated NaCl aqueous solutions lead
to an increased availability of ions, which improved the hydrophilic nature of wood surfaces and
enhanced the effect of treatment of wood surface with plasma, making them even more susceptible to
interact with water. However, the modification of wood with salt negatively affected on adhesion
strength of applied commercial water-based coating. Further experimental work is planned to
determine other dielectric properties of wood modified with NaCl, as well as detailed diagnostics of the
discharges during plasma treatment.
Key words: atmospheric plasma; wood; coatings; sodium chloride.
INTRODUCTION
Wood coatings are used to protect the surface against photochemical deterioration and to
maintain its desired appearance. But a proper preparation of the wood surface before the coating
process is essential. For example, Suleman and Rashid (1999) reported that an improved protection
of wood against deterioration can be improved by modification with various inorganic treatments prior
to coatings applied. Another method for surface activation and enhanced wettability of lignocellulosic
materials are electrical discharges (Chu et al. 2002; Žigon et al. 2018), and cold atmospheric plasma
sources are the most useable due to their high productivity and low costs (Avramidis et al. 2010). The
plasma treatment (PT) process causes physical-chemical transformations on the substrate’s surface,
where enhanced interactions with applied liquids are the most beneficial (Král et al. 2015).
Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) plasma is a special type of cold plasma, which can be used
for treatment of wood surfaces (Žigon et al. 2018). Here, the substrate is placed in-between two high
voltage electrodes, both connected to source of alternating current high voltage (AC-HV). A metal
electrode is covered with a dielectric barrier preventing the formation of an arc discharge, excessive
heat transfer, and thermal damage of the material (Kogelschatz 2003). The discharge is stable and
more or less homogenous by smaller distances between the insulated electrode and substrates
surface (i.e. gap distances) (Rehn and Viöl 2003). Space charges in the discharge gap generate many
micro discharge channels (filaments or streamers), with typical diameters being 0.1 mm (Conrads and
Schmidt 2000).
Beside the properties and conditions in plasma reactor, the appearance and other properties
of the plasma discharge are highly dependent on the substrate’s inherent properties (De Cademartori
et al. 2015), including its dielectric properties.
The knowledge and studies of the electrical and dielectric properties of wood are essential for
its efficient use in many engineering applications (Şahin and Ay 2004, Şahin Kol 2009): the processes
and the application of electrical energy for heating, drying, and gluing of wood, as well as for
diagnostic purposes, e.g. measuring the moisture content and thickness of lumber, detecting defects,
checking strength characteristics, estimating surface roughness by a nondestructive electrical
measurement (Kabir et al. 1998; Skider et al. 2009; Zhou et al. 2013), and products like crossarms
376
and poles for high voltage powerlines (Simpson and TenWolde 1999). Dielectric properties of a porous
material like wood are affected by porosity, fiber direction, orientation of the electric field with respect
to the structure, temperature, and air humidity (Norimoto 1976, Torgovnikov 1992, Duchow and
Gerhardt 1996; Daian et al. 2005, Koubaa et al. 2008, Pentoś et al. 2017; Konopka et al. 2018).
However, the main parameter influencing the conductivity of wood is the quantity of water in wood
(Razafindratsima et al. 2017), which varies largely especially below the fiber saturation point (Simpson
and TenWolde 1999, Romanov 2006, Otten et al. 2017).
When wood contains water-soluble salts or other electrolytic substances, its electrical
conductivity substantially increases (Simpson and TenWolde 1999). Sodium chloride (NaCl) has been
investigated as a protective agent against insecticidal and fungicidal effects. It was found that
modification of wood by immersing it in a salt solution produces a surface protection. In the upper
hygroscopic region, it also significantly influences the moisture content of wood, depending on the
concentration and properties of impregnation solution (Hertel 1996; Lesar et al. 2009, Pařil and Dejmal
2014). Lesar and co-workers (2009) assumed that after modification of wood with NaCl, crystals are
deposited in the cell walls and lumens, while the absorbed and free water in wood act as a solvent.
OBJECTIVE
In a previous study (Žigon et al. 2019), it was noticed that larger gap distances and
unchanged energy supply resulted in visually more non-homogenous discharges and in streamers
becoming more frequently present in the regions of latewood. Further increasing the gap distance
reduced the number of streamers and the discharge volume, which eventually ceased completely.
The main objective of the present research was to evaluate the influence of the gap distance
between the insulated HV electrode and the wood surface as well as the distribution of early and
latewood on samples cross section on formation and intensity of the discharge. Presumably, the
discharge appearance is greatly dependent on these factors.
As reported by Lima et al. (2017), an increase of NaCl concentration in aqueous solutions
+
leads to a decrease of the pH and increased availability of ions H . This is most probably the reason
that the dielectric constant of wood increases with the increase percentage on NaCl incorporated in its
structure (Skider et al. 2009). Further, the equilibrium moisture content of wood increases with higher
salt contents (Lesar et al. 2009), which is a major factor for the dielectric parameter of the material
(Torgovnikov 1992). Therefore, this lead us to the second part of this study, which is presented in
Figure 1. Firstly, spruce and beech wood were modified with application of differently concentrated
aqueous solutions of NaCl to improve the appearance of the plasma discharge. The efficiency of such
a process was evaluated via contact angles of water and of surface protective coating with modified
and treated wood surfaces.
Fig. 1.
Schematic presentation of research objective.

Samples of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)
wood with dimensions of 60 × 30 × 15 were used in this study. All analyses in this study were
performed on the samples surfaces with radial orientation of wood fibres. Samples were conditioned
and stored at a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%.
Solutions of NaCl (purity ≥ 99.5%, Honeywell, Charlotte, USA) in deionized water of five
different concentrations (Table 1) were prepared and properly mixed until completely dilution of the
solute. Wood samples were impregnated by dipping them in the solution for 3s.
377
The surface of each individual sample was treated using a Floating Electrode DBD plasma in
air at atmospheric pressure (c.f. Žigon et al. 2019). The power supply delivered a peak voltage of
15kV at a frequency of 5kHz. The distance between the dielectrics was set to 5mm, the gap distance
–1
to 1 mm and the samples were fed at a moving rate of 3mm s .
Table 1
Description of the NaCl aqueous solutions used in study
Designation m NaCl [g] m H2O [g] Mass fraction [%] pH value
0 0 100 0.00 5.68
1.8 1.8 100 1.77 6.17
3.6 3.6 100 3.47 6.11
7.2 7.2 100 6.72 5.60
18 18 100 15.25 5.53
36 36 100 26.47 4.3
Study of discharge appearance

Discharge appearance, i.e. intensity of the discharge and distribution of plasma streamers,
was observed with a Nikon D5600 (Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) photo camera (exposure time 1/20s, f5.6,
ISO 5600). The intensity of light along the discharges were studied with function of grey scale with Fiji
software (ImageJ 1.46d, Maryland, USA).
Water contact angle (WCA) measurements

WCAs of droplets of deionized water were measured using a Theta optical goniometer (Biolin
Scientific Oy, Espoo, Finland). Water droplets with a volume of 5μL were applied on 6 different places
of the radial surface on the each sample and the dynamic changes of their apparent CA were
measured by Young-Laplace analysis using the software (OneAttension version 2.4 [r4931], Biolin
Scientific), within 63s (1.9 images per second). Measurement started when the droplet was separated
from the dispenser, which occurred approximately 2s after the first contact of the drop with the
samples surface. In the case of PT samples, the measurements of CA were performed immediately
after plasma treatment to avoid the effects of ageing.
Determination of colour changes

Colour of the samples’ surfaces were measured using spectrophotometer X-Rite (USA) SP62
with the D65 type of light. Colour measurements were performed before and after modification with
NaCl aqueus solutions, as well as after PT process performed, to monitor their colour changes after
particular step of surface preparation. Total colour changes of samples surfaces (ΔE*) after each step,
in comparison to previous one, were calculated according to equation (1):
∆E * = (∆L* ) 2 + (∆a * ) 2 + (∆b * ) 2 , (1)
where: the parameters ΔL*, Δa* in Δb* represent the changes between initial and end value of L*
(luminosity), a* (red-green) and b* (yellow-blue) coordinates in CIELAB colour space.
Formation and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of the coating systems, adhesion
strength measurements
3
Four types of larger specimens of beech wood species with dimensions of (300 × 75 × 3) mm
were prepared: Control, control-PT, NaCl impregnated, and NaCl impregnated-PT. On prepared
samples, a 240µm thick film of water-based commercial coating (Belinka Interier, Belinka Belles,
d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia) was manually applied with a quadruple coating applicator.
The wood surface-coating interface was studied on the cross section of samples B-18 and B-
36 with scanning electron microscope (SEM, FEI Quanta 250, FEI, Hillsboro, Oregon, USA). The
micrographs were taken at 100 × and 500 × magnifications in a low vacuum (50Pa), at a voltage of
10.0kV, a spot size of 3.0, and a beam transition time of 45μs. Signals were detected and collected
with Circular Backscatter Detector (CBS) or Large Field Detector (LFD), to get different information
about the interfaces.
Adhesion of the coatings systems was evaluated by the pull-off tests of a coating films from
the substrates 21 days after application, according to the standard EN ISO 4246 (2016). On the
surface of each specimen in a series, 10 aluminium dollies with a diameter of 20mm were glued on the
coated wood surface with a two-component epoxy resin. After 24h of curing, the perimeters of the
378
glued dollies were carefully cleaned down to the substrate, to prevent propagation of failures out of the
tested area. The adhesion strengths of cured films were measured by using the pull-off testing
machine DeFelsko Positest adhesion tester (DeFelsko Corporation, Ogdensburg, USA) until the
separation of the dolly from the specimens’ surfaces occurred. Additionally, a proportion of cohesion
failure in a substrate was estimated.

Relation between the gap distance and discharge appearance
As shown in Figure 2, the appearance of streamers is in good relation with early- and
latewood distribution on the cross section of the treated sample. Darker regions of latewood (lower
grey value) have a higher density and usually also exhibit a higher electrical conductivity. Therefore,
the intensities of the discharge (higher grey values) are more pronounced in this regions.
It is also visible, that the distance between the insulated electrode and wood sample surface
influenced the discharge density and plasma streamer distribution. At higher gap distances, the
averaged grey values slightly decreased and the streamers were stronger localized, but seem to have
higher energies as indicated by higher intensities.
Fig. 2.
Distribution and intensity of the discharges [grey value/pixel] in dependence on beech
wood sample structure and gap distance [mm]: a) wood sample cross section, b) 0.35, c) 0.40,
d) 0.65, e) 1.00, f) 1.25, g) 1.45, h) 1.60.
Water droplet contact angle

The WCA decreased with increasing amount of NaCl on wood surfaces as depicted in Figure
3 and Figure 4. Additional PT made the substrates’ surfaces even more hydrophilic. For both wood
species, WCA were lower on non-impregnated PT surfaces than on impregnated surfaces without PT.
The lowest WCA were yielded on spruce wood modified with solution 7.2. On samples
modified with the most concentrated NaCl solution, a less homogenous PT with streamers strongly
localized on NaCl crystals might be the reason for slightly higher WCA.
379
On modified and PT beech wood surfaces, measured WCA were very low, because the
droplets could be observed only few seconds after deposition. Therefore, the differences between the
WCA on impregnated and PT beech wood surfaces are less well distinguishable.
Colour changes
The PT of control spruce and beech wood did not cause any changes to natural wood, which
is in good agreement with other publications (Asandulesa et al. 2010; Žigon et al. 2019). However,
after modification of samples with NaCl aqueous solutions, changes of colour, visible to the naked eye
(ΔE ≥ 1), could be found for both spruce and beech wood (Figure 5). The increment of total difference
of colour is correlated to the amount of NaCl present on the surfaces.
After PT, changes of surface colour became even more pronounced, again, in correlation with
increased amount of NaCl present on the surface. Specimen modified with the two highest NaCl
concentrations exhibited a number of burned spots after PT. This is a consequence of more localized
electric fields at NaCl crystals, leading to partial carbonization of the main wood chemical components.
Fig. 2.
Contact angles of water droplets, deposited on normal, modified and treated spruce samples.
Fig. 3.
Contact angles of water droplets, deposited on normal, modified and treated beech samples.
380
SEM analysis of the coating systems and their adhesion strength

The adhesion pull-off strength of coating films on coated beech samples predominantly
yielded adhesive-type fractures between substrate and coating film (Figure 6). Adhesion strength
decreased with increasing amount of NaCl presented on the surface. The reason for that could be that
crystals of NaCl poorly adhere to wood surface, presenting weakness spots in the interface between
wood surface and coating film. Additionally, their presence on the wood surface might also hinder the
penetration of the coating and therefore its sufficient mechanical anchoring. SEM micrographs of cross
section beech samples, modified with the two highest NaCl concentrations are shown in Figure 7. For
the highest NaCl concentration, salt crystals are visible in the wood-coating interface.
However, PT prior to coating application contributes to an increase of adhesion strength of the
cured film in comparison to the corresponding untreated specimen.
Fig. 5.
Colour difference of wood specimen due to impregnation and PT.
Fig. 6.
Coating system adhesion strength on percentage of cohesive failure of wood on normal,
modified and PT beech wood.
381
Fig. 7.
SEM micrograph of wood surface-coating interface on B-18 and B-36 sample, detected with
CBS and LFD detector by different magnifications.
CONCLUSIONS
During the treatment of wood with DBD plasma, the shape and intensity of the discharge
depends on the materials’ electrical and dielectric properties. Intensities of the discharge are more
pronounced and localized over latewood due to its higher density, electrical conductivity, and dielectric
permittivity. This gets even more pronounced with increasing gap distance. Modification of spruce and
beech wood surface with NaCl aqueous solutions made it more hydrophilic. Additional treatment with
plasma additionally enhanced the wettability of modified surfaces with water. However, the NaCl
impregnation has a negative impact on coating film adhesion strength. Further, high concentrations of
NaCl and subsequent plasma treatment cause colour changes.
It was shown that introduction on Na and Cl ions into wood enhance the plasma treatment.
Detailed experimental work is planned to be done to determine dielectric properties of such modified
wood.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency
(research program funding No. P4–0015, “Wood and lignocellulose composites”).
This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme under grant agreement No 745936.
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Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Shaker: 16 p.
384
THE EFFECT OF A PEG TREATMENT ON DIFFERENT WOOD SPECIES
Emanuela BELDEAN
Tel: 0040 268 415315, E-mail: ebeldean@unitbv.ro
Maria Cristina TIMAR

Tel: 0040 268 415315, E-mail: cristinatimar@unitbv.ro
Abstract
The present research derived from the necessity to make furniture from small round wood
(different wood species were considered) and a serious problem of wood cracking occurred when
green wood is dried. Experiments were focussed on the PEG 4000 treatment, in low concentration in
water, for two types of wooden samples: round slices and small prismatic samples. The results are
satisfactory for round wood, indicating a smaller incidence of the cracks after drying for PEG treated
wood than untreated samples. The efficiency of PEG treatment on prismatic samples exposed to a
water immersion test (1, 2, 3, 24, 48, 72 hours) revealed a lower level of water absorption for PEG
treated samples than untreated. The dimensional changes in R and T directions were no significantly
improved. There are some improvements for PEG treated wood, but after 24h of immersion the
swelling of treated samples increased and tend to exceed the values for untreated. More research and
more investigation methods will be required to demonstrate the efficacy of treatment.
Key words: PEG treatment; dimensional stability; water absorption; swelling; wood species.
INTRODUCTION
A permanent challenge for wood industry sector is the responsible wood utilisation, that
requires an efficient industrial process (Cartwright 2008) and, consequently, a better knowledge of its
properties. In Romania and other parts of the world there is a growing demand for recycled solid wood
or for traditionally, rustic constructions made from round wood. The demand is also for hardwood and
softwood furniture, flooring and other products. Many interior and furniture applications today use the
natural aspects of wooden materials as a sales advantage (Nilsson 2015). The round wood, even
small-diameter category, is used especially for small objects, rustic decoration or small structures in
exterior environment. The exposure of wood to a natural drying process causes its shrinkage, cracking
and irreversible deformation. As result, the competitiveness of wood as an engineering material in
different application fields is diminished (Meints et al. 2018).
A series of international experiments revealed that timber treatment by polyethylene glycol
(PEG), also known as Carbowax (the tradename for PEG produced by Union Carbide in 1940), is a
good alternative to improve the quality of wood, especially dimensional instability (Stamm 1959, Ralph
2006). It is non-toxic (incorporated in food and cosmetics), water-soluble, can be used at room
temperature. Previous international experiences have shown that PEG with different molecular weight
have been used as bulking agent by completely replacing the water in the swollen cell walls.
Polyethylene glycol -1000 was one of the most used variant (Stamm 1959, Rowell 1987). It has been
heavily researched for its commercial applications as a stabiliser for green wood and it has remained
the most widely employed chemical by conservators of archaeological wood (Rowell 1987, Howlett
1988). It diffuses into the deteriorated wood, supporting and keeping it intact during drying. This is a
common problem in the conservation of waterlogged wood that is solved through the use of different
PEG solutions (400 and 4000) (Saeterhaug 2001). PEG 4000 is also used in different concentrations
and by various procedures for waterlogged wood, but some researches were unsatisfactory (Unger et
al. 2001).
The most significant draw backs to using PEG were the cost of the chemical, treatment time
required (days, months, even years) and the hygroscopicity of the compound. PEG has become a
contemporary chemical for timber hobbyists and use in small- and large-scale timber preservation
(Ralph 2006).
385
The present research started from the necessity to make furniture from small round wood
(different wood species were considered) and a serious problem of wood cracking occurred when
green wood is dried.
OBJECTIVE
The present experiments were focussed on the following objectives:
- To identify some opportunities for a simple treatment of green round wood (to be used for
furniture) to avoid the checking occurrence during the drying process and
- To evaluate the effect of PEG (polyethylene glycol) treatment on the dimensional
instability of some wood species and its efficiency
METHODOLOGY
A freshly cut green wood was used for research. The wood species were diverse and were
selected as commonly used species or less valuable species, with potential for furniture
manufacturing: pine (Pinus sylvestris), spuce (Picea abies), beech (Fagus sylvatica), oak (Quercus
robur), black alder (Alnus glutinosa), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and poplar (Populus spp.)
Two types of wooden samples were processed for experiments:
- Round wood slices of 2cm in thickness, 1 sample/species/test. Each sample was cut in
three parts: one third for moisture content determination, one third for PEG treatment and
the last as control, untreated.
- Small prismatic samples of (25x25x20) mm, corresponding to wood growing directions
(RxTxL), with parallel faces and without defects, 5-7 samples/species/test.
A set of samples (both round and prismatic samples) were previously weighed and oven dried
gradually following a slow drying schedule: 30°C for 3 hours, 50°C for 3 hours and finally at (103±2)°C
and the initial moisture content was determined.
The second set of wet samples was treated in a 4% solution (by weight) of PEG 4000 in water.
The moist wood was immersed in PEG solution for a period of 7 days at 20°C. In order to determine
the impregnation rate (G, %), before and after treatment the samples were weighted (the initial mass
Mi and mass after treatment Mt were determined) and then were dried according to the same slow
regime as the samples for moisture control. G was calculated according to formula below:
G = 100x (Mt-Mi)/Mi, % (1)
where: Mt- the mass of wood after treatment, in g; Mi- the initial mass of the sample, at initial MC, g.
The round wood was used to highlight the effect of PEG treatment for green wood
stabilisation, to keep it from cracking or splitting, respectively. The small samples were used to
determine the effect of PEG treatment on the dimensional stability. As result, in parallel, the untreated
(reference) and treated samples were exposed to a test of water immersion for a period of 1, 2, 3, 24,
48, 72, hours. After each interval of time the samples were weighted to determine the water absorption
in wood (WA) and measured in radial and tangential directions, in 5 points on the measuring
directions, in order to determine the swelling coefficients.

The experimental results are discussed for two types of samples and tests. The initial moisture
content of the seven species tested in this research is presented in Table 1. The origin of both types of
woods was not the same, as result the initial MC for pine and alder was higher than round wood.
Table 1
Initial MC (%) of the tested wood
Pine Spruce Beech Oak Black Hornbeam Poplar
Wood species
alder
Round wood 48.76 70.59 67.22 48.04 67.28 49.71 72.57
slices
Small prismatic 102.93 72.98 70.89 52.12 100.43 44.32 60.29
samples
First test of oven dried slices revealed a smaller incidence of cracks in PEG treated wood than
untreated samples. The visual assessment indicates visible improvements illustrated by the images
386
from figures below (Fig.1). Moreover, after PEG treatment and slow drying process beech, oak, and
alder have no visible checks on the surface. Only hornbeam presented some smaller, superficially
checks towards the pith of wood. The density of wood species is very important in relation with
moisture content and shrinkage phenomenon. As result, for pine, spruce and poplar no changes are
visible neither on the untreated samples nor on the treated ones.
Beech untreated Beech treated
Oak untreated Oak treated
Hornbeam untreated Hornbeam treated

Fig. 1.
The effect of PEG treatment on cracking phenomenon after drying (untreated vs. treated
samples; red marks indicate cracks or checks in wood).
Therefore, the performance of treatment depends upon a number of factors, such as the
anatomy of wood, density, the moisture content, thickness of the specimens.
In the second test the impregnation rate calculated as solution uptake (%) is given in graph
from Fig. 2.
The great PEG absorption for spruce could be explained by the large proportion of early wood
and the presence of large-diameter anatomic elements which provide flow of impregnation liquid.
Spruce and poplar absorbed a consistent quantity of solution in relationship with their smaller density
(>25% in poplar and >35% in spruce).
387
In some cases, the moisture content facilitated the movement of PEG solution into the wood
and the impregnation rate (alder). For other species (beech, oak, hornbeam) the absorption was
limited by wood structure.
45 Impregnation rate - PEG 4000
40
35
30
25
G, %
20
15
10
0
pine spruce beech oak alder hornbeam poplar
Fig. 2.
The impregnation rate of PEG 4000 calculated as percent of solution uptake.
The water immersion tests revealed a lower level of water absorption for PEG treated samples
than untreated (Fig. 3).
Water absorption- BEECH Water absorption- OAK

120 120
untreated untreated
100 100
PEG PEG
80 80
WA, %
WA, %
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
Immersion time, hours Immersion time, hours

Water absorption-ALDER Water absorption-HORNBEAM
120 120
100 untreated
100
80 PEG
80
untreated
WA, %
WA, %
60
PEG 60
40
40
20
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
Fig. 3.
The water absorption diagrams for the tested wood species (spruce is not presented),
untreated vs. PEG treated.
In this situation, a reduction with 26% to 3.5% of water absorption for treated samples,
according to the wood species and testing time were obtained. Nevertheless, with time immersion
increasing the effect of PEG treatment is reduced and WA for PEG treated samples tend to attain the
values of WA for untreated samples. An example of water absorption diagrams, and the
corresponding swelling evolution is presented for pine and poplar wood (Fig.4). The dimensional
changes in R and T directions were no significantly improved. As seen in Fig. 4, there are some
388
improvements for PEG treated wood, but after 24h of immersion the swelling for treated samples
increased and tend to exceed the values for untreated. Moreover, PEG remains water soluble. As
Rowell concluded (1987), PEG is not fixed in the wood and in contact with water it will start to leach
out. Some research found swelling values (e.g. for PEG 1000) impregnated pine independent on the
wood moisture content before (Meints et al. 2018). These conclusions are confirmed by the present
results. The moisture content before treatment was 102% for pine and 60% for poplar. The evolution
and the value of WA are quite different for these species, as seen in Fig 4.
Water absorption- PINE Water absorption- POPLAR

120 120
100 100
80 80
WA, %
WA, %
untreated untreated
60 60
PEG PEG
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

12,00
Total swelling-PINE R
T
10,00
8,00
α, %
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG
1h 2h 3h 24h 48h 72h
12,00
Total Swelling- POPLAR
10,00
R
T
8,00
α, %
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG untreated PEG
1h 2h 3h 24h 48h 72h
Fig. 4.
Water behaviour - an example for pine (IMC=102%) and poplar (IMC=60%),
untreated vs PEG treated wood.
Considering a recent study, Meints (2018) recommended use of lower molecular weight PEG
(<1000), for an efficient impregnation. In the present research the high molecular weight of PEG and
389
its low concentration possibly did not lead to an optimal impregnation to penetrate the cell wall.
Moreover, PEG 4000 is less hygroscopic, but its large molecules difficult penetrate the dense wood.
http://nautarch.tamu.edu/CRL/conservationmanual/File6.htm. In accordance with Ralph research
(2006), the different wood structure of species used in experiments could minimise the impregnation.
CONCLUSIONS
The present research demonstrated the limits of PEG 4000 impregnation in low concentration
for improving of dimensional instability. The treatment efficiency is not so evident because of
leachability of PEG in water. More research and more investigation methods will be required to
demonstrate the efficacy of treatment. Encouraging results were obtained for round wood treated with
PEG, but it could have a temporary modification of wood properties while drying green wood (Ralph
2006). Low molecular weight PEG (<1000) could be an useful aid to the practice of furniture
conservation (Howlett 1988), for treatment of panel paintings or other wood curved panels. In addition,
PEG treatment is recommended especially for timber with high dimensional stability requirements,
only when necessary and not for indoor use (Mitchell 1972).
REFERENCES
Cartwright D (2008) Responsible wood utilisation: definition and recommendation for its credible
advancement. Accessed at http://www.fao.org/3/XII/0343-A1.html.
Conservation of Roman Structural Timbers
Conservation of Roman Structural Timbers
Howlett FC (1988) The Potential for Glycol Treatments to Counteract Warpage in Wooden Objects
Accesed at http://www.wag-aic.org/1988/howlett88.pdf
Meints T, Hansmann C, Gindl-Altmutter W (2018) Suitability of Different Variants of Polyethylene
Glycol Impregnation for the Dimensional Stabilization of Oak Wood. Polymers 2018, 10, 81
doi:10.3390/polym10010081.
Mitchell HL (1972) How PEG helps the hobbyist who works with wood. US Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
Nilsson J, Johanss J (2015) Characteristics of un-barked small- dimensioned birch for furniture and
interior applications. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference Research for Furniture
Industry. September 2015, Turkey.
Ralph J (2006) Chemical treatment of backsawn Tasmanian Oak with Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) prior
to drying. PhD Thesis, School of Human Life Sciences University of Tasmania, Launceston
December, 2006.
Roar SÆTERH
Roar SÆTERH
Rowell RM, Konkol P (1987) Treatments that enhance physical properties of wood. Gen. Tech. Rep.
FPL-GTR-55. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory; 12 p.
Saeterhaug R, Turner-Walker G (2001) Conservation of Roman Structural Timbers Using the Two-
Step Method. Conference: 8th International Conference of the WOAM Working Group.
Stamm AJ (1959) Effect of Polyethylene glycol on The Dimensional Stability of Wood. Forest Products
Laboratory. Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Unger A, Schniewind AP, Unger W (2001) Conservation of wood artifacts. A Handbook. Springer, 405,
408. Accesed at https://books.google.ro/books
Using the Two-Step Method
Using the Two-Step Method
Wood conservation. Conservation manual. Accessed at:
http://nautarch.tamu.edu/CRL/conservationmanual/File6.htm
390
IMPORTANCE OF BEECH WOOD PRE-TREATMENT FOR IMPREGNATION WITH

MIMOSA TANNIN EXTRACT
Anna OBERLE
Department of Wood Science and Technology
Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Tel: 00420 545 134 029, E-mail: anna.oberle@mendelu.cz
Zuzana PASCHOVÁ
E-mail: zuzana.paschova@mendelu.cz
Gianluca TONDI
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences
Forest Products Technology & Timber Construction Department
Markt 136a, 5431 Kuchl, Austria
E-mail: gianluca.tondi@fh-salzburg.ac.at
Vladimír GRYC
E-mail: vladimir.gryc@mendelu.cz
Abstract
In this paper, the effect of beech wood pre-treatment on the industrial tannin extract fixation
efficiency after vacuum impregnation, was investigated. The temperature of wood drying was set at
60°C for 24hours till reaching the moisture equilibrium (i.e. for those conditions) in order to eliminate
thermal degradation of wood and of implemented tannin; and moreover to keep bridges via water
molecules present deeply in wooden matrix for connection with newly created bonding sites. Samples
were immersed under water for 12hours. Water, as a polar solvent, decreased the content of in wood
present small molecules, e.g. broken-down parts of hemicelluloses, non-bonded water-soluble
extractives at 60°C to even higher extend than at ambient temperature (0.49mg vs. 0.23mg glucose
equivalent per 1g of dried wood). This free space was shown to be advantageous for direct reaction of
tannin with wooden polymers, since tannins can bond with carbohydrates; and slightly improved
leaching resistance was also observed. However, in case of waterborne protection development
without hardeners addition, better fixation conditions have to be established.
Key words: condensed tannins; beech wood; total saccharide content; leaching; impregnation.
INTRODUCTION
Wood goes along with human existence for thousands of years. As a natural material, its
major drawback is that is easily attackable by various decay organisms when exposed to high
humidity. Tannins, polyphenolic high-molecular weight compounds (Hagerman et al. 1998), that
significantly contribute to natural resistance through their microbial toxicity (Scalbert 1991), occur
rather in smaller amounts in wood. Therefore, some species having lower tannin content, such as
European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), belong to those deciduous trees with lower durability.
The utilization of available material delivered from bark was a hot topic even in the ˈ80s (Laks
et al. 1988) and continuously maintains the role of promising for usage in several fields (Pizzi 2019).
When considering the development of fully bio-based natural wood protection with low VOCs
emission, commercially available tannin extract offers a suitable tool. On one hand, several research
groups confirm the positive influence of tannins on wood protection (Anttila et al. 2013; Da Silveira et
al. 2017), however they are issues with proper fixation within wood (Sablík et al. 2016). On the other
hand, Sommerauer et al. (2019) found that addition of specific eco-friendly hardeners contributes to
even lower leaching rates.
391
As tannins easily bond with proteins and saccharides (Jakobek 2015), released space in wood
cell previously taken by weakly bonded saccharide moieties might improve the reaction kinetics of
wood modification, so that, ideally, no synthetic biocides will be needed in future.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to evaluate the effect of beech wood pre-
treatment on the final impregnation efficiency and leaching resistance of tannin extract being
implemented into wooden structure via its aqueous solution through vacuum impregnation. Two
temperatures of samples leaching were selected: ambient and 60°C, respectively. In order to verify the
gained bonding capacity of tannin, total saccharide content of leachate was also investigated.

Beech wood pre-treatment, drying and hardening temperature selection & Tannin extract
European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) obtained from Training Forest Enterprise (Olomoučany,
Czech Republic) was cut into 1x1x1cm cubes and dried at 60°C for 24hours to obtain moisture
equilibrium. The drying temperature 103°C is mostly used to obtain zero moisture content for the
comparison of weight percent gain. However, these conditions lead to permanent degradation of
chemical components as well as surface cracks. Therefore, in this study the temperature was adjusted
to 60°C on purpose. This was done in order to reduce those structural changes due to strong drying
conditions and to allow water molecules present in wooden structure to connect with the implemented
polyphenols via H-bonds that might be beneficiary for further fixation mechanism.
These specimens were then either i) non-leached and used directly for the impregnation (N);
or ii) leached at ambient temperature for 12hours (AL), or iii) leached at 60°C for 12hours (L), and then
subsequently dried at 60°C for one day prior to impregnation. The specimens were weighted before
(N, AL, L) and after the leaching procedure (AL, L).
Weibull AQ industrial wattle tannin extract from Acacia mearnsii was kindly supplied by
TANAC S.A. (Brazil).
Total Saccharide Content

Ten beech samples of dimensions 1x1x1cm were put into a sealable flask with 80mL of water
for each group (i.e. AL and L, which were later used for the tannin treatment) and kept in
demineralised water for 12hours. After each hour aliquot of 1mL was taken out and immediately
freezed until the analysis.
The quantification of total saccharides present in wood samples being leached into water was
accomplished according to slightly adjusted colorimetric assay described by Albalasmeh et al. (2013),
later adapted also for thermally modified wood by Čermák et al. (2019).
To the mentioned aliquot of leachate filled up with demineralised water to the final volume of
2mL, 1mL of fresh 5% w/w phenol solution (PENTA, Czech Republic) was added and stirred on
vortex. Just after the short stirring, 5mL of concentrated sulphuric acid (PENTA, Czech Republic) was
poured into the mixture, moderately stirred and kept reacting for 10minutes. The mixture was then
vortexed and kept in water bath at 30°C for further 20minutes. Then followed colour stabilisation at
ambient temperature for another 30minutes. Prior to analysis, the mixture was thoroughly stirred on
vortex again and the absorbance of the solution in visible light at 490nm was measured
spectrophotometrically (Metash, China).
The determination of the total amount of leached saccharides was based on calibration curve
of glucose (Sigma-Aldrich, Czech Republic) as a standard solution in the concentration range of 20 –
2
400 µg/mL (R =0.9952). Demineralised water served as a reference and one blank measurement in
each set ensured output reliability. The final saccharide concentration was expressed in mg glucose
equivalent (GluE) on 1g dried wood.
Wood impregnation
For each group (TN, TAL, TL), ten beech samples were put into glass beaker filled with
5% w/w aqueous tannin solution and kept under vacuum (conventional laboratory vacuum pump
connected to desiccator) for 30minutes and then under atmospheric pressure for additional 15minutes
to allow deeper penetration of impregnating agent via water molecules of the solvent. During the
whole procedure samples were underwater, ensured through the application of second beaker with
loadings. Samples were afterwards oven-dried at 60°C for 24hours until the related moisture
equilibrium. The same procedure without tannin (i.e. demineralised water) was performed with control
samples (WN, WAL, WL) while monitoring the weight.
392
Leaching test and statistical evaluation

Fast leaching test after impregnation and drying was performed in two cycles, i.e. 12hours of
immersion in water followed by drying at 60°C for 24hours with monitoring weight changes at the end
of each cycle. The mass loss was calculated based on differences from that at dried state derived
from impregnation process. The statistical significance was evaluated with ANOVA and Tukey’s post
hoc test at a 95% confidence level using SPSS Statistics 19 software (IBM).

Total Saccharide Content
The following diagram (Fig. 1) represents the sum of carbohydrates derived from untreated
beech wood in hourly intervals of solubilisation in water and subsequent reaction with Phenol and
Sulphuric acid.
Fig. 1.
Total amount of carbohydrates leached out from beech wood samples after up to 12hours of
exposure in demineralised water at ambient temperature (blue, solid line) vs. at 60°C (red,
dashed line).
The increasing tendency with the exposure time of wood in water is evident from both curves.
After 12hours at ambient temperature, the amount of glucose equivalent reached 0.23mg per 1g dried
wood, in case of contact with 60°C water even 0.49mg. However, it has to be taken into consideration
that the assay does provide the information about saccharides (expressed in glucose units as the
most typical carbohydrates moiety found in extractives and as basement of the polymeric wood
components), but does not count the other present parts of water soluble extractives, so the space
being accessible for impregnating solution is even bigger and not neglectable.
Impregnation efficiency and leachability

Fig. 2 shows resulting uptake and mass loss after impregnation with tannin solution and
subsequently two leaching steps (Fig. 2.a) in comparison to mass loss of control samples (Fig. 2.b).
a. b.
Fig. 2.
Solid uptake after impregnation and remaining amount of impregnation agent after following
leaching cycles:
a – samples impregnated with tannin solution (from left: first column – uptake after
impregnation, second column – remaining after the first leaching cycle, third column –
remaining after the second leaching cycle); b – reference samples after second leaching cycle.
393
While the solid uptake does not differ so much between the groups (Fig. 2.a), the improvement
in terms of better leaching resistance in wooden matrix is visible, i.e. remaining in TN 1.0±1,0; TAL
4.1±1.6; TL 6.3±1.1mg on 1g of dried wood after two leaching cycles. The same observations were
carried out with control samples, which confirmed the decreasing tendency of mass loss after pre-
treatment in the following order WN > WAL > WL (Fig. 2.b). Thus, the lowest mass loss of control
samples (Fig. 2.b, WL) is in accordance with the highest leaching resistance of tannin samples (Fig.
2.a, TL – third column). The dependence of those procedures, i.e. non-leaching (N) and leaching at
60°C (L) as a result of beech samples exposure to water at higher temperature prior to impregnation
on remaining impregnant was confirmed as statistically significant (p-value <0.001; α=0.05).
CONCLUSIONS
The elimination of “free” accessible carbohydrates and easily soluble extractives from wood
has an essential impact on leaching behaviour of solid tannin and possibly leads to different fixation
and/or distribution options within wood cell.
However, considerable part having oligomeric structure still hinders tannins from their proper
penetration into wood cell walls and therefore this extract needs to be firstly fractionalised and at the
same time functionalised to allow in-situ fixation with wooden polymers. Moreover, results from this
study will be implemented into the currently running tannin extract modification (on laboratory scale)
and further directions will be supported with additional analytical and screening techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported within the frame of the Internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of
Forestry and Wood Technology (LDF_VP_2019035).
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0130
394
IMPROVEMENT OF ASH (FRAXINUS EXCELSIOR L.) BONDING QUALITY WITH

ONE COMPONENT POLYUERETHANE ADHESIVE AND A PRIMER FOR GLUED
LAMINATED TIMBER
Peter NIEMZ
Bern University of Applied Sciences
Institute for Materials and Wood Technology
Solothurnstrasse 102, POB 6096, CH -2500 Biel 6
Tel. +41323440264, E-mail: peter.niemz@bfh.ch
and
Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague
Kamýcká 1176, Praha 6 - Suchdol, 16521 Czech Republic
Gaspard CLERC
Bern University of Applied Sciences
Institute for Materials and Wood Technology
Solothurnstrasse 102, POB 6096, CH -2500 Biel 6, Switzerland
E-mail: gaspard.clerc@bfh.ch
Christian LEHRINGER
Henkel & Cie. AG
Industriestrasse 17a, CH-6203 Sempach Station, Switzerland
E-mail: christian.lehringer@henkel.com
Milan GAFF
Department of Wood Processing and Biomaterials
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague
Kamýcká 1176, Praha 6 - Suchdol, 16521 Czech Republic
E-mail: gaffmilan@gmail.com
Abstract
Glued laminated timber made out of hardwood offer higher strength and stiffness properties
than their equivalent in softwood, also their visual aspect can be an attractive selling argument.
However, their manufacturing still remains problematic. Nowadays, only phenol resorcinol
formaldehyde adhesive (PRF) are able to provide a proper bonding quality concerning ash wood
gluing. Despite their high bonding performance, these adhesives have several disadvantages (a dark
brown bond line, emission of formaldehyde during the gluing). This paper focuses on the optimization
of the gluing process of two different one-component polyurethane (1C-PUR) adhesives with ash
wood in order to develop an industrial application process. The influence of the primer concentration
and of the wood moisture content prior to bonding was investigated using tensile shear test according
to DIN EN 302-1 and delamination test according to DIN EN 302-2. It was shown that low degree of
delamination (less than 10%) could be reached using special 1C-PUR adhesive under industrial
conditions.
Key words: glued laminated timber; hardwood; gluing; delamination; 1C-PUR; priming; PRF.
INTRODUCTION
Beech and ash wood represent 18% and resp. 3.6% of the Swiss forest wood volume. Their
quantity is however slowly increasing of approx. 6% for beech wood and 24.6% for ash wood in the
last ten years. The processing of glued laminated timber in hardwood is a more challenging task than
for softwood. Nowadays the gluing of ash glued laminated timber is only approved with special
melamine urea formaldehyde, phenol resorcinol formaldehyde and one component polyurethane with
the adjunction of primer. Knorz (2015) showed that the gluing of ash wood is presenting higher
difficulties that with beech wood. This paper presents the results of several projects which have been
395
conducted with industrial partners concerning the gluing of ash wood for application in load bearing
construction in order to develop a suitable process for an industrial application for ash wood.
MATERIAL, METHOD
For the tensile shear strength and the delamination experiment, ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.)
3
with a density of 674±68kg/m at a moisture content of 8% was used. Two different 1C-PUR with long
CAT from Henkel AG (HBS 709 and the HB 181) were chosen. The primer Loctite PR 3105 developed
by Henkel AG was used. Two different 1C-PURs with long OAT from Henkel AG (LOCTITE HB S709
PURBOND and the LOCTITE HB 181 PURBOND) were chosen. HB S709 has an OAT of 70 minutes,
and HB 181 has an OAT time of 120 minutes. The primer LOCTITE PR 3105 PURBOND, developed
by Henkel AG, was used in combination with the 1C-PUR adhesives only. The PRF system Aerodux
185, with the hardener HRP 155 (mixing ratio of 100:20) from DYNEA, was used as a reference.
Lower delamination could also be obtained through a reduction of the lamellar thickness.
Hering (2011) calculated that a reduction of the thickness of the lamella reduces the moisture induced
stresses in the section and hence reduces the delamination. For this reason, the lamellar thickness
was reduced in the second part (series 2) from 30 to 25mm.
As shown by Wittel et al. (2015), delamination of GLT can also occur in an indoor climate
through lower air humidity and higher air circulation. The WMC during the winter months can reach
approx. 8%; if the GLT was glued at 12%, this moisture difference induced important stresses that
could lead to delamination and cracks in the GLT. For this reason, the wood moisture content prior to
the bonding was reduced to 8% (and not 12% as recommended in the EN 302-2).
DETERMIANTION OF TENSILE SHEAR STRENGTH (DIN EN 302-1)

Prior to gluing, the wood pieces were cut to 630 mm length, 130mm width and 15mm height
and then acclimatized in three different climates according. The wood pieces were then planed to a
thickness of 5mm and cut in half prior to gluing.
The TSS in dry state was tested according to the treatment A1 which consists in storing the
sample at 20°C and 65% R.H. prior to testing the tensile shear strength. The TSS in wet state was
tested according to the treatment A4 which consists in placing the sample into boiling water during 6h
before soaking them in water at 20°C during 2 hours, the samples were then directly tested. The
treatment A5 consist in placing the sample into boiling water during 6 h before soaking them in water
at 20°C during 2 hours before drying them in 20°C, 65% R.H climate until reaching constant mass.
Each procedure was performed according to DIN EN 302-1.
DELAMINATION
The wood pieces were sorted out accordingly to DIN EN 302-2. The time between the primer
application and the application is defined as the open primer time (OPT). The open assembly time
(OAT) is defined as the time between the adhesive application and the assembly of the two wood
pieces. The closed assembly time (CAT) is the time between the assembly of the different lamellas
and the pressing. The total waiting time is defined as the sum of OPT, OAT and CAT. The
delamination experiment was conducted according to the high temperature cycle described in DIN EN
302-2.

TENSILE SHEAR STRENGTH
For A1 the majority of the samples are presenting a similar TSS as the wood samples. Also
the WFP is in the majority of the case higher than 80%. For the majority of the samples, the minimal
requirement of a 10MPa TSS is fulfilled. All the different systems are performing equally well. The TSS
and WFP after treatment A4 for all variant have an average TSS values higher than the normative
requirement (results see Fig.1).
396
Fig. 1.
Rsults from tensile shear strength (A1 and A4) series 1.
DELAMINATION
The results for series 1 of the delamination are shown in figure 2. In this experiment, the
influence of two different primer concentrations and two different 1C-PUR adhesive was tested. As
seen in the tensile shear strength experiment, the lower the wood moisture content, the better the
bonding strength. The lamellas were conditioned at a humidity of 8% prior to gluing. Fig. 3 show the
results from series 2 after optimization next step of the process. This results fulfilled the norms for
glulam in delamination.
Fig. 2.
Delamination results with No Primer, 10% and 20% primer concentration for the adhesive
HBS709 and HB181 (test 1) series 1.
397
Fig. 3.
Delamination results with variable PAQ, PC and PAT from series 2 for the adhesives HB S709,
HB 181 and PRF.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper shows that it is possible to reach delamination lengths below 5% for ash wood
bonded with slow-reacting 1C-PUR in combination with primer in an industrial process. The presented
investigation showed that the following parameters are essential:
- The best results were obtained with a concentration of 10% and a primer applied quantity of
2
20g/m . The influence of the absolute quantity of water and of primer should be carefully
chosen.
- A relatively low wood moisture content of approximately 8-10% reduces the moisture-induced
stress in the wood section, resulting in a lower delamination.
- A slow-reaction adhesive system with long assembly time probably allows for further
penetration into the wood structure and increases the available surface for bonding.
- A reduction of the lamellar thickness allows for a more homogenous moisture-induced stress
gradient and reduces the stiffness of the lamella, hence allowing greater deformation of the
wood section.
It is necessary to notice that theses samples were glued in industry conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Federal Office for the Swiss Environment FOEN (Project
2014.06) for the financial support of this research, as well as the provision of the adhesives
substances by Henkel AG (Sempach-Station, Switzerland) and the expertise and industrial facility by
“neue Holzbau AG” (Lungern, Switzerland). Also the authors like to thank for the support of "Advanced
research supporting the forestry and wood-processing sector´s adaptation to global change and the
4th industrial revolution", No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000803 financed by OP RDE.
REFERENCES
DIN EN 302-1 (2013) Adhesives for load bearing timber structures – Test methods – Part 1:
Determination of longitudinal tensile shear strength. European Committee for Standardization (CEN),
Brussels.
DIN EN 302-2 (2013) Adhesives for load bearing timber structures – Test methods - Part 2:
Determination of resistance to delamination. European Committee for Standardization (CEN),
Brussels.
398
Hering S (2011) Charakterisierung und Modellierung der Materialeigenschaften von Rotbuchenholz

zur Simulation von Holzverklebungen, Diss. ETH No. 19903, ETH Zürich.
Knorz M (2015) Investigation of structurally bonded ash (Fraxinus Excelsior L.) as influenced by
adhesive type and moisture. Dissertation TU München.
Niemz P, Clerc G, Pichelin F, Gabriel J, Amen C, Salzgeber D (2019) Brettschichtholz aus Esche
besser verkleben. Holz-Zentralblatt, Stuttgart, 4.1.2019, pp. 17.
Wittel FK, Niemz P (2015) Feuchteinduzierte Spannungen und Delaminierungen in Brettschichtholz,
Report Fonds zur Förderung der Wald- und Holzforschung Projekt 2015-04.
399
MINERALIZATION IN-SITU OF TROPICAL HARDWOOD SPECIES FROM FAST-

GROWN PLANTATION IN COSTA RICA
*
Johanna GAITÁN-ALVAREZ
Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Escuela de Ingeniería Forestal
Apartado 159-7050, Cartago, Costa Rica
E-mail: jgaitan@tcr.ac.cr
Roger MOYA
E-mail: rmoya@itcr.ac.cr
Alexander BERROCAL
E-mail: aberrocal@itcr.ac.cr
Fabio ARAYA
Centro de Investigación y de Servicios Químicos y Microbiológicos (CEQIATEC), Escuela de Química,
Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Cartago 159-7050, Costa Rica
E-mail: fdaraya@itcr.ac.cr
Abstract
New technologies have been developed to increase wood durability without any dangerous
substances. One of these is the wood chemical modification with mineralization, which consists in the
introduction of mineral salts into the wood cell. In the present study, the objective established was to
impregnate and characterize nine tropical hardwood species, impregnated through a subsequental in-
situs mineral by impregnation of two solution-exchange in different cycles. The amount of salt
absorption showed that there is a difference between hardwoods species and it has a relation to the
anatomical structure of each species, especially the pits, which affect the liquid penetration in timber.
The SEM images show the distribution of CaCO3, species with a greater amount of salt have more
crystals formation in the vessel lumina and the rays, fallow by the lumina fibers. The TGA and DTG
analysis showed that in those species with more salt formation, the degradation of hemicellulose will
require more energy to degrade the material. Therefore, it is concluded that the species where the in-
situs impregnation with CaCO3 was adequate were E. cyclocarpum, S. saman, V. ferruginea, and V.
guatemalensis, which were the species with the greater amount of salt retention in the anatomical
features.
Key words: calcium carbonate; mineralized wood; tropical hardwood.
INTRODUCTION
Recently, new technologies have been developed to increase the useful life of wood without
the need for toxic substances (Gerardin 2016, Teng et al. 2018). Among these new technologies, we
can find the no-biocides (Teaca et al. 2019) and the chemical modifications (Mantanis 2017). The
mineralization in wood belong to the chemical modifications group, which consist of the introduction of
mineral salts, like titania (Mahr et al. 2012); sodium phosphate (Tampieri et al. 2009), calcium
carbonate (Meldrum 2003, Merk et al. 2015) and struvite (Guo et al. 2019), dissolved in different liquid
solvents to impregnate the wood (Guo et al. 2019).
The mineralization with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) into the wood, require high technical set-
ups like supercritical gases (Tsioptsias and Panayiotou 2011), or and reactions, elemental calcium,
methanol, and hydrogen (Klaithong et al. 2013; Merk et al. 2015, 2016). However, Merk et al. (2016)
proposed a newfangled and simple mineralization strategy of wood, which involves a subsequental in-
situ mineral formation based on a solution-exchange process. These authors propose two solution-
exchange cycles with CaCl2 in ethanol and NaHCO3 in water. According to their reported, the CaCO3
*
400
formation was properly distributed in the cell lumens in earlwood, and in less proportion in the
latewood of Norway spruce.
On other hand, in many countries with tropical clime, it is characterized to use a great variety
of hardwood species for wood production, like different eucalyptus, Hevea brasilensis, Tectona
grandis, and Gmelina arborea (Liu et al. 2018). Hardwoods differ from softwoods by their hierarchically
chemically structure (Van der Graaff and Baas1974, Pandey 1999, Gibson 2012). Softwood presents
a hierarchical structure more uniform, constituted mainly by parallel hollow tubes, called tracheid, with
a thick cell wall mold of composite made of cellulose microfibrils embedded into a matrix of
hemicelluloses and lignin. The traquead (85–95% of total cells) are highly elongated tracheids that
provide both structural support and a conduction path for fluids (through small openings, called
bordered pits, along their sides (Fratzl and Weinkamer 2007, Klaithong et al. 2013).
Hardwood are composed of fiber cells (35-70% of the total cell), which have the function to
bring mechanical support, while the liquid conduction is made through the vessel (6-55% of the total
cell) that are enlarged cells with thin walls and large pore spaces. This structure causes changes
between softwood and hardwood, making the liquids fluids differ within the wood, during the growth of
the tree (Sperry 2003) and during the industrial process where is involved the fluid liquid inbound
(absorption) or outward (desorption) (Ahmed and Chun 2011).
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to impregnate nine hardwood species C. odorata, C. alliodora,
E. cyclocarpum, G. arborea, H. alchorneodes, S. saman, T. grandis, V. ferruginea y V. guatemalensis)
commonly used in commercial reforestation in Costa Rica with salts, through a subsequental in-situ
mineral formation based on a solution-exchange process of two solution-exchange cycles by
impregnation with CaCl2 in ethanol and NaHCO3 in water to form CaCO3 and characterize the nine
species impregnated with salt.

Sapwood of nine species were used, coming from fast growth plantations in Costa Rica, which
present good permeability (Moya et al. 2015). Species used were C. odorata, C. alliodora, E.
cyclocarpum, G. arborea, H. alchorneoides, S. saman, T.grandis, V. ferruginea and V. guatemalensis.
The age of the plantations where the material was collected varied between 4 and 8 years.
Mineralization process
The mineralization in-situs process was carried out using a vacuum pressure equipment. The
salts impregnation consist in the introduction of the samples in a tank with a capacity of 27 liters. The
calcium carbonate reaction (CaCO3) is done through 2 cycles of impregnation (Equation 1), one first
cycle with a CaCl2 solution (Equation 2) and a second cycle with NaHCO3 solution (Equation 3).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(i) The first cycle consisted of impregnation of the wood with an ethanol CaCl2 solution in a 1
-1
mol-l concentration (Equation 2). In this phase firstly a vacuum step were applied for 20 minutes at -
70 kPa (gauge), then the samples were submerged in the solution and apply pressure for 30 minutes
at 690 kPa. After these, the solution was extracted with vacuum. Finally, the samples were extracted
from the tank and were rinsed with ethanol, and were dried in an oven at 40°C for 4 hours.
(ii) The samples previously impregnated with ClCa2 were impregnated with an aqueous
-1
NaHCO3 solution in a 1 mol-l concentration (Equation 3). In this phase firstly a vacuum step were
applied for 20 minutes at -70 kPa (gauge), then the samples were submerged in the aqueous
NaHCO3 solution and apply pressure for 50 minutes at 690 kPa. Finally, the samples were extracted
and rinsed with deionized water.
401
Evaluation of the mineralization process

The mineralization process were evaluated in the two impregnation cycles: (i) CaCl2
impregnation and (ii) NaHCO3 impregnation. In the first cycle, the sample were weight before and after
the impregnation with NaHCO3, with these weights it was obtained the ClCa2 absorption (Equation 4)
and the salt retention (Equation 5). In the second cycle, the samples were weight again before and
after the impregnation with NaHCO3, and then the absorption (Equation 4) and the retention (Equation
5) were determined.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

From each species and treatment (impregnate and untreated) cross-cut specimens of 5 mm
de x 5 mm x 10 mm were prepared. The specimens were observed under a Table Microscope TM
3000 without coating, a (WD) = 3.8 a 5.8 mm distant were used; with 7.5 kv of voltage and 400
magnification. The formation of de CaCO3 in the different elemental structure of the wood were
observed.
Fourier transform with infrared transmission spectroscopy (FT-IR)

From each species an impregnated and untreated sample were evaluated. The specimens
were oven dried at 105°C until constant weight. The FT-IR was performed using a Nicolet 380 FTIR
(Thermo Scientific) using a single reflectance cell (equipped with a diamond crystal). The equipment
-1
was configured to perform readings by accumulating 32 scans with a resolution of 1 cm , with a
background correction before each measurement. The FTIR spectra obtained were processed with
Spotlight 1.5.1 software, HyperView 3.2 and Spectrum 6.2.0 developed by Perkin Elmer. Inc.
Thermogravimetric analysis
To obtain the degradation curve, TGA was carried out at atmospheric pressure in an inert
ambient, using about 5 mg of sawdust of each species impregnated and untreated. The heating speed
was 20ºC/min in a nitrogen atmosphere (i.e. ultra-high purity N2 at 100 mL/min), reaching a
temperature of 800ºC. A TA Instruments Thermogravimetric Analyser, model SDT Q600, was used.
TGA provides values for loss of mass in relation to temperature, from which the DTG is obtained, and
thus the position and temperature in which sample degradation takes place can be more clearly
determined. The TGA and DTG curves were analyzed using TA Instruments Universal Analysis 2000
software.
Statistical analysis
A descriptive analysis was developed (median, standard deviation, maximum and minimum
values). In addition, compliance of variables with the precepts of normal distribution and homogeneity
of variances was verified, as was the presence of outliers. The GLM procedure from SAS 9.4 (SAS
Institute Inc., Cary, N.C.) was applied to estimate the significance of the species as the only source of
variation of the model. The existence of significant differences among the averages of TGA variables
was verified by means of the Tukey test (P<0.05).

3 3
The absorption of CaCl2 and NaCO3 range between 42.2 to 168.0 l/m and 69.5 to 214.6 l/m
respectively (Table 1). The ANOVA for these variables show that CaCl2 absorption was greater in Ec,
Ha, Ss, Vf y Vg; and the lowest and statistically different absorption values were presented in Co, Ga y
Tg (Table 1). The NaCO3 absorption was greater in the specimens of Ha, Ss y Vf; and in lowest values
+ +2 3
in Co, Ga y Tg (Table 1). The Ca and CO3 retention varied between 2.4 to 9.2 kg/m and 3.9 to 12.2
3 + +2
kg/m respectively. The retention of both salts (de Ca y CO3 ) was greater in the Ec, Ha, Ss, Vf y Vg
402
wood, and it was lower in Co, Ga y Tg, being statistically different between them (Table 1). Amed and
Chun (2011) mention that the difference between the absorption values hardwoods depend on the
anatomical structure of each species, especially the pits, their structure, and distribution affect the
liquid penetration in timber. In spite of the fact that there are many pit types related to liquid conduction
in different hardwood species, like for example end wall (tangential wall) and lateral wall (radial wall)
pits in ray parenchyma (Amed and Chun 2011).
Table 1
+ +2
Absorption of CaCl2 and NaCO3, and retention of Ca and CO3 , in the in-situs mineralization
process of nine fast growth tropical species in Costa Rica
+
Absorption CaCl2 Absorption NaCO3 Retention Ca Retention
Specie 3 3 3 +2 3
(l/m ) (l/m ) (kg/m ) CO3 (kg/m )
A A A A
Cedrela odorata (Co) 50.96 (13.45) 87.83 (14.09) 2.78 (0.73) 4.97 (0.80)
B B B B
Cordia alliodora (Ca) 123.91 (42.06) 152.72 (43.45) 6.56 (2.30) 8.64 (2.46)
C BC C BC
Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Ec) 167.95 (106.66) 175.44 (73.94) 9.18 (5.83) 9.93 (4.19)
A A A A
Gmelina arborea (Ga) 50.32 (3 .66) 69.48 (53.26) 2.38 (1.84) 3.93 (3.01)
BC CDE BC CD
Hyeronima alchorneodes (Ha) 150.25 (56.89) 195.09 (56.89) 8.21 (3.11) 11.04 (3.22)
BC D BC D
Samanea samans (Ss) 157.29 (25.38) 208.10 (51.44) 8.59 (1.39) 11.78 (2.91)
A A A A
Tectona grandis (Tg) 42.22 (32.29) 72.28 (14.32) 2.62 (1.76) 4.02 (0.81)
BC D BC D
Vochysia ferruginea (Vf) 158.11 (85.75) 214.58 (67.77) 8.64 (4.68) 12.15 (3.84)
BC EB BC B
Vochysia guatemalensis (Vg) 136.75 (30.67) 177.20 (67.04) 7.47 (1.68) 10.03 (3.79)
The SEM images showed that the CaCO3 in-situs formation occurred mainly in the vessel
lumina, followed by the ray and finally in the lumina fiber (Figure 1d-l). In the woods with less amount
3
of CaCO3 formed (less than 8.0 kg of CaCO3/m ), which are Tg, Ga y Co, it can see less formation of
the salt in the anatomical features. The crystals formation of CaCO3 are deposited in vessels lumina
and at less amount in the ray, while in the fibers are not observed crystals (Figure 1 d, e and f). In
3
hardwoods with medium absorption between 15.0 to 17.5 kg of CaCO3/m , which are Ca, Ha y Vg it
can notice more salt formation in the vessel lumina and the ray, with an increase of the amount of the
crystals in the lumina fiber (Figure 1g, h y i). Finally, in hardwoods with higher salts formation between
3
20.0 to 21.0 of CaCO3/m which correspond to Vf, Ss y Ec, it can be seen more crystals formation in
the vessels lumina and the rays, also it can be seen how the lumina fibers present rather amount of
crystals, (Figure 1j, k and l). Many factors influenced liquid penetration including liquid properties,
anatomical characteristics, and direction of the wood. Rays are important flow channel in lateral
movement of liquid. Short ray parenchyma with a wide diameter, few ends and lateral wall pits with
small openings are responsible for the lower permeability in the radial direction. On the other hand,
short and wide vessel, small intervessel pits, and short fiber made species less permeable in
longitudinal penetration (Amed and Chun 2007, 2009).
403
Fig. 1.
SEM analysis of the in-situs mineralization process in nine fast growth tropical species in
Costa Rica.
-1 -1
FT-IR spectrum showed a signal at 873 cm and 1463 cm in the mineralized specimens with
+2
CaCO3 (Figure 2a). In Co, Ca y Ss both signals are very remarkable (Figure 3b, c, g), while in Ec,
Ga, Ha, Tg, Vf y Vg the signal is weak or almost nil (Figure 2 d, e, f, h, i and j). According to Galvan-
−1
Ruiz et al. (2009) the intense and sharp band at 873 cm is assigned to CaCO3 formation. The bands
−1
at 1467 and 873 cm correspond to two of the three different elongation modes of C–O bonds which
are characteristic of the most stable rhombohedral polymorph (calcite) (Facchinetto et al. 2017).
Judging from the mineral morphology, in the first instance, the CaCO3 precipitates seem to be
constituted mainly of calcite (Merk et al. 2016). However, a closer look reveals that the resultant
mineralization product is a mixture of calcite and vaterite (Merk et al. 2016), which can describe the
signs found and the fact that at less absorption of the salt the sings are less notable (Figure 3).
404
Fig. 2.
FTIR of the in-situs mineralization process of nine fast growth tropical species in Costa Rica.
The TGA analysis showed that the different salts involve in this study have thermal behavior
varied, the thermal decomposition of CaCl2 occurs in two phases, the first phase with a maximum
peak at 149°C and the second phase with a maximum peak at 200°C (Figure 3a), In NaHCO3 the
thermal decomposition occurs in a single phase with a maximum peak at 160°C (Figure 3b), while
CaCO3 also occurs in a single phase with a maximum peak at 98°C (Figure 3c). In the mineralized
wood, the thermal degradation behavior of the nine hardwoods presents the same pattern as the
untreated wood, but in the DTG curves, certain differences are noticed (Figure 3a-l). The DTG curve
of the nine study species report three important degradation phases: the first one occurs with a slight
signal after 200°C, which are associated with the hemicellulose degradation (Ramiah 1970), the
second one is evident in the maximum peak decomposition between 320°C and 360°C, which is
attributed to the cellulose degradation (Chen and Kuo 2012); and the third is present with a slight
signal after 380°C (Figure 3d-l). In all hardwood studied it is evident that the maximum decomposition
peak of the mineralized wood occurs before the untreated wood (Figure 3d-l). The DTG curve also
showed that the hardwoods with grater formation of CaCO3 (Ec, Ss, Vf y Vg) report a greater
pronunciation in the signal at 200°C, which is not present in the untreated wood (Figure 3f, i, k and l).
3
Also in the species with medium retention between 15.21 and 17.39 kg/m (Ca y Ha) the pronunciation
at 200°C is slight, almost similar to the untreated wood (Figure 3c y h). Co, Ga y Tg, which are the
woods with the least amount of retained CaCO3, presented the same behavior as the untreated wood
Figure 3e, 3g y 3j). This behavior is attributed to the thermal stability of the material where greater salt
absorption, higher energy to degrade the material is required, so the curve will be more pronounced
(Serbio-Puñal et al. 2012).
405
Fig. 3.
TGA and DTG analysis of the in-situs mineralization process of nine two fast-growth tropical
species in Costa Rica
CONCLUSIONS
The results show that the mineralization in-situs of tropical species is influenced by the
anatomical features of each species. It can notice that the liquid will flow depending on the
composition and the anatomical distribution. Also, we can conclude that the higher salt retention
occurred in E. cyclocarpum, H. alchorneoides, S. saman, V. ferruginea y V. guatamalensis. The SEM
images showed out that the species with the highest salt absorption have the highest crystal formation
of CaCO3, firstly in the vessels, followed by the radius cells and finally in the fibers. The FTIR indicated
that those species with the highest retention of CaCO3 showed more notable the signals at 873 and
-1
1463 cm . TGA analysis showed that the decomposition of the hemicelluloses in E. cyclocarpum, S.
saman, V. ferruginea and V. guatemalensis requires higher energy than those that were not
impregnated or the species that presented less salt absorption. Therefore, it is concluded that the
species where the in-situs impregnation with CaCO3 were adequate in E. cyclocarpum, S. saman, V.
ferruginea and V. guatemalensis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank The Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Extensión of the Instituto Tecnológico
de Costa Rica for its financial support.
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Ahmed SA, Chun SK, Miller RB, Chong SH, Kim AJ (2011) Liquid penetration in different cells of two
hardwood species. Journal of wood science 57:179-188.
Chen WH, Kuo PC (2011) Torrefaction and co-torrefaction characterization of hemicellulose, cellulose
and lignin as well as torrefaction of some basic constituents in biomass. Energy 36:803-811.
406
Facchinetto SE, Bortolotto T, Neumann GE, Vieira JC, Menezes BBD, Giacomelli C, Schmidt V (2017)
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407
EPOXIDIZED VEGETABLE OILS FOR WOOD PROTECTION

AGAINST FUNGAL DEGRADATION
Cristian-Dragoş VARGANICI
Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers
“Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry
Gr. Ghica-Voda Alley 41A, 700487, Iasi, Romania
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: varganici.cristian@icmpp.ro
Liliana ROSU
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: lrosu@icmpp.ro
Fănică MUSTAŢĂ
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: fmustata@icmpp.ro
Dan ROSU
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: drosu@icmpp.ro
Irina ROŞCA
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: rosca.irina@icmpp.ro
Teodora RUSU
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: teia@icmpp.ro
Elena MARLICĂ
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: emarlica@icmpp.ro
Carmen-Alice TEACĂ
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: cateaca@icmpp.ro
Abstract
The paper studies the fungi stability of some polymer composites based on wood epoxy
derivatives. The epoxy derivatives were thermally and photo crosslinked. The softwood samples
modified with succinic anhydride (SA) were impregnated individually or in the mixture with glycidyl
methacrylate (GMA), diglycidyl of bisphenol A (DGEBA) and epoxy modified grapeseed oil (EGSO)
and finally crosslinked. The GMA impregnated samples were firstly exposed to UV light (λ = 254nm)
o
for 10 minutes on all surfaces and afterwards thermally crosslinked for 5 hours at 130 C and 30
o
minutes at 150 C for post-curing. The EGSO treated sample showed enhanced thermal stability and
resistance to Penicillium chrysogenum and Cladosporium cladosporioides.
Key words: epoxy derivatives; wood protection; fungi resistance; antidecay.
408
INTRODUCTION
The biological durability of wood is one of the most important properties of this building
material. The characterization of its properties is of great importance in appropriate material selection;
both to avoid unnecessary spending, caused by the need to replace damaged parts, and to reduce the
impacts on remaining natural forests.
From ancient times and up to the present, man has used wood to make tools, houses, energy,
as well as art objects. Besides the superior mechanical, electrical and thermal qualities, wood also
possesses some unwanted properties which limit its applications (dimensional instability, degradation
under the influence of environmental factors, such as temperature, UV light, insects, humidity or
microorganisms, etc.). Several methods for wood preservation have been used, especially chemical
modification or coating with films made from natural or synthetic materials (Li et al. 2011; Bodirlau et
al. 2013).
Vegetable oils, obtained from naturally renewable raw materials, are biodegradable and non-
toxic substances which are mainly constituted from triglyceride esters of saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids. Depending on their chemical composition the oils can be classified as edible or non-edible.
Based on the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid moieties, these oils can be considered as non–
drying, semi-drying and drying oils (Meier et al. 2007). Oils possess in their chemical structure
different functional groups (hydroxyl, epoxy etc.) and up to 3 double bonds in fatty acid moieties which
can be transformed into monomers for polymer synthesis (Xia and Larock 2010).
The most encountered chemical transformations of vegetable oils are the synthesis of
polyalcohols, polyacids or epoxy resins. The obtained epoxy oils were used without any modification
or functionalized by opening the epoxy ring with anhydrides, α,β unsaturated acids, allylic alcohol,
amines, thiols etc. (Rosu et al. 2015).
In recent years, the use of fungicides and insecticides has met some limitations due to the
environmental problems and therefore, researchers are looking for alternative safe chemicals to
increase the wood durability along with minimum damage to the environment (Marzbani et al. 2015).
As a consequence of their hydrophobic properties induced by their chemical structure, the
vegetable oils have been used to increase wood durability (Jebrane et al. 2015).
According to the literature, the single oils do not provide sufficient protection against fungi, however
coupled with various fungicides (boric acid, bio oil, copper derivatives etc.) may increase the decay
resistance (Humar and Lesar 2013).
In the present study, some novel chemical combinations based on polyfunctional momomers
(GMA, DGEBA, EGSO), SA, as crosslinking agent, and salicylic acid (SAc), as anti decay agent, were
used. Firstly, the hydroxyl groups from wood were modified with SA and new carboxylic groups were
obtained. Then, the monomer mixtures with hardener and photoinitiator in composition were
impregnated in the wood matrix, photocrosslinked on all surfaces and thermally crosslinked. The
crosslinked samples were tested from the chemical and physical characteristics points of view, on
thermal behavior and decay resistance.

The wood samples with 5mm/25mm/40mm (radial/tangential/longitudinal) dimensions were
obtained from timber and polished with sandpaper (400P). The main chemical characteristics of wood
samples, obtained using TAPPI standards were: 55% cellulose and lignin 31%. Wood esterified with
succinic anhydride has been characterized in terms of the retained amount of succinic anhydride. The
epoxy equivalent weights for EGSO and DGEBA were obtained using pyridinium chloride-pyridine
-1 -1
method and expressed in geq . The obtained EGSO had an epoxy equivalent weight of 245 g⋅eq .
All solvents were analytical grade reagents. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra were recorded
with a Vertex 70 apparatus (Bruker-Germany) using KBr pellets. The thermal degradation process was
undertaken by means of a simultaneous TGA/DTG/DTA analyses STA 449F1 Jupiter apparatus
0
(Netzsch, Germany). 10mg of sample was heated in the range 30–700 C under a nitrogen
-1
atmosphere (flow rate 50mL min ), in an open Al2O3 crucible and with empty crucible as reference
0 -1
material. Heating rates of 5, 10 and 20 C min were used for the kinetic study. The transfer line to FT-
0
IR spectrophotometer was of polytetrafluorethylene, of a 1.5mm interior diameter heated at 190 C.
-1 -1
The spectra were acquired with a resolution of 4cm in the range 400-4000cm .
The SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) measurements were carried out by means of a
SEM/ESEM – EDAX – QUANTA 200 type device with field emission filament, 20kV accelerating
voltage in high vacuum using a magnification of 1000x. Samples surface were coated with fine gold
layer before registration.
409
The wood is mainly composed from hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin which are good
nutrients for fungi. Under favorable conditions of humidity and temperature, fungi can consume these
substances leading to wood degradation. The decay test was undertaken according to ASTM standard
o
D 1413-99. Firstly, the samples were oven-dried at 105 C until they reached constant weight. The
wood resistance against decay was considered on two different wood decay reporter strains: a white
rot fungi Penicillium chrysogenum ATCC10106 and a brown rot fungi Cladosporium cladosporioides
ATCC16022. The wood blocks (softwood blocks untreated and treated) were placed on the Petri
dishes (with malt extract agar and potato dextrose agar), inoculated with a fixed amount of test-
microorganisms (0.5 McFarland standards optical turbidity in sterile saline solution, yielding a
8 −1
suspension containing approximately 1 × 10 CFU mL for the two microorganisms) and incubated for
8 weeks at room temperature (24±1°C). Visual aspect of the fungus colony on the surface of wood
samples was monitored at each 7 days interval, during the 8 weeks of incubation. After 8 week of
exposure to P. chrysogenum and C. cladosporioides, the untreated and treated samples were
extracted from the culture plates and the mycelium present on the surface was carefully removed with
the wet cotton fabric. Then, the wood and modified wood samples were accurately weighed to
highlight the retained moisture.

FT-IR characterization of crosslinked polymers
-1
FT-IR spectrum of the crosslinked SAW/GMA do not show any signal at 914cm (signal
-1
specific to epoxy ring), and present only one small shoulder located at about 1640cm which is
-1
specific to methacrylic moieties. The disappearance of the signal at 914cm confirms the addition
-1
reaction of the epoxy groups with carboxylic moieties and the absence of the peak at 3010cm and
-1
1640cm confirm the polymerization of methacrylic double bonds (Li et al. 2011). The only observable
difference that occurs between the FT-IR spectra of the crosslinked SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO (Fig.
1b) compared to the crosslinked SAW/GMA spectra (Fig.1a) is the presence of a reduced intensity
-1
signal near 914cm . This can be attributed to the traces of unreacted epoxy groups from EGSO, a
component in which some epoxy groups can be sterically hindered due to the chemical structure of
the oil.
1028
1726
3340
0,6
1160
2915
Absobance
2958
1421
1640
0,3
800
a
1266
2958
1732
1510
914
b
0,0
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber [cm-1]
Fig. 1.
FT–IR spectra of crosslinking SAW/GMA (a) and crosslinking SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO (b).
Thermal analyses
o
The SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO sample exhibited a 30 C higher thermal stability (up to
o
147 C), compared to the other samples. The kinetic parameters of the thermal degradation for the
analyzed samples were evaluated with the aid of isoconversional of Friedman and Ozawa methods
included in “Thermokinetics 3“software. The change in the curve shapes of the activation energies and
as well as in the DTG curves is an indication that the thermal degradation takes place following a
complex reaction path in at least two steps (Worzakowska 2007).
410
SEM amd EDAX measurements

Samples surfaces were shown in section and in the length. The SEM examination was
performed on specimen of 1mm thickness. SEM micrographs show the presence of a small number of
pores. Treatment with succinic anhydride only highlights the blades. Polymer-modified samples show
coated lamellae, in the case of SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO samples, there are additionally a number
of ridges. The changes of the elemental chemical composition on the untreated and treated surface
samples before and after biological decay were identified using EDX analysis. In the SAW/GMA
sample, GMA added extra oxygen. The SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO sample had a much lower
percentage of oxygen, however more carbon.
SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO
before the exposure to C. cladosporioides before the exposure to P.chrysogenum
SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO
exposed to C. cladosporioides exposed to P.chrysogenum
Fig. 2.
SEM micrographs.
Resistance to decay
After 8 week of exposure to P. chrysogenum and C. cladosporioides, it could be observed that
at the end of the exposure period, the control samples (W) were completely covered by the fungi while
the treated samples were less or not covered.
W and SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO W and SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO

before the exposure to C. cladosporioides before the exposure to P.chrysogenum
411
W and SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO W and SAW/DGEBA/SA/SAc/EGSO

exposed to C. cladosporioides exposed to P.chrysogenum
Fig. 3.
Photographs of raw wood and treated samples.
CONCLUSIONS
Wood protective coatings were obtained by surface modification with SA, followed by
immersion in different GMA, DGEBA or EGSO with SAc formulations and UV and thermal photo–
crosslinking. The EGSO treated sample was the most thermally stable. The thermal degradation
mehcanisms of the samples took place in two or three stages. Fungi resistance was tested by
exposing the samples to P. chrysogenum and C. cladosporioides. SEM/EDAX results showed that the
control samples were the most degraded, while the coatings blocked the microorganism acess to
wood.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research
and Innovation, CCCDI–UEFISCDI project number ERANET-ERA IB 2–ProWood, within PNCDI III.
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resistance. Maderas Ciencia y Tecnologia 17(1):63-68
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polymer science. Chemical Society Reviews 36:1788–1802
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epoxy resin from diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A cured with castor oil maleate. RSC Advances
5(57):45679-45687
Xia Y, Larock RC (2010) Vegetable oil-based polymeric materials: synthesis, properties and
applications. Green Chemistry 12:1893-1909
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412
WOOD MODIFICATION IN ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY WAY:

DEVELOPMENT OF THE “BOK” OAK TECHNOLOGY
Marius ALEINIKOVAS
Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry (LAMMC)
Liepų str. 1, Girionys, LT-53101, Kaunas district, Lithuania
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: marius.aleinikovas@mi.lt
Milda PUKALSKIENĖ
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: milda.skemaite@ktu.lt
Antanas BALTRUŠAITIS
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: antanas.baltrusaitis@ktu.lt
Mindaugas ŠKĖMA
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: skeminis@yahoo.com
Benas ŠILINSKAS
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: benas.silinskas@mi.lt
Lina BENIUŠIENĖ
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: lina.beniusiene@mi.lt
Iveta VARNAGIRYTĖ-KABAŠINSKIENĖ
Tel: +37037547221, E-mail: iveta.kabasinskiene@mi.lt
Abstract
The study was based on sustainable wood eco-treatment in order to improve its properties
and resistance without harming the environment. The aim of this study was to determinate the
influence of different thermal treatments – additives Fe2O3 or FeCl3 with and without commercial
tannins - on Pinus Sylvestris L., Picea Abies (L.) H. Karst., Pseudotsuga menziesii, Juglans Regia L.
and Acer platanoides L. wood mass loss and wood density. The total phenolic compounds in the wood
of different species after thermal processing were also analysed.
This study has shown that wood reaction to different treatments after thermal processing were
much dependent on tree species, therefore, different treatments gave quite contradictory responses.
More similar response was found for two conifers – Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies – in case of mass
loss and wood density. The treatments with additives Fe2O3 or FeCl3 with and without commercial
tannins decreased the content of total phenolic compounds compared with the control treatment in the
wood of Pinus sylvestris, Picea Abies and Acer platanoides. While, the content of total phenolic
compounds in Juglans Regia wood increased when pure FeCl3 and FeCl3 together with tannins were
added, and in Pseudotsuga menziesii wood when FeCl3 together with tannins were added.
Key words: iron oxides; iron salt; commercial tannins; phenolic compounds; mass loss; wood density.
413
INTRODUCTION
Wood, being a polymeric composite of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, is a preferred
building material valued economically as a renewable source with relatively durable and aesthetical
properties. Despite the mentioned features, several disadvantageous properties such as
biodegradability, changing dimensions with varying moisture contents, and degradability by ultraviolet
(UV) light and other substances often limit the wider use of wood. The properties are intending to
change due to internal chemical reactions, wood strength is lost as this polymer undergoes biological
degradation through oxidation, hydrolysis, and dehydration reactions (Rowell 1983, 2006). Wood
exposed outdoors undergoes photochemical degradation primarily in the lignin component, due to UV
light, which gives rise to characteristic colour changes (Rowell 1983).
The additional value of differently modified (thermally at elevated temperatures, chemically as
acetylation with acetic anhydride, furfurylation with furfural alcohol, or treating with modifying resins,
using pressure methods, etc.) wood has been known for decades (studies reviewed by Rowell 1983,
Kotilainen 2000, Zaman et al. 2000, Militz and Hill 2005, Kocaefe et al. 2008, Gunduz et al. 2008,
Bakar et al. 2013, Hannouz et al. 2015, Sidorova 2016). Chemical modification is costly and time-
consuming and requires fastidious processing. Therefore, heat treatment, one physical modification,
has attracted attention in academic and industry fields due to its cost-effectiveness and environmental
friendliness. After thermal treatment, the chemical composition of wood change, therefore reducing the
water absorption of wood, as well as improving its dimensional stability and biological durability (Wang
et al. 2015). Natural product based preservatives (plant/bark/heartwood extracts and oils, waxes,
resins, tannins, etc.) extracted during thermal processing do not show toxicity to the environment may
be an alternative to the traditional wood preservatives, effective against wood destroying organisms,
and act as antioxidants and are able to provide some protection against weathering degradations
(Yamaguchi and Okuda 1998, Tascioglu et al. 2013). Extractives are predominant contributors to
wood colour, fragrance and durability. The main phenolics, found in wood and bark, are tannins.
Tannins are classified in hydrolysable and condensed tannins. Hydrolysable tannins are combinations
of simple phenols, like pyr-ogallol and ellagic acid, and of esters of a sugar, primarily glucose along
with gallic and digallic acids. Both types of tannins (hydrolysable and condensed) are able to act as an
agent with metals, because both of them have the potential to oxidize the phenol groups (antioxidant)
and to complex the metal by ortho-diphenol complexation.
Due to successful commercialisation, the modified wood is currently used in Europe in many
indoor and outdoor applications (Sundqvist 2004, Militz 2008). However, recently, the search for the
most efficient and sustainable modification method continues. The basic idea of more sustainable
wood eco-treatment is to improve its overall properties and performance without harming the
environment. Overall, this study was based on the search for environmentally friendly wood
modification technologies and methods to improve the physico-chemical and aesthetic properties of
wood.
It has been observed that the trees in the bog environment have undergone a great chemical
change over the years. Bog wood is a wood preserved in a bog due to anaerobic conditions. The
extremely low oxygen conditions of the bog protect the wood from decay, while the underlying peat
provides acidic conditions where iron salts and other minerals react with the tannins in the wood,
gradually giving it a distinct dark brown to almost black colour. Under the influence of the minerals and
iron from the water, the decomposition of wood is considerably slow. The centuries-long process
changes the wood colour and increase hardness. In the early stages, such wood has very good
properties, resistance to environmental conditions (changes in weather conditions or the impact of
organisms), and in later stages it forms carbon. In natural conditions, bog wood can be obtained from
any tree species that naturally grows in the bog or nearby bog, including oak and pine. Bog wood is a
rare form of wood with properties similar to the most expensive tropical tree species.
Despite the complicated extraction conditions, rarity and costliness, the use of bog wood in
science, industry and other areas is quite extensive. Due to the high durability of such wood,
dendrochronology science can provide a lot of important information on long-term changes in climate
or growth conditions. In the furniture industry or woodwork, carvings such wood has a demand for its
aesthetic qualities, natural colour. Applying modern drying techniques, larger oak wood boards are
used for flooring, furniture, doors, window frames and sculptures.
The simulation of a specific bog environment for wood eco-modification was hypothesised as
a relatively short way to develop a sustainable product. Grosse et al. (2019), aiming to improve the
wood properties, treated the wood with lactic acid-based treatments with addition of chestnut tannins.
Their results showed increased biological resistance and product persistence of modified wood.
Tannins biological activity is linked to their antioxidant property (Perron et al. 2009, Valette et
al. 2017). Iron ions are widely used in the qualitative analyses of various phenolic substances because
414
such ions react easily with them to produce colouring substances. In wood there are many phenolic
substances, such as lignin and tannin.
The aim of this study was to determinate the influence of different thermal treatments –
additives Fe2O3 or FeCl3 with and without commercial tannins - on Pinus Sylvestris L., Picea Abies (L.)
H. Karst., Pseudotsuga menziesii, Juglans Regia L. and Acer platanoides L. wood mass loss and
wood density. The chemical study was focused on total phenolic compounds (TPC) assessment in the
wood of different tree species after thermal processing.

Five tree species Pinus Sylvestris L., Picea Abies (L) H. Karst., Pseudotsuga menziesii,
Juglans Regia L. and Acer Platanoides L. were obtained from a sawmill and their samples were used
for the experiment. Wood samples were cut from each species and totally 60 defect free wood
samples with dimensions of 20mm by 20mm by 180mm were prepared. All wood samples were oven-
dried at 105°C to constant mass prior to treatment and then the mass and volume of the samples were
measured. The sets of 12 wood samples from each tree species (12 replications) were exposed to the
different solvents for 72 hours at a constant temperature of 130°C in a laboratory pot. The details of
different conditions/treatments and the control treatment are described in Table 1.
Initially, different solvents for the wood treatment were prepared, using distilled water, as a
base, and iron oxide (Fe2O3), iron salt (FeCl3) and commercial tannins were added into the laboratory
pot. To maintain a constant solvent level and concentration, additional amount of distilled water was
poured. During the entire treatment period (72 hours), the amount of used water amounted 4 L plus 4
L, poured gradually. After the treatment, wood samples were oven-dried at 105°C to constant mass
and the mass and volume of the samples were measured again.
Table 1
Treating conditions
Duration / temperature Species /
Amount of additives Amount of water
of thermal processing replications
8 g FeCl3 Pinus sylvestris,
8 g FeCl3 + Picea Abies,
50 g commercial tannins 4 L distilled water + Pseudotsuga
4 L distilled water 72 hours / menziesii,
8 g Fe2O3
during all thermal 130°C Juglans Regia, Acer
8 g Fe2O3 + processing platanoides /
50 g commercial tannins 12 replications for
Control, no additives. each species
For chemical analyses, the solvents with Fe2O3 or FeCl3 and with or without tannins after
thermal processing were sampled. The solvents after the processing of each tree species were
sampled into individual laboratory test-tubes and transported to the laboratory. The chemical study
was focused to compare concentration variations of extractible phenolics from Pinus sylvestris, Picea
Abies, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Juglans Regia and Acer platanoides. Here, the extraction with water
and in addition with commercial tannins and FeCl3 and Fe2O3 was tested. Total phenolic compounds
in analysed solvents after thermal processing were semi-quantitatively evaluated with a Folin-
Ciocalteu reagent (Singleton and Rossi 1965). According this procedure commercial reagent was
diluted with distilled water at a ratio 1:10. The reaction mixture was prepared by mixing of 150µL of
tested solvent after thermal treatment, 750µL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent solution and 600µL of 7.5%
sodium carbonate solution. The absorption was read after 60min at λ = 765nm. The samples were
prepared in triplicate for each analysis and the mean value of absorbance was obtained. The same
procedure was repeated for the standard solution of gallic acid and the calibration line was construed
2
(y = 10.8386x + 0.036, R = 0.993). The TPC was expressed in mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) / 1
kg of tested wood species after processing.

The simulation of artificial conditions, containing various chemical additives close to bog
environment, was hypothesised as a relatively short way to develop a more sustainable wood product.
As the objective of this study was test different wood modification treatments, searching for
environmentally friendly technology, the impact of the phenolic substances - tannins, naturally found in
415
wood, especially oak wood, were also tested. It is well known that iron ions are used in the qualitative
analyses of various phenolic substances because such ions react easily with them to produce
colouring substances (Hon and Shiraishi 2010). One of the most efficient indicators of the treatment
efficiency is mass loss of wood due to its thermal degradation (Tenorio and Moya 2013, Candelier et
al. 2016).
The results of this study showed that during the thermal processing with distilled water (control
treatment) wood samples lost relatively large proportions of mass. In this case, Pinus sylvestris and
Pseudotsuga menziesii wood lost 7.5% of mass, Picea Abies, Acer platanoides and Juglans Regia
lost about 4-5% of mass (Fig. 1). When wood samples were treated with Fe2O3, the mass of wood
samples decreased slightly by 2-4% for all species, except Picea Abies, which mass did not changed
(data not shown). When wood samples were treated with Fe2O3 and tannins, the dry mass of wood
samples decreased by 3% for Juglans Regia or remained stable for Pseudotsuga menziesii and Acer
platanoides. However, the dry mass increased by 3% for Pinus sylvestris and Picea Abies. When
wood samples were treated with FeCl3 and tannins, the dry mass of wood samples decreased by 6-
8% for Pseudotsuga menziesii, Acer platanoides and Juglans Regia, and by 3% for Pinus sylvestris
and Picea Abies (Fig. 1).
8 8
Treatment: H2O + Fe2O3 + tannins Treatment: H2O + FeCl3 + tannins
6 6
4 4
2
2
0
0 Pinus Picea abies Pseudotsuga Juglans Regia Acer
Pinus Picea abies Pseudotsuga Juglans Regia Acer
-2 sylvestris menziesii platanoides
sylvestris menziesii platanoides
-2
-4
-4
-6
-6
-8
-8
8
Control treatment: H2O
6
0
Pinus Picea abies Pseudotsuga Juglans Regia Acer
-2 sylvestris menziesii platanoides
-4
-6
-8
Fig. 1.
Relative percentage changes of mass of wood samples of different tree species after different
treatments. The values obtained before treatment taken as reference value (100% or zero in
the Fig.). For values greater than the reference value, the relative change is a positive number
and for values that are smaller, the relative change is negative. Bars show standard error of
mean, n = 12.
The thermal processing and different treatments caused different response of wood density
(Fig. 2). The obtained changes after thermal processing in the treatment with additive Fe2O3 together
with commercial tannins could be grouped as follows: not detectable - up to 1% for Juglans Regia and
Acer platanoides, slight changes (decrease trend) - up to 2% for Pseudotsuga menziesii, and visible
changes of 4-5% (increase trend) for Picea Abies and Pinus sylvestris. The wood treatment with
additive FeCl3 and tannins resulted in 7.5% and 6.2% decreased wood density for Pseudotsuga
menziesii and Acer platanoides, respectively, compared to the wood density obtained before treatment
416
(Fig. 2). Due to the thermal processing, the wood density of Juglans Regia decreased by 2.3%, while
the wood density of Pinus sylvestris and Picea Abies slightly increased (up to 2%).
In the control treatment, the wood density of Pinus sylvestris and Picea Abies increased by
1.9-3.2% after thermal processing (data not shown). However, wood density of Juglans Regia and
Acer platanoides – decreased by 1.3-1.7%, and Pseudotsuga menziesii – even by 5.8%.
8 8
Treatment: H2O + Fe2O3 + tannins Treatment: H2O + FeCl3 + tannins
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
Pinus Picea abies Pseudotsuga Juglans Regia Acer Pinus Picea abies Pseudotsuga Juglans Regia Acer
sylvestris menziesii platanoides sylvestris menziesii platanoides
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-8 -8
Fig. 2.
Relative percentage changes of wood density of different tree species after different
treatments. The values obtained before treatment taken as reference value (100% or zero in the
Fig.). For values greater than the reference value, the relative change is a positive number and
for values that are smaller, the relative change is negative. Bars show standard error of mean,
n = 12.
The measured exchanges of total phenolic compounds (TPC) in the wood of different tree
species are presented in Fig 3. Obtained results showed that additives Fe2O3 and FeCl3 and
commercial tannins in most cases decreased the content of total phenolic compounds compared with
control. For instance, content of TPC of Acer platanoides wood decreased approximately 50% and
32%, respectively, when FeCl3 and FeCl3 together with commercial tannins were added. However,
different results were obtained when additives Fe2O3 and commercial tannins were added. For
instance, TPC of the same species Acer platanoides wood decreased by 30% and 48% when added
Fe2O3 and Fe2O3 together with commercial tannins, respectively. The same tendency was observed for
other species, such Pinus sylvestris and Picea Abies. Only Juglans Regia and Pseudotsuga
possessed contradictory results. For instance, during thermal processing when additives FeCl3 and
FeCl3 together with commercial tannins were added, the content of extractible Juglans Regia TPC
increased approximately 12% and 28%, respectively.
During thermal processing solvent soluble compounds can cause an accumulation of the
discoloured compounds on the surface due to migration from the inner wood when the solvent
evaporates. This reaction usually caused by a chemical interaction between iron ions and wood
compounds such as hydrolysable tannins, which form non-extractable compounds and increases the
stain and durability of wood. Usually water, iron and phenolic substances enrich a colour of wood.
When iron dissolves in water, iron ions are produced, since wood is an acidic substance and together
with iron ions undergoes partial hydrolysis in an exothermic reaction, and result in a strongly acidic
solution which may accelerate ionization by oxygen, in this case iron ions react with hydroxyl groups in
phenolic compounds in wood and form dark colour and durability of wood (Hon and Shiraishi 2001).
Acidic conditions may act as a depolymerization catalyst that further increases decomposition causing
loss of mass, density, and mechanical properties. For instance, Wang et al. (2015) reported that low
molecular phenolic compounds in the wood of conifers, contain flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans,
which molecules may prove antifungal, antibacterial and antioxidant properties.
417
50 50
H2O + FeCl3 H2O + FeCl3 + tannins

30 30
10 10
-10 -10 sylvestris menziesii platanoides
sylvestris menziesii platanoides
-30 -30
-50
-50
-70
-70
50 50
H2O + Fe2O3 + tannins
H2O + Fe2O3
30 30
10 10
-10 sylvestris menziesii platanoides -10 sylvestris menziesii platanoides
-30 -30
-50 -50
-70 -70
Fig. 3.
Relative percentage changes of total phenolic compounds (mg GAE - gallic acid equivalent / 1 kg
of sample after processing) of different tree species after different treatments. The values
obtained after the control (H2O) treatment taken as reference value (100% or zero in the Fig.). For
values greater than the reference value, the relative change is a positive number and for values
that are smaller, the relative change is negative. Bars show standard error of mean, n = 3.
Different studies showed contradictory data obtained from different wood treatment
experiments: the data varied due to wood species, initial moisture contents, and treatment intensities.
For example, Tenorio and Moya (2013) studied mass loss along with heat treatment and found its
dependence on wood species, specifics of drying process and treatment intensity. Chaouch et al.
(2010) found that hardwoods (Fagus sylvatica L., Populus nigra L., Fraxinus excelsior L.) were more
sensitive to thermal degradation than softwoods (Pinus sylvestris L., Abies pectinate Lam.), as
demonstrated by the higher mass losses recorded for the same treatment duration. It should be
pointed out that only small mass losses were observed due to vaporization of volatile extractives and
of bound water absorbed on the wood fibres until 160°C and thermo-degradations begin at higher
temperatures (Chaouch et al. 2010). Earlier findings also concluded that wood species of lower
densities generally are more resistant to thermal treatment than those of higher density and this was
tried to explain by intrinsic thermal properties of each wood species.
CONCLUSIONS
This study has shown that mass loss of all studied tree species wood depended on individual
wood properties and different environmental resistance. The mass loss after thermal processing was
obtained in all treatments, including the control treatment, for all species, except Pinus sylvestris and
Picea Abies wood in the treatment with additive FeO3 together with tannins.
418
Among all species, Pinus sylvestris and Picea Abies wood density after thermal processing
also responded differently than other species, i.e. the wood density of these conifers increased after
the thermal processing. However, wood density of other species - Pseudotsuga menziesii, Juglans
Regia and Acer platanoides evidently increased in the control and FeCl3 with tannins treatments or
slightly decreased in Fe2O3 with tannins treatment.
Generally, different treatments of pure Fe2O3 and FeCl3 or Fe2O3 and FeCl3 applied together
with commercial tannins decreased the content of total phenolic compounds compared with the control
treatment in the wood of Pinus sylvestris, Picea Abies and Acer platanoides. More contradictory
values were obtained for the wood of Pseudotsuga menziesii and Juglans Regia.
The theoretical implications of these findings still remain unclear and further experimentation
is provided.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has received funding from European Regional Development Fund (project No
01.2.2-LMT-K-718-01-0021) under grant agreement with the Research Council of Lithuania (LMTLT).
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STUDY OF WOODEN SURFACE CARBONIZATION USING THE TRADITIONAL

JAPANESE YAKISUGI TECHNIQUE
David EBNER
Department of Wood Science, Czech Republic
Rene STELZER
Salzburg University for Applied Sciences, Forest Products and Timber Construction, Austria
Marius Catalin BARBU

Salzburg University for Applied Sciences, Forest Products and Timber Construction, Austria
University “Transilvania” of Brasov, Faculty for Wood Engineering, Romania
Abstract
The traditional method “Yakisugi” or “Shou Sugi Ban” used for the charring of the wood
surfaces, applied to European native wood species is explored. The economic and ecological aspects
were also considered. This thermal treatment was designed to facilitate the wooden surface
carbonization and to develop a uniform carbonized layer. Using this method, the durability of sawn
timber increases significantly. The charred boards can be used as façade elements or considered as
fire-resistant solutions in constructions.
Key words: Yakisugi; wood surface traditional Japanese treatment; fire resistant wooden surface;
carbonization.
INTRODUCTION
Wooden façades with all relevant constructive details define the quality in optical appearance
and long durability of a cladding. The combination of constructive details and the right choice of the
wood species and surface treatment is the key to a durable wooden house (Scheiding et al. 2016). A
lot of combinations are possible to produce a wood facade because there is a variety of different wood
species and different wood modification treatments or surface protection methods.
Yakisugi is a method of conserving both historical and modern wooden buildings in central
Japan. The advantage of the traditional Japanese charring method is that fire generates a protective
carbonized surface. The energy for the fire is provided by the burning lumber itself. Using the physical
effect of a chimney by putting together three lumber planks in a triangular prism, filled at one side with
wood shavings wrapped in newspaper, high internal temperatures can be reached without using
external energy sources to carbonize the lumber surface.
The benefit of a carbon layer is to protect the surface of wood from moisture, prevent air to
enter internal parts of the cross-section and improves also the flammability of wood (Špilák 2018). The
charcoal layer makes the wood less susceptible to wood-decomposing fungi and protects it against
moisture. For this reason, for the wooden poles a thermal treatment is necessary prior to bury them
into the ground.
The carbon layer, which arises in fires of wooden buildings and construction, has a fire-
retardant effect (Vavrušková and Lokaj 2009). The forming charcoal layer reduces the thermal
conductivity, which prevents further burning (Niemz 1993, Buchanan 2001).
Charred wood surfaces have proved to be a protective layer for facades, especially in Japan,
where they are still being used (VanderGoot 2017). The charcoal layer, which is up to 5mm thick,
makes it unattractive for wood- decay fungi (Kollmann 1951), as the pH-value increases by the
charring procedure (Weber and Quicker 2018). During the burning the flammable substances such as
lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose and other wood chemical components are largely degraded in the
first millimetres of wood. UV radiation has no altering effect anymore. With this charred surface the
wood gains a protective layer (Kymäläinen 2017). Records of the exact length of durability of charred
wood surface are not directly known. In Japan, 500 years old buildings were conserved due to
Yakisugi method. Maintenance of these surfaces is necessary to increase their service life. The main
application of charred wood surfaces is incladdings (Stelzer 2017).
Due to the exposure at high temperature the physical- and chemical properties of wood are
changing (Hill 2006). The first modification of the wood properties occurs before it burns. This thermal
decomposition starts at 105°C. Whereas the maximum temperatures in thermally modified timber can
421
reach 250°C, during the carbonization the temperatures are higher. The process that leads to create a
carbon layer starts at temperatures around 270°C, when the ignition temperature is reached when the
wood starts to burn. Temperatures above 400°C determine the combustion with an open flame, in
which the wood turns to black by the exothermic decomposition and slowly develops the carbon layer.
At 500°C, the fire spreads horizontally and vertically on the surface. Exceeding 500°C, the charcoal
residues are burned. From 500-550°C the tar components drive off and increase the fixed carbon
(Forestry 1985).
MATERIAL AND METHODS:

YAKISUGI
Yakisugi is the Japanese method for superficial charring of lumber. A literally translation returns
„burnt cedar”. Also known as "Shou Sugi Ban". "Sugi" is the Japanese term for cedar (Cryptomeria
japonica), known in Europe as "Japanese cedar". The purpose of this method is to increase the
durability of the wood for exterior use on buildings by charring the surface. The 3 - 5mm thick carbon
layer protects the wood from the external influences. In addition, the carbon layer surface can be
treated with glazes/enamels or oils. Traditionally, an oil obtained from the fruit of the khaki tree is
used. Also, tung oil or flax seed varnishes are used. There are no traditional sources that describe the
exact origin of this method. For example, in the grey literature is reported about this technique used for
over a thousand years (Stelzer 2016).
In this traditionally Japanese process, 2 to 4m long lumber boards are tied together to form a
triangular prism. These are held together with water-soaked cords (Fig. 1). The edges of the boards
overlap a few millimetres and cover one part of the other board (Fig. 2). The width of the boards is
between 200-300mm and the thickness varies between 12-22mm. A manufacturing process
documented by the authors observations in Japan is described below. In this manner the Yakisugi
manufacturer Miyazawa from Fan Landscape Inc., along with Morishita from Shinwa Inc. from
Shizuoka carbonize the lumber surface.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Example of a triangular prism made of Details of the triangular prism made of
lumber bound with water soaked cords lumber before burning (Stelzer 2016).
(Stelzer 2016).
After the sawn wood boards are tied together to a triangular prism, a hand full of wood shavings
wrapped in newspaper is introduced in on lower end of the wood board prism which works on the
same principle as a chimney (Fig. 3). The newspaper bunch is ignited using a Bunsen burner. The
chimney is then placed with the lighted side on brick stones. The brick stones are arranged in a
special manner, so that enough air can flow into the chimney and the newspaper package is able to
fall down after the starting energy was provided (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Detail with the wood shavings wrapped in Wooden triangular chimney placed on brick
newspaper (Stelzer 2016). stones (Stelzer 2016).
422
After the rest of the newspaper bunch fallen out of plenty of air can flow through the chimney.
The rest of the wood shavings are still burning and treat the lower edges of the wooden boards. As
long as the flame spread works on the inside of the chimney, the board triangular prism must be kept
in an oblique position and finally set up vertically. In this way the chimney effect is generated, which
keeps the fire running. To ensure a long-term burning the board prism is opened laterally, so that that
more air supply is established. Without opening on the sides, only a strong smoke would be produced
and the fire is extinguished. In addition, this has the benefit that the otherwise overlapping wood board
sides faces can also be charred. Using metal levers, at intervals, all wood board sides faces are
opened once at a time and rotated from their position so that the overlapping edges can also be
reached by the fire and carbonize in this way (Fig.5).
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Opening of burning chimney using metal Laying down of the inside carbonized triangular
levers (Stelzer 2016). prism and fire extinction (Stelzer 2016).
All edges have to be opened long enough to ensure a uniform charring of the surface. Around
five minutes after ignition, the 4m long burning triangular prism is laid down and the water-soaked
cords are released. When the chimney collapse in this way, the fire stops (Fig.6). Water applied with a
soft hand spray on the charred layer helps prevent afterglow and ashes (Fig.7). The extinguished
wooden boards are stacked one above the other with the charred sides up (Fig.8). In this example, the
carbon layer is left untreated and afterwards does not receive any surface treatment with oil for
stabilization.
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Fire and afterglow extinction after opening of Stacking of one side carbonized
chimney (Stelzer 2016). wooden boards (Stelzer 2016).
According to Morishita (2017), the sawn wood boards are previously dried to a wood moisture
content (MC) of 15-20%. After charring the MC is around 18%. The raw carbon layer is not further
treated with glazes or oils. Within 20 years, weathering removes the charring. After this time, a wood
preservation coating is used to maintain the wood preservation (Stelzer 2016).
In addition to the method already described, there are manufacturing steps which have some
differences. Depending on the width and length of the boards or the number of persons involved,
various techniques have been developed for charring the surface.
These steps will be briefly presented and discussed below and relate in particular to the joining
technique, the method of turning around and the types of after treatment:
- Joining technique: The connection of the board triangular prism already presented is made as
described with water-soaked cords. Another type of connection to create a wood triangle which
performs as a chimney can accomplish with chains and tension springs. These springs have the
advantage to enable possibility to clamp wedges between the boards during the charring process. Just
when only one person is involved in the process, this method is used because it allows an almost
simultaneous opening of the sides for a uniform carbonization of the edges of the boards.
423
- Turning around: The handling of flipping the burning board triangular prism was only observed in
online videos. Although this method is not necessarily used in Japan. At a length of up to
approximately 2,5m, the triangular prism is turned over after half of the entire burning period on the
other side of the opening. This also makes possible to carbonize the lower part of the boards more
strongly, because after flipping the flames reach this area well through the chimney effect.
- After-treatment: If desired, the charred surface may be treated with natural oils to stabilize the fragile
charcoal layer. This has the advantage to touch the otherwise sooty surface without becoming black.
Other possible aftertreatments include coarse removal of the carbon layer by manual brushing.
The top layer is then removed, cleaned with damp cloths and then oiled. These oils can be for
example kaki-oil, tung oil or flux oil. To improve this procedure the oil coating is briefly heated again
with a gas flame. This process produces a very dark surface, structured at the same time by the
harder, lasting latewood annual rings. These boards are also used for cladding facade (Stelzer 2016).
GAS FLAMING
Treating the wood surface with gas is less a matter of producing a purely charred surface than
to receive a dark emphasis of the tree ring drawing by an additional brushing. The burning also causes
a "hard and resistant surface" (Rothkamp et al. 2003).The process described below shows the
preparation of Yakisugi wood from the manufacturer by flaming with a gas mixture. This mixture allows
a stronger flame with higher temperatures. Charring with gas use a special customized machine
(Fig.9). The planed boards are moved forward by automatically controlled conveyor rollers. Depending
on the intensity of the flame, it is possible to produce different thicknesses of the charred layer by
changing the speed of the conveyor rollers. The flame impinges on the board from above and the
degree of charring can be determined depending on the intensity of the gas supply and feed rate
(Fig.10). For boards which are too wide for the machine or which require reworking, a manual gas
flame device is used.
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

Wood charring machine using gas Different gas charred surfaces
(Stelzer 2016). (Stelzer 2016).
In contrast to the traditional method, flaming with gas does not enable, according to Morishita,
to reach the same charred layer thickness up to 5mm
DECORATIVE SHAPING
After the carbonisation process, the wooden boards run through a brushing machine (Fig.11).
This removes the soft carbon layer and leaves a structure on treated surface. In a closed chamber
with an exhaustion system, individual coarse brushes are mounted horizontally. These brushes are
applied many times over the carbon layer. At the same time, an amount of the earlywood is removed.
A softer counter-rotating brush at the end of the procedure will eventually brush away fine particles.
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Brushing machine for charred wooden Brushed charred wood board (Stelzer
boards (Stelzer 2016). 2016).
424
Depending on how intensively the board was charred, part of the charred, dark latewood layer
remains (Fig.12). After brushing, the boards can be treated with natural oils, depending on the interior
or exterior use (Fig.13). By subsequent oiling, the already emphasized structure can be emphasized
once again and the colour setting of the wood can be determined. By painting the surfaces and then
light brushing, another effect of a coloured wooden surface can be achieved (Fig.14). Colour
schemes, are particularly suitable for interior work. In order to use coloured wooden surfaces such as
this outdoors, a suitable surface finish is required, which protects against UV radiation and the effects
of moisture
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

Exampe of Yakisugi treated Sakuma Painted brushed charred brushed wooden
(Stelzer 2016). façade in wooden surface in Asahikawa
(Stelzer 2016).
DISCUSSION
The aim of this work was to investigate whether the traditional Japanese method "Yakisugi" can
also be used in Central Europe as a chemical-free, thermal processing for wood cladding lumber
facades. It has been shown that using this form of charred wood in the facade area is a very effective
product, both technically and in terms of design. A protective effect is given. However, the facade
timbers should be technically correct applied on the building. For certain areas of the facade where
excessive moisture accumulation is expected, should be used other building materials. The ground
contact should be avoided. Areas where physically surface damage is expected, for example a bicycle
which is lean against the facade, should be avoided too. Any other areas of the house can be
protected with charred facade cladding. In this research, buildings with both orientations (horizontal
and vertical) of "Yakisugi" gladding facades were found. A further development possibility of the
traditional Japanese method also for European wood species such as Spruce (Picea Abies) could be
achieved.
Using a gas flame for charring should not be the first choice for manufacturing facade cladding
boards. To achieve a consistent and uniform carbon layer would need a high consumption of gas. It's
also a slow process. The advantage of an environmentally friendly method is not achievable.
Furthermore, the gas consumption means an additional cost, which would increase the price for the
product.
The production of charred facade boards requires some preconditions, as the process may
pose a threat to the surrounding environment around the production site through the use of open
flames and the formation of smoke with glowing particles. The production site cannot be chosen
flexibly. The circumstances of these dangers require serious preparation. It requires sufficient safety
distance to buildings, vehicles or flammable dangerous goods. Heavy smoke only occurs during the
carbonization process and when the fire is extinguished. During the firing process, burning particles
can be blown away by the wind into further distances (Stelzer 2016).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
The authors thanks for the support to Dr. Hikaru Kobori from Shizuoka University, to Terumitsu
Miyazawa from Fan Landscape Inc. and to Isao Morishita from Shinwa. Inc. in Shizuoka, Japan. Also
a special thanks goes to Dr. Eugenia Tudor from Salzburg Universitiy of Applied Sciences / University
“Transilvania” of Brasov for the suggestions during the editing of this paper.
425
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Beams with Different Geometric Cross-Section Shape. Fire Protection and Safety, 12(2):65-81.
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urbanism, Bocca Raton: Taylor and Francis Group, pp. 276.
426
WOOD RESISTANCE TO SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE CHANGES AFTER SMOKE

TREATMENT
Yusuf Sudo HADI
IPB University (Bogor Agricultural University), Faculty of Forestry
Kampus IPB Darmaga 16680, Bogor, Indonesia
Tel/Fax: +62-251-862-1285, E-mail: yshadi@indo.net.id
Imam Busyra ABDILLAH

Tel/Fax: +62-251-862-1285, E-mail: ibusyra.a@gmail.com
Muh Yusram MASSIJAYA

Tel/Fax: +62-251-862-1285, E-mail: mymassijaya@yahoo.co.id
Gustan PARI
Forest Products Research and Development Center, Ministry of Environment and Forestry
16618, Bogor, Indonesia
E-mail: gustanp@yahoo.com
Wa Ode Muliastuty ARSYAD

Forest Products Research and Development Center, Ministry of Environment and Forestry
16618, Bogor, Indonesia
E-mail: waodemuliastuty@gmail.com
Abstract
Log from plantation forest is dominated by wood form fast growing species. The trees are cut
at a young age, it caused the timber were dominated by a high proportion of sapwood and juvenile
wood. Therefore, the timber lacks of resistance to subterranean termite attack. Various types of
treatments were research on to improve wood resistance, for example smoked wood. Smoke
treatment on wood is one of eco- and environmental friendly process. The purposes of this study to
assess smoked jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba) and pine (Pinus merkusii) woods regard to
resistance to subterranean termite (Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren) attack in laboratory scale.
The test according to Indonesian standard SNI 7207-2014. The woods were classified into five class
from class V (very poorly resistance) to class I (very resistance). Smoke as byproduct sourced from
salam (Syzygium polyanthum) wood, which pyrolyzed to produce charcoal. The condensed smoke
was analyzed using GC-MS. The jabon and pine wood sample were smoked for one-, two, and three-
weeks. For comparison, untreated wood and imidacloprid-preserved wood samples were prepared.
The main chemical compound of liquid smoke was dominated by acetic acid, followed by phenolic
compounds, ketones, benzenes, and aldehydes. All smoke-treated and imidacloprid-preserved were
increase jabon and pine wood resistance. Untreated wood jabon and pine wood were classified to
poorly resistant (class IV), Pine wood sample with all treatment were very resistant (class I). But for
jabon wood only with the 3-week smoking treatment reached class I.
Key words: biocide; smoked wood; subterranean termite; wood preservation; wood resistance.
INTRODUCTION
3
Log production in Indonesia was 43 million m in 2017, with 87% of the logs coming from
plantations that cover a total area of 11.18 million ha (Ministry of Environment and Forestry 2018).
Logs are ultimately used for wood products, such as chips, wood furniture, panels, paper, pulp, and
veneer, as well as wood crafts and woodworking. According to the Ministry of Environment and
Forestry (2018), the value of timber exports reached US$11.01 billion in 2017. Jabon (Anthocephalus
cadamba) and pine (Pinus merkusii) are the wood species commonly planted in plantations in
Indonesia. Fajriani et al. (2013) reported that wood from plantation forests has low physical-
427
mechanical properties because it contains a high proportion of sapwood and juvenile wood. Such
wood also has low durability. These properties can be increased by improving the quality of the wood.
Several types of wood quality improvements have been carried out. For example, acetylation
of rubber wood was found to increase wood resistance to termite and fungus attacks (Hadi et al.
1995). Chemical modification of wood by furfurylation and impregnation with various compounds can
improve physical-mechanical properties and durability of wood (Hadi et al. 2005, 2013, 2015b; Sejati
et al. 2017). Improvement of wood quality will continue to be developed to produce durable wood, an
efficient and environmentally friendly process. Smoke treatment of wood is a simple preservation
process that is environmentally friendly (Hadi et al. 2010a, 2010b, 2012). Smoking process to woods
of mindi (Melia azedarach), sengon (Falcataria moluccana), sugi (Cryptomeria japonica), pulai
(Alstonia sp.), and glulam wood from fast-growing wood, smoking can increase wood durability against
termite attacks (Hadi et al. 2012, 2015a, 2016a, 2016b).
Hadi et al. (2016a) found that wood smoke from mangium (Acacia mangium) wood contains
compounds that can increase the durability of wood. These include acetic acid compounds,
cyclobutanol, phenolic compounds, and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, Toledo
(2008) reported that smoke from different species of wood will have different chemical compositions.
One wood species that can be used in smoke treatment is salam (Syzygium polyanthum).
Salam wood has a medium specific gravity and a high amount of chemical compounds, especially
extractive substances (Martawijaya et al. 2004). These characteristics highlight the need for research
on wood smoke from different wood species to determine whether there are differences in the
resistance of smoke-treated wood.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to investigate the resistance to subterranean
termite attack in smoked wood using salam smoke.

Materials
Five treatments were applied to separate samples of jabon and pine wood from Bogor,
Indonesia. All wood samples were 0.5 cm by 2.5 cm in cross section and 2.5 cm in the longitudinal
direction for subterranean termite testing (SNI 7207-2014). Three of the treatments involved pyrolysis
of salam wood to produce charcoal. Jabon and pine samples were exposed to the smoke released
during pyrolysis for a period of 1, 2, or 3 weeks. For identification of the chemical compounds in the
smoke, condensed smoke or wood vinegar was trapped before entering the smoking chamber and
analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS type Agilent 7890).
The fourth treatment used a conventional preservation process with 3% imidacloprid to
produce samples for reference. The wood specimens were placed under vacuum conditions at 5 bar
for 30 min. When the vacuum was released, the preservative was inserted to the tank to soak the
wood samples, and it was followed with pressured at 5 bar for 30 min (Hadi et al. 2018). The wood
samples were then accelerated air dried with a fan until they reached an air dry condition, and also the
retention of imidacloprid was calculated.
All treated samples were conditioned at room temperature for 1 month prior to the tests.
Untreated wood was also prepared as a control for the experiments in this study, and 10 replications
were performed for each test.
Subterranean Termite Test

Each wood sample was placed in a 300-mL jar with 200 g of sterilized river sand with a
moisture content of 7% under holding water capacity. Each sample was positioned so that it was
touching a side of the jar. Next 200 healthy and active worker subterranean termites (Coptotermes
curvignathus Holmgren) were added to each jar. The jars were placed in a dark room at a temperature
of 25°C to 30°C and 80% to 90% relative humidity for 4 weeks. The pots were weighed each week,
and if the moisture content of the sand fell by 2% or more, water was added to reach the moisture
content standard. At the end of the 4-week test, the wood samples were oven-dried. The weight loss
(WL) of wood samples, termite mortality, and termite feeding rate were determined according to
Equations 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Based on WL, resistance class was determined according to SNI
7207 (2014) as shown in Table 1.
428
Table 1
Resistance class against subterranean termites (SNI 7207-2014)
Resistance class Sample condition Mass loss (%)
I Very resistant <3.52
II Resistant 3.52–7.50
III Moderately resistant 7.50–10.96
IV Poorly resistant 10.96–18.94
V Very poorly resistant >18.94
The weight loss (WL) of each wood sample was calculated by the difference in the weights
before and after the test period, according to Equation 1:
WL = (W1 − W2)/W1 × 100% (1)
where: W1 = weight of oven-dried wood before the test (g)

W2 = weight of oven-dried wood after the test (g).
Termite mortality was calculated according to Equation 2:
Termite mortality = (number of dead workers)/200 × 100% (2)
To calculate the feeding rate, termites were assumed to die linearly over time. On the basis of
this assumption, feeding rates could be calculated according to Equation 3 (Hadi et al. 2015b):
Daily feeding rate (μg/termite) = (weight of wood eaten; μg)/(average number of living
termites)/(number of days in the test period) (3)
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed by using a factorial 2 × 5 in a completely randomized design. The first
factor was wood species (jabon and pine), and the second factor was treatments, which included
untreated specimen (as the control), smoked (1, 2, or 3 weeks), and imidacloprid preservation.
Duncan’s test was used for further analysis if the treatment factor was significantly different at p ≤ 0.05
(Mattjik and Sumertajaya 2002). The responds in this study were WL of wood sample, termite
mortality, and feeding rate of termite.

3 3
The density of untreated jabon and pine was 0.34 ± 0.02 g/cm and 0.70 ± 0.05 g/cm ,
respectively, and the wood samples reached air dry condition with a moisture content of 12.2 ± 1.6%.
The low density of jabon wood was the same as reported by Hadi et al. (2013), and it can be
explained by jabon being a fast-growing tree species.
Retention of imidacloprid preservative in jabon and pine wood reached 11.39 ± 0.47 and 9.41
3
± 0.78 kg/m , respectively. According to the Indonesian National Standard (SNI 03-5010.1-1999),
3
retention in both types of samples was sufficient to meet the minimum requirement, 8 kg/m , of the
standard. Further data from Martawijaya et al. (2004) mentioned that pine wood belong to conifer and
jabon wood belong to hardwood. The wood cell of pine and jabon in term of length were 5,457 µm and
1,979 µm, respectively, for diameter 49 µm and 54 µm, respectively, for wall thickness 41 µm and 47
µm, respectively. The biggest lumen diameter was jabon and followed pine. Consequently, retention
values of jabon wood were higher than pine wood. It was also reflecting to the lumen diameter as well.
Chemical Compounds in Salam Smoke

GC-MS analysis showed that more than 50% of salam liquid smoke was acetic acid, followed
by phenolic compounds, ketones, benzenes, aldehydes, and other compounds. Based on the sum of
concentrations for all compounds within a group, the percentages for all compound groups in liquid
smoke are shown in Table 2.
429
Table 2
Chemical compounds of salam liquid smoke
No Chemical compound Concentration (%)
1 Acetic acid 57.69
2 Phenols (phenol, 2,6-dimethoxy-; 3-buten-2-ol, 2-methyl-; phenol $$ Baker's P 18.30
and S Liquid and Ointment $$ Benzenol; phenol, 2-methoxy-4-methyl- $$ p-
creosol; 1,2-benzenediol; vanillin)
3 Ketones (2-cyclopenten-1-one, 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-; 2-propanone, 1-(1,3- 12.21
dioxolan-2-yl)-; 2(3H)-furanone, dihydro- (CAS) $$ butyrolactone; 2-
cyclopenten-1-one)
4 Benzenes (pyridine; 6-methyl-2-phenyl-7-(4-nitrophenylmethyl)indolizine; 5.81
benzene, 1,2,3-trimethoxy-5-methyl- (CAS) $$ toluene, 3,4,5-trimethoxy-)
5 Aldehydes (acetaldehyde, O-ethyloxime-; 5-ethyl-2-furaldehyde; acetaldehyde) 0.94
6 Other compounds (methanol, ethanol, isopropyl, benzylalcohol, methylacetate, 5.05
ethylbenzoate, hydroxy-2-propanone propionate)
As suggested by Oramahi et al. (2014), the chemical compounds of liquid salam smoke may
improve the resistance of wood against subterranean termite attack. They reported that phenol and
acetic acid were effective as wood preservatives against termite attack.
Weight Loss of Wood Specimen

Wood sample WL, wood resistance class, termite mortality, and termite feeding rate are
shown in Table 3. According to the analysis of variance shown in Table 4, wood species, treatment,
and the interaction of these factors highly affected WL. In terms of wood species, jabon reached a WL
average of 6.9 ± 2.0% and pine 4.8 ± 1.6%. Jabon had a higher WL because it has lower density
compared to pine, approximately half the value for pine. If WL was expressed in mass (g), for the
same mass value of both species, the WL percentage of jabon would be twice that of pine because
the reciprocal in Equation (1) was the initial mass for a certain volume.
Table 3
WL, resistance class, mortality, and feeding rate of jabon and pine wood
Resistance Feeding rate
Wood species Treatment WL (%) Mortality (%)
class (μg/termite/day)
Jabon Untreated 16.52 (4.34) IV 18.5 (3.6) 36.3 (7.1)
Smoke 1 W 6.43 (1.87) II 100 (0) 28.4 (7.2)
Smoke 2 W 5.22 (1.30) II 100 (0) 23.9 (5.8)
Smoke 3 W 2.06 (0.87) I 100 (0) 10.5 (5.0)
Preserved 4.33 (1.65) II 100 (0) 19.0 (7.7)
Pine Untreated 11.06 (2.68) IV 15.1 (4.6) 48.6 (4.6)
Smoke 1 W 3.50 (2.29) I 100 (0) 27.5 (18.2)
Smoke 2 W 3.02 (0.83) I 100 (0) 26.0 (6.7)
Smoke 3 W 2.70 (0.98) I 100 (0) 22.1 (7.6)
Preserved 3.48 (1.23) I 100 (0) 27.5 (7.9)
Table 4
Analysis of variance weight loss, mortality, and feeding rate
Source Weight loss Mortality Feeding rate
Wood species ** ns **
Treatment ** ** **
Interaction ** ** ns
Remarks: ** highly significantly differrent at p ≤ 0.01; ns = no significantly different
Table 5
Duncan’s multi-range test for weight loss, and feeding rate
Response Wood
Control Smoke 1 W Smoke 2 W Smoke 3 W Imidacloprid
species
Weight loss Jabon 16.52a 6.42c 5.22cd 2.06f 4.33de
Pine 11.06b 2.69ef 3.01ef 3.50def 3.48def
Feeding rate 42.46a 27.92b 24.96b 16.31c 23.22b
Remarks: Values followed by the same letter in each response are not significantly different.
430
According to Duncan’s multi-range test of WL interaction factors in Table 5, untreated jabon

and pine wood had the largest WL values compared to the other samples, and they were significantly
different from all treated woods. These findings indicate that the treatments significantly enhanced
wood resistance to subterranean termite attack. Furthermore, smoke treatment for 1, 2, or 3 weeks
and conventional preservation of pine wood were not significantly different from each other, having
nearly the same WL. In the case of jabon wood, smoke treatment for 3 weeks was associated with the
lowest WL and the result was significantly different from the other treatments.
Based on the WL values shown in Table 1 (SNI 7207-2014), untreated jabon and pine can be
classified in resistance class IV, or poorly resistant to subterranean termite attack. These results are
similar to those of Hadi et al. (2015b) for jabon wood and Arinana et al. (2012) for pine wood. In these
studies, both untreated wood species had very poor resistance to subterranean termite attack. In pine
wood, smoke treatment for 1 to 3 weeks and imidacloprid preservative all enhanced the wood quality
to the extent that the wood could be classified as resistance class I, or very resistant. For jabon wood,
only the 3-week smoking treatment resulted in resistance class I; the other two smoke periods and
imidacloprid preservative improved the wood to resistance class II. In other words, smoking treatment
for 1 week was sufficient for jabon wood to be placed in class I, but 3 weeks was needed for pine
wood to reach class I.
Termite Mortality
Termite mortality with untreated jabon and pine woods was below 20%, but it was still
considerable for a laboratory test. According to the analysis of variance in Table 5, wood species did
not affect termite mortality, and both wood species were categorized as having poor resistance.
Smoke treatment and preservation enhanced resistance to the extent that all termites died. This result
is in line with Hadi et al. (2010a), who smoked sugi and mindi wood for 2 weeks, and Hadi et al.
(2012), who smoked sengon, sugi, and pulai wood for 2 weeks. In both of these studies, 100% termite
mortality occurred by the end of the test.
The presence of acetic acid and phenolic compounds in the smoke have been suggested as
being effective in increasing the resistance of wood to subterranean termite attack (Oramahi et al.
2014). This efficacy is supported by the 100% termite mortality of termites exposed to smoked wood
samples.
Termite Feeding Rate

The daily termite feeding rate, or daily wood consumption of termite, reached 36.3 ± 7.1
μg/termite for untreated jabon, which was lower than untreated pine at 48.6 ± 4.6 μg/termite. However,
the percentage WL of jabon wood was higher than that of pine (16.52% for jabon and 11.06% for
pine). Considered as the loss of real mass (g), the values for jabon and pine losses were 0.19 g and
0.25 g, respectively. These masses were consumed by the termites, resulting in the daily feeding rate
on pine being higher consequently.
According to the analysis of variance in Table 4, wood species and treatment affected the
daily termite feeding rate, but the interaction of the two factors did not. In terms of the wood species
factor, the average daily feeding rate of jabon was 23.6 μg/termite, which was significantly lower than
pine with 30.3 μg/termite. Pine belongs to the conifer family and has more simple anatomical
characteristics compared to jabon, which belongs to the broadleaf family with more complicated
characteristics. The termites presumably preferred eating pine wood rather than jabon wood. For the
treatment factor, further analysis of Duncan’s multi-range test is shown at Table 5. Untreated wood
clearly had the highest daily feeding rate, smoke treatment of 3 weeks was the lowest, and the other
treatments were between these two extremes.
The value of daily feeding rate was determined by mass (g) loss and the number of living
termites. The assumption in this research was that termites died linearly over time, but in reality they
did not. For future works, methods for counting living termites at any time during the test are needed.
CONCLUSIONS
The main chemical compound of liquid smoke was acetic acid, followed by phenolic
compounds, ketones, benzenes, and aldehydes. Untreated jabon and pine wood was poorly resistant
to subterranean termite attack. Smoking treatment could enhance wood resistance to subterranean
termite attack. For jabon wood, a 1-week smoking treatment was enough to make wood to very
resistant (class I resistance), but for pine wood required smoking treatment of 3 weeks for the same
result.
431
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was a part of Basic Research granted by the Ministry of Research, Technology,
and Higher Education of the Indonesian Republic.
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Wood Atlas], Bogor Forestry Department Indonesia.
Mattjik AA, Sumertajaya IM (2002) Perancangan Percobaan dengan Aplikasi SAS dan Minitab Jilid I,
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432
SECTION 7.
RENEWABLE
ENERGY FROM
WOODEN BIOMASS
CALORIFIC VALUES FROM GREEK SPRUCE RESIDUES & BIOENERGY

POTENTIALS VIA PELLET PRODUCTION
Konstantinos NINIKAS
University of Thessaly. Faculty of Forestry, Wood Science & Design
11 V. Grica str. 43100, Karditsa, Greece
Tel: 0030 2441064737, E-mail: kninikas@uth.gr
Georgios NTALOS
E-mail: gntalos@uth.gr
Andromachi MITANI
E-mail: amitani@teilar.gr
Dimitrios KOUTSIANITIS
E-mail: dkoutsianitis@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper presents the results of an experimental research performed with Greek Spruce
residues (Picea Abies), originating from Pindos mountain. A bomb calorimeter was used to determine
the calorific value from the Spruce’s leaves (needles), branches and bark. This was to identify the
potential to use waste by-products for pellet production. The outputs of the readings of these three
residues, taking under consideration the moisture content as well as the ash content after burning the
samples are promising showing that biomass waste can be transformed into an alternative mean of
heating fuel.
Key words: biomass; bomb calorimeter; calorific values; waste to energy.
INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuels are the foremost contributors to carbon emissions. The last two decades, efforts to
divert the origin of fuels have shifted the fuel chain, amongst other renewables, to biomass using wood
and agricultural residues. Biomass is a promising, sustainable, and eco-friendly supplier of heat
energy, improving also the carbon footprint (Demirbas 2006). Currently, wood residues offer the
means for modern energy plants (Hoogwijk et al. 2003) providing heat as well as generating electricity.
In the Greek energy market, particularly the last decade, the demand for alternative and
cheaper heat energy way-outs have been increased dramatically. 25,4% of the Greek land is covered
by forests (Greek Land Registry 2019) which makes the country reach enough to address a viable,
resource wise, fuel substitute. The most significant forest products in Greece are Spruce and Pine,
thus this study was focus on one of them. Biomass is estimated to lead the energy supply in general,
especially due to the positive carbon footprint. This is the main reason where efforts to exploit as more
as possible of the forest’s resources are undergoing. Currently, during the tree harvesting period,
apart from the main products there is no strategy or utilisation of the left overs. These by-products
(branches, leaves, bark etc.) are left in the forest, causing often major issues (risk of fire) especially
during the hot summer period.
A number of efforts have been undertaken to use such forest byproducts giving them added
value often as new market products. One of those was the construction of insulation boards (Ninikas
et al. 2019). Focusing on this research into identifying the capacity to utilise the wood residues as a
heat energy source, is another option to upscale waste forest products.
The use of pellet as a heating mean, is growing rapidly all over Northern Europe and the
Southern European countries are following this trend. The biomass burner’s technology for domestic
use has been simplified especially due to the automated feeding system and the supply of controlled
air to the burner. The cost for such an installation deliver a competitive heating solution. The
435
advantages of the pellets are such to surmount other fuels, especially wood. The transportation and
the storage are easy due to the product uniformity size wise maintaining the storage cost predicted
and low. The energy output, compared to wood, is stable and higher, the ash is at predefined levels. A
major setback often is the market demand which has to be covered, as more as possible, from local
resources in order to maintain in low levels the overall cost. This is why identifying ways to use local
waste forest products is expected to increase the available pellet volume.
OBJECTIVE
The key objective of this experimental research was to identify ways to exploit in which extend
wood byproducts may be alternatively used as a high capacity heat energy source, rather than being
discharged with an additional cost. The Spruce’s leftovers calorific value analysis is the principal task
which was undertaken to identify if those can be transformed into high valued alternative heat fuel.
This is estimated to reduce the wasted resources, keeping safe and clean the forests
following the harvesting period and also providing a simultaneous additional financial benefit to the
local economy. This process is expected to play a key role further in the transition from fossil fuels to
renewable biomass from wood residues.

At the Greek mountain Pindos during the harvesting period in Summer 2018, leftovers from
Spruce were collected and studied to identify their calorific values and heat capacity. The samples
were collected from the ground at an elevation height of 1180m. Three different batches were
compiled: leaves (needles), small branches, and bark (Fig. 1).
A B C
Fig. 1.
Spruce residues. From left to right. A: Leaves (needls), B: Branches, C: Bark.
The samples were set agreeing to the general analysis test sample (CEN/TS 14780, 2005).
For the moisture content determination, a technical specification was applied (CEN/TS 14774-3,
2004). The moisture content was initially measured for the samples A, B and C at 18,4%, 19,1% and
o
18,8% respectively. Following an oven-dried at 105 C, where the samples reached an average
moisture content of 8%, a hammer mill (Fig. 2) was used (Wiley mill, Culatti type MFC, 110-160W, Mot
KG 80-60) for grinding the three samples (Fig. 3).
A B C
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Wiley mill used for grinding the residues. Spruce’s residues after grinding.
From left to right. A: Leaves, B: Branches, C: Bark.
436
The ash content of the three samples was determined according to the ASTM D 3174-97
(1998). Two measurements per sample (six in total) were undertaken to acquire the mean value of
each sample. One gram of each sample’s powder after weighted, placed into a porcelain crucible (Fig.
o
4) and then into the furnace. The temperature was set to 580 C (Fig. 5) and the samples remained at
that temperature for four hours.
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
The samples positioned into the furnace. The samples positioned into the furnace.
An oxygen bomb calorimeter (Sundy, Model SDC 311) was used to measure the carofic
values of all three samples following the CEN/TS 14918:2005 method in an atmosphere of O2 that
affirms the complete sample’s combustion.
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Having compacted the powdered sample Preparing the bomb head.
into the capsule and attached the ignition
thread.
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Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Filling the bomb with oxygen. Final step, inserting the bomb into the apparatus.
All six samples with a weight of 1.0g (± 0.1g) were prepared acoordingly to the Standard (Figs.
3,4,5,6) and incinerated at 30 bar under pure oxygen conditions. During the inceneration, the emitted
heat was transferred to the calorimeter’s fluid, where the heat capacity (C) is specified. From the
temperature difference between the initial condition and the calorimeter’s fluid temperature (Δt) after
incineration the energy which is released from the sample and the gross-heat of combustion (PCS)
can be derived, according to Equation (1):
PCS = (C * ∆t − b) / m (1)
where: b is the correction factor. The sum of the released energy through incineration of the tread and
the ignition wire (Qz), plus the energy release that happens via the formation of nitrid acid (Qn) and
sulphur acid (Qs), Equation 2.
b = Qz + Qn + Qs (2)
Two values have to be taken into account. The first one is the Gross Calorific Value (GCV)
which is the energy amount released after a complete combustion of a mass unit of sample (at a
constant volume in an oxygen atmosphere). This is determined with the use of a bomb calorimeter
according to ASTM D2015-96 (1998). The second value is the Net Calorific Value (NCV) knowing that
the water in the product exists as a vapor. The relationship between the two values for a dry sample
is, according to Equation (3):
NCV = GCV − ( H 2O * 24,41) (3)
-1
where: 24,41 kj kg is the heat of water vaporization according to Nunez-Regueira et al. (2001).

Having stated the moisture content for the samples in the previous chapter (moisture content
of: A, B and C at 18,4%, 19,1% and 18,8% respectively) and the final moisture content of 8% for all
o
three samples, following an oven-dried at 105 C, the results for the ash content are presented in Table
1.
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Table 1
Ash content
Sample's
Gross
Sample's weight Ash's
Crucible's Sample's weight Ash's Ash's
numbering & (dry with mean
weight weight (crucible weight value (%)
description 8% value (%)
+ sample)
humidity)
Α1 Leaves (Needles) 27,5575 1,0860 0,9991 27,6345 0,0770 7,7068
8,1635
Α2 Leaves (Needles) 26,4786 1,0844 0,9976 26,5646 0,0860 8,6203
Β1 Branches 28,6118 1,0220 0,9402 28,6410 0,0292 3,1056
3,1603
Β2 Branches 27,6021 1,0075 0,9269 27,6319 0,0298 3,2150
C1 Bark 41,6318 1,0193 0,9378 41,6549 0,0231 2,4633
9,5050
C2 Bark 27,8115 1,0563 0,9718 27,9723 0,1608 16,5467
Two test samples per category were measured to obtain the ash’s mean value. The ash
values for the leaves present a higher valued compared to the natural wood due to the high existence
of inorganic substances such as magnesium and potassium. The branches have a lower percentage
of ash due the size (branch diameter). The bigger the diameter is, the smaller the ash content (closer
to natural wood’s ash content which is around 1%). The branches which were used in our case had a
mean diameter of 0,5mm which justifies the mean value of 3,1%.
In order to ascertain that these wood residues are ideal to be used for pellet production, a
comparison with natural wood has to be undertaken. The calorific value of wood is approximately 20
Mj/kg for ovendry softwood according to Bajpai* (2018).
The results analysis for the three samples following the procedure decribed above are
displayed in Table 2.
Table 2
Results analysis of the three samples
Net
Ash Calorific Calorific
Moisture Moisture
Sample's Sample's content Value Value
content content
numbering description (Mean) (Mean) (mean)
before (%) after (%)
(%) (NCV) (cal/g)
(Mj/Kg)
Leaves
A 18,4 8,00 8,1635 18,69 4464
(Needles)
B Branches 19,1 8,00 3,1603 19,03 4546
C Bark 18,8 8,00 9,5050 18,74 4475
* Wood (softwood) 1,0000 20,00 4780
The obtained results show that the calorific values of the residues are very close to those of
natural wood. The moisture content when the samples were received from the forest is still not so
high. (Table 2 “moisture content before”). Due to the experimental procedure, the moisture content
went down to 8% via an oven. In normal circumstances, this moisture reduction could be achieved if
the residues would be left for a short period of time (a few weeks) to an open natural ventilated space
protected only by the rain. This would eliminate the cost of reducing the residue’s humidity as well as
the overall pellet production cost.
The influence of the moisture content with regard to the calorific value plays a substancial role,
not only increasing the value but when the samples are dry, the calorific value can be doubled (Haberl
et al. 2000).
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained within the present research demonstrated the calorific values of three
different Spruce’s residues together with their ash content with a specific moisture value (8%). The
variances between leaves, branches and bark are not significantly dissimilar having values between
18,7 and 19Mj/Kg. This demonstrates the possibility of using those residues for pellet production
439
either individually or as a mixed residue’s product. The ash content which is crucial to the combustion
process was for all three test samples at lower acceptable levels (3% to 9%).
These values have demonstrated that forestry waste products may be utilised as heat energy
fuel minimising the carbon footprint due to the nature of these residues.
The three critical elements which determine the quality of the pellet production’s output
(moisture, ash content and calorific value) are capable to perform efficiently at pellet stoves and pellet
burners.
In the context of this preliminary study and these first results, more experimental research is
likely to follow by undertaking readings from other wood residues to identify their performance. This is
expected to diversify the existing path of wood waste into an alternative natural fuel.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the University of Thessaly and the laboratories of the
Department of Forestry, Wood Science & Design for the availability of the apparatus used to
undertake this experimental study. The authors would also like to thank the Regional Forestry
Authority of Kalampaka for providing the test samples.
REFERENCES
Demirbas A (2006) Energy priorities and new energy strategies. Energy Edu Sci Technol 16:53-109.
Hoogwijk M, Faaij A, van den Broek R, Berndes G, Gielen D, Turkenburg W (2003) Exploration of the
ranges of the global potentials of biomass for energy. Biomass Bioenergy 25:119-33.
Greek Land Registry. https://gis.ktimanet.gr/wms/forestsuspension/default.aspx [Assessed
23/06/2019].
Ninikas K, Ntalos G, Hytiris N, Skarvelis M (2019) Thermal properties of insulation boards made of
tree bark & hemp residues. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering. DOI
10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.22125
CEN/TS 14780 (2005) Solid fuels – Methods for sample preperation.
CEN/TS 14774-3 (2004) Solid fuels – Methods for the determination of moisture content – oven dry
method – part 3: moisture foe general analysis samples.
Mani S, Tabil LG, Sokhansanj S (2003) An overview of compaction of biomass grinds. Powder
Handling and Processing 15(3):160-168.
ASTM STANDARD D2015-96 (1998) Standard test method for gross calorific value for coal and coke
by the adiabatic bomb calorimeter.
Nunez-Regueira L, Rodrigues-Anon J, Proupin-Castineiras J, Romero-Garcia A (2001) Energetic
study of residual forest biomass using calorimetry and thermal analysis. Journal of Thermal Analysis
and Calorimetry 66:281-292.
Bajpai P (2018) Biermann's Handbook of Pulp and Paper: Volume 1: Raw Material and Pulp Making,
Third Edition, 19-74.
Haberl H, Geissler S (2000) Cascade utilization of biomass: Strategies for a more efficient use of a
scarce resource. Ecol Eng.16:S111-21.
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UTILIZATION OF WOODEN BIOMASS CHEMICAL COMPONENTS IN BIO-

PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Paschalina TERZOPOULOU
E-mail: linaterzopoulou@yahoo.gr
Vasiliki KAMPERIDOU
Abstract
Biodegradable polymers is an alternative to efficient waste management solution as opposed

to conventional plastics. The production of biodegradable materials from renewable sources has
attracted the interest of the global community, resulting in increased use of renewable energy sources.
Alternative abundant renewable sources such as corn, soy beans, sugar cane, wood, lignocellulosic
residues obtained from logging or wood processing etc. could be utilized as raw materials in
bioplastics production. In this study, the development of bioplastics from the past to the present is
reviewed, a categorization of bioplastics, is implemented based on the raw materials and properties,
the main advantages and disadvantages are analyzed, as well as a record of the tendency of recent
years on the research field of bioplastics, while the current European and International standards
referring to the bioplastics production and application are being presented.
Key words: bioplastics, biopolymers, cellulose, lignin, PLA, wood.
INTRODUCTION
Biodegradable polymers are an alternative to conventional plastics for the efficient waste
management and this is supported by their life cycle assessment. The production of biodegradable
renewable energy materials has been of interest, especially in the EU countries, resulting in increased
use of renewable energy sources (Tabone et al. 2010). Proper treatment would minimize
environmental impacts. Plastics specifically for packaging applications are the most widely used
polymers. Speaking with numbers, 34 million tonnes of plastic waste are produced every year around
the world and 93% of these are disposed of in landfills and oceans (Pathak et al. 2014). Part of the
solution for saving fossil fuels, reducing carbon footprint and reducing waste, could be the use of
bioplastics.
"Bioplastics" are being called the biodegradable plastics, whose ingredients come entirely
from renewable raw materials. Bioplastics can be defined as biomass plastics coming from materials
such as corn, sugar cane, bamboo, cotton, wood and other forest biomass species. Biodegradation in
a particular environment for a plastic means that this plastic can be a substrate for metabolism for
microorganisms living in this environment. Industrial production of bioplastics involves the participation
of a biopolymer or a combination of biopolymers, plasticizer and various additives. Bioplastic are
derived from agricultural biomass resources and raw materials that are renewable and therefore
comply with materials that are eco-efficient and sustainable It has been reported that the global
production capacity of bioplastics will increase from 0.36 Mt in 2007 to 3.45 Mt in 2020 (Khalil et al.
2013). In 2018, the world production capacity of biodegradable bioplastics was 912,000 metric tons
and the production capacity of bio-plastic / non-biodegradable bioplastics was 1.2 million metric tons.
Categorization of plastics according to the raw materials

Biodegradable plastics can be divided into three groups depending on their origin: (a) bacterial
polymers that can be formed from a bacterial biofilm or microbial fermentation; (b) plant-derived
polymers; and (c) chemically synthesized polymers (Ishigaki 2004). Biodegradable polymers derived
from renewable sources such as plants or micro-organisms are ecologically sustainable because they
do not accumulate in the environment for long periods of time and are degraded or mineralized by
micro-organisms. However, these polymers contain some physicochemical properties limiting their use
(Kiatsimkul et al. 2008).
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Biodegradable plastics synthesized by chemical modification can be divided into two groups:
(a) those derived from the degradation of chemical structures by the direct action of enzymes such as
amylase and cellulase; and (b) those degraded by action of one or several physicochemical
processes, for example, hydrolysis, photolysis or pyrolysis (Kiatsimkul et al. 2008). Unlike most
synthetic petroleum derived polymers, biodegradable polymers, when discharged into the
environment, may initially be cleaved from the polymer chain by non-enzymatic processes such as
photolysis and chemical hydrolysis and then degraded by enzymes produced from algae, bacteria or
fungi (Ojeda et al., 2009). These biodegradable polymers can be converted into carbon dioxide,
methane, water, biomass, humus and other substances (Gross and Karla 2002).
Cellulose is considered to be used as a raw material for the production of bioplastics.
Cellulose is the main ingredient of all plant materials and can be found in wood. Generally, the
composition of the wood is 50% cellulose, 15-30% hemicellulose, 15-35% lignin and ash 5-30%. To
improve the quality of bioplastics, cellulose is acetylated to be cellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate is
usually made from wood pulp by reaction with acetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of
sulfuric acid to form cellulose triacetate. Cellulose acetate has a high transition temperature and
cannot be melt processed as a raw material due to its thermal properties. For this reason, the
plasticizers are usually added to cellulose acetate. These substances allow melting of polymers
without thermal degradation and reduce stiffness (Tanaka et al. 2017).
Previous research on biodegradable plastics based on cellulose acetate has revealed that,
these plastics produced could be decomposed into soil or water within only a few years. However, the
material can also be recycled or burned without residues. Studies have also been carried out on the
most crucial properties of cellulose acetate, including mechanical strength, impact strength,
transparency, construction flexibility, casting capacity and dielectric power (Fischer et al. 2008). The
naturally produced plastic is generated in the form of a fluid and is therefore, easily configurable and
does not require a large amount of energy, unlike the conventional plastic, which is usually stored in
the form of granules and requires a large amount of energy to be molded, infused or extruded.
Evolution of bio-plastics from the past till nowadays

Biopolymers and bioplastics are not something new. In 1500 BC Inter-American cultures
(Olmec, Maya, Aztecs) use natural latex and rubber to make balls, containers and make their clothes
waterproof. In 1862 Alexander Parkes (UK) creates Parkesine, the first artificial cellulose plastic.
Parkesine was one of the forms of bioplastic. In 1897, German chemists invented Galalith, a
biodegradable plastic made from casein (milk). Its commercial utilization was limited for a variety of
reasons, such as that it could not easily be formulated and milk was rare and the development of
petroleum-based plastics was reinforced during the First World War. Galalith is still used today to
make buttons. In 1926 Maurice Lemoigne (FR) developed polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) from the
Bacillus megaterium bacterium. These were the first bioplastics of bacteria (Lemoigne 1976). In 1907
Leo Baekeland (BE) invented the Bakelite that created a "National Historical Chemical Milestone" due
to its importance, as it was a synthetic plastic that was revolutionary for the electrical properties of
non-electrical conductivity and heat resistance in electrical insulators, radio and telephone enclosures
and other products such as cooking utensils, jewelery, toys and firearms. In 1912 Brandenberger (CH)
invented Cellophane, a transparent sheet of wood, cotton or hemp. The cellophane is a trademark and
generic term. The trademark is currently owned by Futamura Chemical UK. The 1930s by Henry Ford
(US) used bioplastics from soybean seeds for some automotive parts. Ford stopped using soy plastics
after the Second World War due to the abundance of cheap oil supply (Lougee 1936). In the 1950s
and 60s, WR Grace (USA) assessed whether bioplastics (PHA and PHB) can be produced from
microbes and bacteria on a commercial scale. They apply to many patents but lose interest due to
cheap oil (Laxmana et al. 2013). In 1973, oil and energy crisis arose due to the embargo on Arab oil
producing countries in support of Palestine. The rise in oil prices and dependence on oil in the 1970s
became the driving force for the development of bioplastics (Laxmana et al. 2013). In 1975 a group of
Japanese scientists discovered the principle of biodegradable plastics. They discovered a bacterium
(Flavobacterium) that breaks the nylon (Parth et al. 2011). In 1979, the Iranian Revolution raises oil
prices, causing huge debts and deficits in Western democracies, which would lead to overproduction
and oversupply of oil in the 1980s making it less urgent to find alternatives to petroleum-based
plastics. In 1983, Imperial Chemical Industries (UK) and a local venture capital firm (Marlborough
Teeside Management) created the first bioplastic company, Marlborough Biopolymers. Their
bioplastics were made from bacteria and were named Biopol. Biopol produced by bacteria can be
processed into strips, filaments, chips, panels and powders (Kržan 2018). In 1990, Novamont (IT) was
established. Novamont is considered leader of the Bioplastics industry. It is probably the only
bioplastics company that managed to keep its head above water, commercially and economically. In
1992, Chris Somerville of the Michigan State University reported to the science journal Science that
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bioplastics (PHB) could be produced from a plant called Arabidopsis thaliana. In 1996, Monsanto
acquired Biopol from Zeneca and started using bioplastics instead of microbes and bacteria. In 1997,
Cargill and Dow created the joint venture Cargill and Dow Chemicals to produce bioplastics from corn.
The consortium is starting to produce PLA in 2001. The company emerged in BrandWorks in 2005
and is the largest PLA producer. In 2001, Metabolix Inc. bought Monsanto's Biopol assets. The
researcher at the University of Lincoln (United Kingdom), Nick Tucker, was the first to use the
elephant binocular for the production of bioplastics. In 2010, Rémy Lucas (FR) founded Algopack, the
first bioplastics company to use seaweed as biomass. Seaweeds need no fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides or earth. Seaweed bioplastics are biodegradable within 12 weeks on soil and 5 hours in
water. 2013 was founded in Bioplasticsnews.com. In 2018, Arctic Biomaterials (FI) manage to boost
PLA with biodegradable glass fibers. Their technology will enable PLA upgrading at the same time,
Neste (FI) is launching the biopolypropylene industrial production (Bio-PP) for the IKEA household
furniture company. Polypropylene (PP) is the second most used polyethylene (PE) plastic with total
sales of $ 145 billion. Neste could replace the fossilized PP with bio-PP and become a major player.
Also Project Effective launched to replace nylon with bio-nylon also became the first prototype car
made of bioplastics and packed with fruit.
Advantages and drawbacks of bioplastics

Bioplastics are characterized by much lower carbon footprint, they are made of renewable
resources, such as corn, sugar cane, soybeans, wood and other plant sources as opposed to common
plastics, which are made from petroleum, they present energy efficiency, since during their production
less energy is used, compared to the conventional plastics. Additionally, they seem to be eco-friendly,
produce fewer greenhouse gases and no toxins.
Some of the main disantvantages of these materials are the following: They have higher cost.
Specifically, bioplastics cost twice as much as conventional plastic. However, by increasing the
production of bioplastics in the industrial sector the cost is expected to decline in the near future.
Recycling problems can be caused since the bioplastic material can contaminate the recycling
process if it is not separated from conventional plastics.
The possibility of raw materials reduction resulting from the bioplastics production could raise
concerns. Bioplastics produced from renewable sources can reduce the stock of raw materials. This
may, of course, be overturned if we use forest residues biomass as raw material (either from logging
residues where we also prevent the risk of forest fires, rainfall in urban areas or residues of the wood
processing and wood products manufacturing etc.).
Often, a misunderstanding in the used terms appears. The description bioplastic as
compostable can cause confusion. All bioplastics are not biodegradable at home, such as organic
food waste, but usually require an industrial composting treatment not available in every composting
site. Also, bioplastics and related terms are abusively used by various manufacturers to make their
products more attractive on the market. Finally, there is a lack of legislation. Production of bioplastics
is predicted to increase, but many countries have not set any law or legislation on the production, use
or management of wastes.
Research in the field of bioplastics

Lignin and lignin derivatives biopolymers have a number of commercial applications and can
therefore be widely used in various sectors such as industrial applications, pulp, plastics, agriculture
and other industrial areas. Lignin and lignin blends-based biopolymers, including protein-lignin blends
and starch-lignin mixtures, have also shown promising application in the abovementioned sectors. The
extraction, production and operation of lignin biopolymer give a brief insight into the development of
various everyday products. Ligninsulphonates, lignin, lignincellulose, lignophenol, sodium lignin
sulphonate-based polymers and organic solutions have created new incentives for researchers to
develop well-designed biomaterials, biodegradable membranes, composites, and potential industrial
applications.
Thermoplastic compounds based on renewable energy sources and biodegradable materials
offer environmentally friendly alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. For the production of
bioplastics, lignin is mixed with natural elements such as cellulose, hemp, bamboo, cotton and other
additives that result in a material that can be processed at high temperatures. The mechanical
properties of bioplastics such as mechanical strength, hardness, dimensional stability, etc. can be
varied, enabling them to adapt to broad applications such as jewelry, musical instruments, furniture,
car interiors, car accessories, garden supplies, food packaging, etc. Globally, the bioplastics industry
is expected to increase significantly in the coming years.
The lignin has a plurality of effective and economic welding properties which may be improved
by addition of phenol and aldehyde as well as by modification of lignin. It can be used as a rubber
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reinforcement, polyolefin, rubber package, used in composites but also in the unsaturated polyester
and vinyl ester as a glue and as a co-monomer. Kraft lignin products are used in high-end applications
such as foam fire extinguishers as they stabilize foam and print inks for high speed rotary presses,
and as a rubber reinforcing pigment. After modification, lignin can be used as emulsifying agents,
emulsion stabilizers, pesticide dispersants and dyes, complexing agents in micronutrient formulations,
photocultivators and extenders for phenolic adhesives. Lignosulfonates are used in asphalting roads
to reduce the environmental concerns caused by particulate matter dust of the conventional tar, and it
is very important that they stabilize the surface of the pavement.
Organic solution lignin, with low inorganic impurities such as sulfur and ash, is an important
precursor to converting it to CF (carbon fiber) (Oroumei and Fox 2015). Baker and Rials (2004)
reported that the tensile strength of the CFs fused from a purified lignin organic solution is as high as
0.71 GPa. Electro-spinning is a technique that allows the construction of robust, multifunctional fibrous
materials. By applying an external electric field during the process, the latter fibers have a sub-meter
(from 10-2 to 1mm) diameters can be formed by continuous stretching of a viscoelastic jet. The
nanofibers have a higher rate, durability and strength as compared to the micro-scale fibers (Papkov
et al. 2013). The smaller diameter size affects not only the mechanical properties but the higher
specific surface exhibits a favorable way to improve the poor connection between the microfiber and
the matrix in the composite materials. The purified epoxy matrices are being reinforced with non-
woven membranes with electrical polishing (Bergshoef and Vancso 1999). The resistance to breakage
of high performance composite sheets (Lubineau and Rahaman 2012) has also increased. The
blending of lignin with high molecular weight polymers such as polyethylene oxide (PEO) (Wang et al.
2013), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (Lai et al. 2014 etc.) is a direct approach to co-ordinating ability to
electrospin. By using PAN as an additive in electrical spinning, the mechanical performance of CF
based on lignin would theoretically improve.
The hemicelluloses, the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose, continue to be
treated as a side flow in the biomass processing industries. In the study of Xu et al. (2018) an
approach to the use of a wood and side-by-side biopolymer of galactoglucomannan (GGM)
biopolymer to partly replace the synthetic PLA as a feed material in 3D printing. To ensure a uniform
distribution of the formed binary biocompatible, a solvent blending approach was developed. The
hemicellulose and PLA mixtures with a varying proportion of up to 25% hemicellulose were extruded
into hot melt extrusion yarns. 3D prototypes were successfully printed by composite filaments by
printing three-dimensional deposition modeling. When the crystallized PLA was replaced with up to
20% amorphous GGM, the composite materials could maintain mechanical strength. It is worth noting
that rational biorefinery technologies are available for the procurement of large volume hemicelluloses,
however, the application of hemicelluloses as bioplastics is still undermined. We have demonstrated a
new way to use such a biopolymer of plastic and bio-renewable wood as a feed material for 3D FDM
printing. On the one hand, the incorporation of semicircular wood can reduce the application of PLA;
on the other hand, hemicelluloses with versatile active sites as vectors or molecular receptors can be
used to introduce the desired functionality and characteristics. Printed matter has significant potential
in many applications, but not limited to, biomedical devices where physical and chemical indications
are present to meet tissue engineering requirements.
Laoutid et al. (2018) conducted a study where tannic acid (TA) was investigated as a flame
retardant for PLA. Different strategies for modifying the thermal degradation pathway have been
explored in order to improve the granulation effect. The first consists in the combination of TA with the
organo-modified montmorillonite (oMMT) and allows to limit the thermal degradation of TA and
promote the formation of an effective layer of paper. The flame deceleration behavior (FR) of the PLA-
based composition has been found to be positively affected by this combination since the decrease in
the peak of the heat-release rate (PHRR) is more significant than the value recorded when oMMT
used tannic acid separately. The second strategy, in which tannic acid is associated with phosphorus-
based compounds of biological origin, i.e. phthalate metal salt, has shown another alternative that has
allowed the flame retardant TA to be boosted with 30% by weight of loading content. The third and last
strategy under investigation is to chemically modify TA by chemically transplanting phosphoric acid
groups. This phosphorylated TA has been shown to exhibit the most effective flame retardant effect
(FR). However, a significant decrease in the molecular weight of PLA was observed.
Anwer et.al. (2015) implemented a comparison of the thermal, dynamic mechanical and
morphological properties of PLA-Lignin & PLA-Tannin particulate green composites. Composites of
PLA-lignin were prepared with 5, 10, 15% by weight lignin and PLA-tannin with 5, 10, 15% by weight
of tannin using injection molding. The SEM morphology reveals that lignin forms droplets as
dispersions within the PLA matrix unlike Tannin. The size of the lignin particles in the matrix is also 10-
150 times less than that of tannin. Isothermal frequency scanning in composite data indicates that the
444
storage rate of PLA-Tannin complex materials begins to degrade by 15% filling and increasing
damping concentration. PLA-Lignin composites do not exhibit such a degradation in the storage
coefficient. The tensile strength of composites PLA-Lignin and PLA-Tannin decreases with an
increase in filler content. Lignin has more inhibitory effect on the crystallisation of PLA than tannin.
From the DSC thermograms, lignin appears to have inhibitory effect on the crystallization of PLA-
Lignin composite products that are constantly increasing with the increase in lignin content. Tannin
has an inhibitory effect of up to 10% by weight, after which crystallization is favored. It is believed that
this may be a clear result of the interaction between the cores due to the increase in surface area and
the delay in crystallization. As expected, inhibition of crystallization increases with increasing heating
rate, with virtually no cold crystallisation occurring at 10°C/min and 15°C/min for PLA-Lignin
complexes. The beginning of degradation of PLA-Lignin and PLA-Tannin complexes occurs at slightly
lower temperatures than pure PLA
Li et al. (2013) have also established the best mechanical properties for composite materials
from PET mats. They make superfine and nanoscale fibers by electrostatic spinning of sisal fiber (S)
and recycled solutions of PTFE trifluoroacetic acid at room temperature, used as reinforcing agents in
composite materials. The properties of the produced layers (S/PET ratios from 0.1 to 0.4) were
examined by infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), contact angle
measurements (CA) thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). DMA
describes not only the Tg and the storage factor of the materials, but also the interactions between the
PET chains and the sisal fiber components. The liquidity of the layers depends on the sisal / PET ratio
and ranges from very hydrophobic (pure PET, advanced angle of 134° with contact angle
measurements) to superhydrophilic 0°, direct water droplet absorption). This research opens the door
for a range of possibilities where lignocellulosic biomass can be combined with polymer matrices to
improve and control their properties such as hydrophilicity and stiffness.
Lignin is expected to be the next generation precursor for, bioplastics, biofuels and other
applications. Due to these developments, industries such as aerospace, petrochemical, construction
and automotive will witness dynamic growth. The development of bioactive lignin derivatives is
expected to change future conditions.
Karaaslana et.al (2011) conducted a study in which nano-enhanced hydrogels with unique
network structure were prepared from wood-cellulose tissues coated with chemically modified wood
hemicelluloses. The hemicellulins were modified with 2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate before adsorption
on the cellulosic in aqueous medium. Synthesis of the hydrogels was carried out by in situ radioactive
polymerization of the methacrylate groups with adsorbed coating to form a poly (2-
hydroxyethylmethacrylate) (PHEMA) matrix reinforced with cellulose fibrils. Mechanical, cutting and
viscoelastic properties of hydrogel swollen water were examined. The results showed that the number
of effective crosslinks between the polymer chains and the average chain length between the
crosslinking points was significantly different from the PHEMA hydrogels cross-linked by a
conventional chemical method using a crosslinking agent. the resulting hydrogels had increased
resistance, increased viscoelasticity and improved recovery behavior. Regarding mechanical
properties and swelling properties, it can be assumed that these PHEMA nanopyrolysis hydrogels are
capable of being used in biomedical applications such as articular cartilage replacement.
Kraft lignin (KL), which accounts for almost 85% of the total lignin technique, is commonly
used as a fuel for energy recovery. PEG is used as the most suitable grafting polymer because of its
characteristic properties such as low toxicity, good biocompatibility, biodegradability and hydrophilicity.
Functionalized PEG is prepared prior to adhesion of PEG to the desired molecule because the
terminal hydroxyl groups are much more reactive than the polyoxyethylene chain. PEG derivatives
have been shown to be valuable in a wide variety of chemical and biological efforts, such as non-ionic
surfactant, protein conjugates, phase transfer catalysis (PTC), aqueous biphasic separation, and
pharmaceutical modification (Cole et al. 2013). The PEG was modified in one or both terminal
hydroxyl groups preferably to be transplanted into lignin. Recently, several approaches have been
developed to modify lignin with PEG derivatives in alkaline solution, typically PEG-mesylate (Uraki et
al. 2001) and PEG-epoxide (Lou et al. 2013) to increase lignin water solubility. The modified lignin
(PEG) with PEG derivatives was soluble in methanol, chloroform and pyridine in addition to water. The
lignin-PEG copolymer could improve the brightness and strength stabilization properties of high
performance pulps, improve the cement dispersibility and strength and enhance the enzymatic
hydrolysis of cellulose and lignocelluloses. However, the PEG material was prepared by grinding PEG
methyl ether (Mw 350) by reaction with methanesulfonyl chloride in methylene chloride at 0°C using
triethylamine as a catalyst while PEG-epoxide was synthesized from PEG by reaction with
epichlorohydrin in the presence of BF 3 and, then closed loop and dehydrochlorinated in the alkaline
solution. PEG monopeptide derivatives and commercial dodecyloxy-PEG-epoxide could improve the
445
surface activity of lignin further than that of PEX-peroxide derivatives. Activated PEG derivatives
above either were prepared in organic solvents or in unusual commercial products that made the lignin
modification with PEG derivatives expensive and complex.
Polyethylene (PE) is today the largest plastic commodity in volume and, until recently, it was
manufactured only by petrochemicals. However, Braskem, a manufacturer of thermoplastic resin in
Brazil, has developed a 200 kt / year capacity to produce PE from the polymerization of ethylene
derived from ethanol by fermentation of sugar cane (Morschbacker 2007). Although PE is non-
compostable, the use of carbon capture a renewable source will lead to a "zero carbon" life cycle and
the post-consumer PE can be recovered with existing MRFs.
Standardization and certification of bioplastics

Some of the basic standards already used and some of the standards drafts that refer to the
production and application of bioplastics are summarized hereupon.
Standard Description
AS 4736-2006 Biodegradable plastics—Biodegradable plastics suitable for composting and other microbial treatment
ASTM D5209-92 Standard Test Method for Determining the Aerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials
ASTM D5338-98 Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials Under Controlled
Composting Conditions
DIN V 54900-2 Testing of the compostability of plastics - Part 2: Testing of the complete biodegradability of plastics in
laboratory tests
EN 13432: 2000 Requirements for recoverable packaging with composting criteria and biodegradation test and
evaluation system for final acceptance of packaging
ISO 14851: 1999 Determination of the ultimate aerobic biodegradability of plastic materials in an aqueous medium --
Method by measuring the oxygen demand in a closed respirometer
ISO 15314: 2004 Methods for Marine Exposure ISO 16221: 2001 Water Quality Guidance for the Determination of
Biodegradability in the Marine Environment
CEN / TR 15822 Plastics - Biodegradable plastics in or on soil - Recovery, disposal and related environmental issues
AFNOR NF Biodegradable materials for use in agriculture and horticulture - Mulching products - Requirements
U52-001 and test methods
DIN SPEC 1206: technical report contains recommendations on the terminology of bioplastics and biopolymers. It also
2010-06 briefly describes the current test methods of technology in relation to the characterization of
DIN-Fachbericht bioplastics and products made from them. CEN / TC 249 "Plastic Products", the secretariat of which is
CEN / TR 15932: held by NBN (Belgium), is responsible for the European standard. At national level, the committee
2010-06 responsible for this standard is NA 054-01-07 AA Bioabbaubare Kunststoffe (biodegradable plastics)
in DIN.
DIN CEN / TS DIN SPEC 16453 (DIN CEN / TS 16398) establishes a standard for the reporting and communication
16398: 2013-01 of characteristics that cover the carbon content of biological origin and the recovery options, business
DIN SPEC 16453: transactions via a special biodiesel and bioplastics data sheet. It also provides the relevant methods
2013-01 for assessing and verifying the requirements and the principles and requirements for the notification of
selected environmental performance requirements and the characteristics to be used - Bioplastic
finished products and finished bioplastic products, including composite materials, before being
disposed of to the end-user or the consumer. This technical specification does not bypass or in any
way change the legally required information, requirements or labeling or any other applicable legal
requirements.
DIN EN ISO Plastics - Determination of molecular mass and molecular mass distribution of polymeric species by
10927: 2018-10 laser matrix (MALDI-TOF-MS) mass spectrometry (ISO 10927: 2018). German edition EN ISO 10927:
2018
DIN EN 17228: Plastics - Biometric polymers, plastics and plastic products
2018-03 – Draft - Terminology, features and communication. German and English edition prEN 17228: 2018
DIN ISO 20457: Plastic molded parts - Tolerances and acceptance conditions (ISO 20457: 2018). Text in German and
2019-03 – Draft English
DIN EN 16575: Bio-based products - Vocabulary; German version EN 16575:2014

2014-10
DIN CEN/TR DIN SPEC 33928 is the national edition of the European Technical Report CEN / TR 16208. This
16208: 2011-07 · technical report contains a list of standards, documents and other publications on organic products. .
DIN SPEC 33928: This technical report was prepared by CEN / BT / WG 209 under Mandate M / 429 on the
2011-07 development of a standardization program for organic products
OENORM EN Plastics - Biometric polymers, plastics and plastics - Terminology, characteristics and communication
17228: 2018-03-15
– draft
ISO/DIS 16620-2 Plastics - Bioactivity content - Part 2: Determination of carbon content biodegradation ISO 16620-2:
2015 defines a calculation method for determining the carbon content of biodegradation in
monomeric, polymeric and plastic materials and products based on content measurement 14 C. ISO
16620-2: 2015 applies to plastic products and plastics, polymeric resins, monomers or additives,
made from components based on organic or fossil materials.
446
CONCLUSIONS
By increasing environmental awareness, more and more societies tend to become
environmentally friendly, and the incentives of those investing in the production of biodegradable
plastic materials are increasing. The many advantages of bio-plastics, such as being 100%
biodegradable, are produced from natural renewable sources, can be recycled, reused, composted or
burned without producing toxic by-products, etc. making it an excellent alternative to traditional plastic
products. Biopolymers reduce carbon dioxide emissions during creation and degrade to organic matter
after disposal. Biodegradable polymers cannot be a solution to all the environmental problems created
by plastics, but it is a step in the right direction, as the development of polymers is from the current
society's views on environmental issues and it is the right time for the further development of
biopolymers.
This paper examined the bioplastics, their species, the standards followed. It is important to
have comparable international standards. Unfortunately, the current standards are not equated with
each other and tend to be used in the countries where they came from. There is an urgent need for
standardization for all the details. A new guide and standrd, entirely for bioplastics, should be
developed for the production, use and management of bioplastics waste worldwide. Also, standards
can be improved by taking into consideration the raw materials of a product, the energy consumption,
emissions from production and use. There must definitely be an abundant amount of materials and
resources to create and find more uses for bioplastics. Based on the bioplastics disadvantages, for
sustainability, various parameters have to be taken into account, including the raw materials from
which they are produced, the energy consumed during the conversion of materials into bioplastics and
analysis for the assessment of its life cycle, from production to final disposal or recycling.
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FOREST BIOMASS SPECIES CATEGORIZATION AND EVALUATION OF THEIR

CONDITION AND QUALITY USING AERIAL IMAGES
Panagiotis BARMPOUTIS
Imperial College London, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
E-mail: p.barmpoutis@imperial.ac.uk
Vasiliki KAMPERIDOU
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Department of Harvesting and Technology of Forest Products
Faculty of Forestry and Natural Environment, Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124, Greece
Tania STATHAKI
Imperial College London, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
E-mail: t.stathaki@imperial.ac.uk
Abstract
Εspecially in recent years, that the effects of climate change become more intense, the role
played by the forest ecosystems and the forest biomass produced, seem to become increasingly
important. Forest biomass is a source of large quantities of timber, but also of a great variety of
valuable materials, chemicals and biofuels, and therefore, the identification of the species, the
categorization of them into tree and non-tree species, the monitoring and assessment of their health
status, as well as quality characteristics, where feasible, constitute crucial actions of a plan for the
protection and rational management of the forest biomass.In the current work, for the identification and
recording of trees and shrub vegetation species, the desease detection and the assessment of the
biomass condition and quality in an operationally, time and power cost efficient manner, the use of
aerial data is proposed. Specifically, using the abovementioned data, we propose the segmentation of
trees or shrubs applying an energy minimization approach and then, assuming that the forest areas
and forest biomass quality depends on trees and shrubs vegetation condition, their modelling through
the extraction of multi-pyramid textural features through linear dynamical systems. The experimental
results presented use images of a forest area in Greece, where fir trees prevail, and show the great
potential of the proposed methodology.
Key words: remote sensing; machine learning; separation of vegetation; biomass quality
INTRODUCTION
Forests offer countless benefits to humans and the ecosystem, as they contribute to the
creation of a sustainable environment, climate stabilization, upgrade of air and water quality,
preservation of biodiversity, anti-erosion protection and the production of the valuable resource of
woody biomass. Forest biomass consists mainly of wood from trees and shrubs and residues (stem,
bark, foliage, branches, stump and roots) and provides the raw materials for the production of
innumerable valuable bio-products, such as timber, wood based products, wood pulp, paper,
cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin derivatives, extractives for chemical products, bioplastics etc., as
well as in the production of biofuels and energy (Filippou 2014). Due to climate change, combined with
the increase in the natural disasters it causes, the gradual reduction of forest land and other factors
such as heredity and the fact that the health of the tree is affected by the environmental conditions in
which it develops the presence of old, injured, diseased, dead or fallen trees has increased. The
occurrence of such incidents in forest areas usually leads to their attack by insects, fungi, bacteria and
other xylophagous microorganisms that lead to decomposition of wood, bark and foliage and
damaging the health of trees by degrading the quality of forest biomass and to more severe cases
they die (Voulgaridis 2007). Consequently, monitoring of the health and condition of forest species in
real conditions is of great importance in avoiding the loss of biomass due to decomposition and its
qualitative degradation by various factors acting in this direction. Generally, the identification and
knowledge of the exact forest species, the volume stock, the quality status and characteristics of
biomass produced in the forest ecosystem is a critical factor for its rational management, protection
and sustainable utilization.
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To date, automated forest monitoring methods, as well as algorithms for the identification of
infected trees in forest area (that can be used in order to assess the quality of woody biomass) are
divided according to their spatial application (Galidaki et al. 2017). Specifically, satellites and their data
are used for >10ha -scale analyses, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology are used in
order to create 3D point clouds in >5ha-scale areas (using airborne systems) and in <1ha-scale areas
(using terrestrial or mobile systems) and UAVs equipped with digital, multispectral and hyperspectral
image sensors for access to visible and invisible spectrum achieving monitoring of <5ha-scale areas
per flight. In contrast with satellite and LiDAR systems, the advantages of UAV systems include the
possibility of frequent monitoring, the adaptability to carry various types of sensors, the high intensity
of data collection and the low operational costs (Tang and Shao 2015).
More specifically, remote sensing technologies combined with computer-aided signal and
image analysis has become one of the major research subjects in forest health surveillance
(Tuominen et al. 2015). To this end, numerous approaches for environmental monitoring have been
proposed to assist foresters and experts in the disease recognition challenge using expensive and
customized multispectral cameras and estimating health indicators features (Brovkina et al. 2018).
Furthermore, in order to extract more spectral bands, researchers have exploited the significant role of
hyperspectral cameras and Fabry-Pérot interferometer (FPI) technology (Moriya et al. 2017, Nasi et al.
2018). However, all these computer-based methods for forest health surveillance suffer from some
limitations. Most of the approaches use ground sensors or require expensive and specialized
hardware (e.g. using small Cessna-type aircraft platform), with complex standard protocols for data
collection and complex analysis methods (Keenan et al. 2015, Trumbore et al. 2015), limiting their
potential eventual widespread use by local authorities, forest agencies and experts. Additionally, the
majority of these approaches use near infrared spectroscopy in conjunction with Crop Surface models
(CSMs) and estimate vegetation health indices (Brovkina et al. 2018). However, the use of infrared
cameras increases significantly the cost of such systems (Barmpoutis et al. 2019). Furthermore, to the
best of our knowledge, none of the existing published research work in international bibliography has
focused on the assessment or prediction of forest biomass quality and research efforts have not yet
been identified to involve UAV data in this direction.
In this paper we present an accurate and affordable approach to identify and separate trees
from non-tree (shrubs) vegetation regions and identify their condition and characteristics associated
with biomass quality through UAV data in an operationally, time and power cost efficient manner.
Specifically, we propose the segmentation of trees applying an energy minimization approach and
then, in order to rate the condition of trees and assess the biomass quality we propose and extract
multi-pyramid (multi-scale and multi-orientation) textural features using linear dynamical systems.
The proposed real-time, automated method for aerial capturing and assesment of the forest
biomass quality is expected to contribute positively to addressing the lack of information and the
absence of field measurement results in terms of biomass and wood quality at the stage of standing
tree within a forest ecosystem. Developed models would be able to accurately detect the condition of
trees using digital camera sensors. To evaluate the efficiency of the proposed methodology, we used
a dataset of fifty images, where the fir trees prevail.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this research work was to develop a computer-based methodology that
will exploit aerial images in order to perform identification and seperation of the forest species between
trees and shrub vegetation, evaluation of their health condition, desease detection and finally,
assesment of their biomass quality. To this end, we classified the detected trees and shrub vegetation
regions in the following classes: I) healthy trees and shrubs vegetation, II) trees or shrub vegetation
partial defoliated III) infected, fully defoliated and decolorized trees or shrub vegetation. Additionally,
assuming that the best biomass products quality is acquired from the healthy trees which do not bear
apparent defects or irregularities in appearance (non-uniform colour, absence of top or foliage etc.),
we aimed to correlate these classes to biomass quality.

To evaluate the efficiency of the proposed methodology, we created a dataset, consisting of
50 forest images containing trees and shrubs. The research was conducted at a part of AUTH
university forest in central Greece which consists mainly by fir trees. In this area, the annual average
rainfall is 885 mm and the average annual temperature is 9.6°C. This climate is considered to be Csb
according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. In this research, the study area covers
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approximately 200 ha. For the validation of the proposed methodology results, we manually labelled
the trees and shrubs vegetation in the images. From the annotation we excluded shrubs and trees that
are at the edges of the images and the biggest part of them is not shown in them.
Fig. 1.
Dataset image samples including trees and shrubs.
Separation of trees and shrub vegetation

Initially, in order to separate trees and shrub vegetation using an aerial image, an
unsupervised energy minimization technique that is based on graph cuts was applied (Kolomogorov
and Zabih 2004). In this labeling problem, the image is represented as a graph , where is
the set of all nodes and is the set of all edges connecting adjacent nodes. Nodes and edges
correspond to pixels and their adjacency relationship, respectively. The graph also contains two
terminal nodes, which are referred to as the source and the sink. The labeling problem is to assign a
unique label for each node , so as to minimize the following energy:
(1)
where: is the color consistency cost which depends on the label . The is the smoothing cost
between two neighboring pixels and it depends on the labels . The cost of the cut which
partitions the graph into two disjoined subsets, is defined to be the sum of weights of the edges
crossing the cut, whereas the minimum cut problem is to find the cut with the minimum cost, that
minimizes the energy either globally or locally. The algorithm results the labeling that minimizes the
energy of Equation (1) leading to the separation of trees and shrubs. Then, we used the four central
moments in order to define accurately the trees and shrub regions. For the initialization of the
algorithm, a k-means approach was adopted for assigning an initial label to each pixel.
Estimation of trees and shrub vegetation health condition

Having estimated the regions of trees and shurb vegetation, we aim to evaluate the condition
of them based on hidden texture measurements. Initially, aerial images were divided into
blocks and inspired by the dynamic texture analysis techniques that have been widely used for time
and spatially evolving signals, (Dimitropoulos et al. 2018) and textures classification in forestry
applications (Barmpoutis 2017, Barmpoutis et al. 2018), we considered each one of these blocks as a
spatially evolving multidimensional signal. Moreover, due to the variant heights and orientations of
trees and shrubs we use a multi-pyramid modeling method and we create twenty-seven
representations in three different scales and nine orientations. Thus, we consider each multi-pyramid
representation as a multidimensional signal evolving in the spatial domain and model it through the
following dynamical systems:
(2)
(3)
where: is the transition matrix of the hidden state and is the mapping matrix of the
hidden state to the output of the system. The quantities and are the measurement and
process noise respectively, while is the mean value of observations. The LDS descriptor, ,
contains both the appearance information of the observation data modeled by , and its dynamics that
are represented by .
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The multidimensional spatial signal can be represented by tensor , where n is the

size of the examined tree and m is equal to the number of rgb image channels. For the estimation of
the system parameters, we apply a higher order singular value decomposition (Kolda et al. 2009) to
decompose the tensor:
(4)
where: is the core tensor, while , and are orthogonal

matrices containing the orthonormal vectors spanning the column space of the matrix and denotes
the j-mode product between a tensor and a matrix. Given the fact that the choice of matrices and
is not unique, we consider and . Hence, equation (9) can be reformulated
as where and indicate the unfolding along the third dimension of
tensors and respectively. Thus, the transition matrix , can be easily computed by using least
squares as:
(5)
where: and . After the estimation of the

systems parameters, each multi-pyramid tree representation can be described by the . For
the representation of each tree through the extracted descriptors, we adopted the Martin distance as a
similarity metric. Specifically, we estimate the subspace angles [9] between two descriptors and solve
the Lyapunov equation , where:
, , (6)
The cosine of the subspace angles is calculated by the following formula:
(7)
Then, the Martin distance between and is defined as:
(8)
Then, through the definition of representative codewords, we create a Term Frequency (TF)
histogram representation for each tree that corresponds to its extracted representations. Thus, each
TF histogram corresponds to an extracted block (Barmpoutis et al. 2018). Finally, for the classification
of each blocked, we used an SVM classifier.
Assesment of trees and shrub vegetation biomass condition and quality

First of all, the presence of old, injured, diseased, attacked, decomposed, dead or fallen trees
has been recorded.
Quality characteristics and information of forest species is obtained mainly from the foliage /
crown color, crown shape and density. Additionally, potential desease appearance is being detected
and also the absence of a tree part (for example tree top) due to mechanical injuries and disasters or
other problematic cases, corresponding to irregularities and deviation from the normal appearance
and growth of the species are being investigated.

In this section, we elaborate an analysis in order to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed
algorithm. To this end, we used the dataset, consisting of 50 forest images and containing in total
1548 trees (Barmpoutis et al. 2019) and we calculated the recall and precision rates. In terms of the
analysis, recall measures the true positive rates whereas precision measures the number of samples
that classified as positive and are actual positive:
452
(9)
(10)
where: TP is the true positives, FN is the false negatives and FP is the false positives.
Separation of trees and shrub vegetation evaluation

Τhe forest species are being examined and categorized into tree and non-tree (shrub)
species, mainly taking into account the size of the crown and the height of each species, The results
of this categorization is crucial for the proper management and utilization of timber and other forest
products (chemicals, biofuels and other innovative biomass products of high added value) that are
derived mainly from non-tree biomass. This step could also provide significant information for the
evaluation of the timber and non-timber biomass quantities produced.
More specifically, based on the manual annotation of the dataset, we estimated recall and
precision on pixel basis in order to evaluate the proposed methodology. In Table 1, we present
experimental results for the proposed method in regards to the separation of trees and shrubs.
Specifically, the recall rate for trees is 94.27%, while the precision rate is 93.72%. Additionally, the
recall rate for shrubs is 78.17% and the precision rate is 79.79%.
Table 1
Average Recall and Precision rates for separation of trees and shrubs in the dataset, %
Recall Precision
Trees 94.27% 93.72%
Shrubs 78.17% 79.79%
Fig. 2.
Separation of trees and shrub vegetation.
Estimation of biomass quality based on the health condition of trees and shrub vegetation
In this subsection, based on the trees and shrub vegetation regions we analyze the
performance of the proposed texture analysis methodology. Specifically, in Table 2 is shown the recall
and precision rates for trees and shrubs vegetation in regards to classes I, II and III. As one can easily
notice, the proposed methodology achieves better results in the identification of healthy trees in
contrast to identification of healthy shrubs vegetation. It can be explained by the fact that soil that
exists between shrubs vegetation making the detection of their condition a challenging task. However,
partial defoliated shrub vegetation regions have more accurately been detected than partial defoliated
trees. Finally, infected, fully defoliated and decolorized trees or shrub vegetation.
Table 2
Average Recall and Precision rates for separation of trees and shrubs in the dataset, %
Trees Shrubs
Recall Precision Recall Precision
Class I
95.12% 81.25% 80.00% 80.00%
(Green color)
Class IΙ
94.44% 82.93% 97.50% 91.76%
(Red color)
Class III
92.72% 95.38% 87.13% 97.78%
(Yellow color)
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Fig. 3.
Estimation of biomass quality based on the health situation of trees and shrub vegetation.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we presented an accurate and affordable approach to detect deseases, estimate
trees and shrubs condition and assess their biomass quality through UAV data. Specifically, we
proposed the segmentation of trees applying an energy minimization approach and then, the
modelling of trees and shrubs vegetation through the extraction of multi-pyramid textural features
using linear dynamical systems. The proposed methodology presented satisfing results and it seems
to achieve better results in the identification of healthy trees, compared to the identification of healthy
shrubs vegetation.
The research results of the proposed methodology are expected to contribute in the
sustainability and the establishment of a rational and supportable management of forest resources,
with more specific targeting on: a) the maintaining of the highest possible quality of timber, b) The
reduction of wasting of woody biomass that occurs due to infestations and biological decomposition,
and reduction of CO2 release due to this biomass decomposition and c) the holistic approach to the
protection, conservation and proper utilization of woody biomass of the national forest ecosystems.
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greek forest species", PhD dissertation.
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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SPRUCE AND BEECH PELLETS IN TERMS OF

PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL, AND ENERGY PROPERTIES
Cosmin SPÎRCHEZ
Tel: 0040 268 415315, Fax: 0040 268 415315, E-mail: cosmin.spirchez@unitbv.ro
Aurel LUNGULEASA
Abstract
This paper aims to highlight the importance of physical, mechanical, and energy properties of
pellets from the two species of wood, spruce and beech. A comparative analysis was performed
between the two categories of pellets. In the paper, bulk density and effective density of pellets were
analyzed, with slightly higher values for spruce. In terms of calorific value, the values obtained were
0.3% higher for spruce than for beech. Calorific density evaluation observed that the spruce pellets
had an energy density 7.8% higher than that of beech pellets. Referring to ash content it was
observed that the ash content of spruce pellets is lower than for beech pellets, with a more than
double decrease. As a general conclusion the values of the pellets obtained from spruce are better
than those obtained from beech.
Key words: beech; spruce; density; pellets.
INTRODUCTION
Biomass is natural plant components, obtained as a result of the photosynthesis process. For
growth and development, plants absorb a part of the solar energy, water and nutrients in the soil,
which it then transforms into biomass. From the point of view of the relationship with the natural
environment, the biomass is a neutral fuel, as the amount of CO2 absorbed during growth is equal to
the amount resulted from its burning or degradation. As a means of storing solar energy in chemical
form, biomass is one of the most popular energy resources on Earth. Today, fuels obtained from
biomass can be used for various purposes, from heating of rooms to producing electricity and fuels for
vehicles. Biomass is diverse and, at a global level, the following general features can be observed
(Aebiom 2013):
- Total mass (including moisture content) over 2000 billion tons;
- Total mass of terrestrial plants 1800 billion tons;
- Total mass of forests 1600 billion tons;
18
- Amount of energy amassed in the terrestrial biomass 25000 *10 J;
- Annual growth of biomass 400000 million tons;
18
- Speed of energy storage by the terrestrial biomass 3000 * 10 J/year (95 TWt);
18
- Total annual consumption of energy types 400 * 10 J/an (22TWt);
18
- Use of biomass energy 55*10 J/an (1.7 TWt).
Distinguishable advantages of biomass exploitation:
- its use is consistent with the environmental standards imposed by the European Union;
- use, at a higher level of production, of the residues and wood waste resulted from wood
exploitation and processing technologies;
- the existence of a simple alternative for producing heat in homes or in industry.
Pellets are solid fuels with a low moisture content, obtained from small-size biomass (dust,
wood dust, sawdust, wood shavings and fine wood chips), compacted in cylindrical shapes with a
diameter between 6-10 mm and length between 10-30mm. Lignin and temperatures over 100ºC to
activate it in the wood dust, have the role of maintaining the pellets compact and, thus, they do not
contain other adhesives and/or additives (Garcia 2004). The transport of pellets is cost-effective as
these are fuel obtained by compression at a ratio of approximately 1-4. Also, due to uniform
dimensions and special supply kits, pellets allow the use of complex automated storage, supply and
non-intervention systems for approximately 1-2 days (Oberbenger 2004). Obtaining pellets from
456
production residues and waste creates the opportunity for the recovery and introduction of waste in
the economic circuit. If the waste is not properly collected, massive environmental pollution can occur
caused by its inevitable decomposition in the environment, while an amount of CO2 equal to that of
combustion will be found in nature. The properties of lignocellulosic pellets can be grouped in
dimensional, physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. The testing of pellets is made according
to specific standardised methodologies, namely density according to EN ISO 17828:2015 EN. The
limiting technical characteristics of pellets, for non-industrial use, according to the European standard
EN ISO 17828:2015 are the following:
- diameter: 4-10 mm;
- length: less than 50 mm;
3
- bulk density: 650 kg/m ;
3
- effective density: more than 1120 kg/m ;
- moisture content: less than 8%;
- ash content: less than 1.5%
- caloric value: 16.9-19.5 MJ/kg;
- nitrogen content < 0.3 % (for class A1), < 0.5 % (for class A2), < 1.0 % (for class B);
- sulphur content < 0.03 % (for classes A1 and A2) and< 0.04 % (for class B);
- chlorine content < 0.02 % ( for classes A1 and A2) and< 0.03 % (for class B);
- determining the ash content at temperatures > 1200 °C for class A1 and > 1100 °C for classes A2
and B.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this paper is to carry out a comparative study of the physical, mechanical,
and energetic properties of spruce and beech pellets for their efficient use in combustion. Effective
and bulk density will be analysed from the physical properties, from the mechanical properties shear
strength will be analysed, and from the energy properties heating value, energy density, and ash
content.

Two types of pellets, spruce and beech, taken from the market, have been analysed for their
physical, mechanical, and energy properties (obtained from waste sawdust). The density of the pellets
was determined for the two types, bulk and effective, for each pellet. For determining the bulk density
of pellets (EN ISO 17828:2015) we used a taper container with the following dimensions (Fig.1): a
45.31mm larger radius of the truncated cone, a 23.435mm smaller radius, and 99.06mm height.
Taking into consideration the volume of the truncated cone and the mass m of the contents of the
container (the mass of the container with pellets from which the mass of the empty container has been
subtracted), the following equation was used (Eq. 1):
3⋅ m
r= [ g / cm 3 ]
h( R + r 2 + Rr )
2
(1)
Fig. 1.
a. Vessel for determining the bulk density of the pellets; b- Determination of the shear strength
of pellets; 1- fixed lower support; 2- fragments of sheared pellets; 3- lower arm; 4- pellets; 5-
upper arm; 6- upper arm subjected to compressive force.
457
One 15 kg plastic sack bag of pellets has been analysed for each type of pellet, respectively
one bag of spruce pellets and one bag of beech pellets. The main properties analysed were: bulk and
effective density, shear strength, caloric value, energy density, and ash content.
For determining the effective density of the pellets, 50 pieces of pellets were randomly selected, the
ends were straightened by grinding in order to obtain a surface of the ends directly perpendicular to
their length and taking into account that each pellet represents a right circular cylinder, the following
formula was used (Eq 2):
4⋅m
ρ ef = [ g / cm 3 ] (2)
π ⋅d2 ⋅l
where:
3
ρef - effective density of pellets (g/cm );
m - mass of pellets (g);
d - diameter of pellets (cm);
l - length of pellets (cm).
The shear strength of the pellets is a mechanical property that indicates the compaction and
internal adhesion of the pellets (Bridgwater 2012). The shearing cross section test in the pellets has
been achieved by developing a device (formed from two metal pieces, with correspond form and
edges) suitable for this test and the amplification of the effect has been achieved by simultaneous
shearing of 5 pellets. The operating speed was 4 mm/min. For determining the shear strength, it was
taken into consideration that the shearing area was determined by the transverse area of the five
pellets inserted in the shearing device and the following equation was used (Eq 3):
4 ⋅ Fmax
τs = [ N / mm 2 ] (3)
5 ⋅π ⋅ d 2
where:
Fmax is the maximum breaking or shearing force, in N;
d- diameter of pellets, in mm;
The caloric value was determined by means of a calorimeter with explosive combustion, using
samples from pellets with a mass of 0,6-0,8 g and a pressure of oxygen in the calorimeter bomb of 30
bars (Grîu 2014) (Fig.1). The calculation reaction used by the computer software (Grîu and
Lunguleasa 2014) was the following (Eq 4)ː
C ⋅ (t f − ti )
CV = − qs [kJ / kg ] (4)
m
where:
CV - caloric value, in kJ/kg
C - calorimetric constant determined through the calibration of the device with benzoic acid,
expressed in kJ/°C;
tf- final temperature registered by the thermocouple of the calorimeter, in °C;
ti- initial temperature registered by the thermocouple of the calorimeter, in °C;
m- mass of the pellet sample, in g;
qs- amount of heat released by the copper nickel thread and cotton twine, in kJ/kg.
From the image of the computer software for the calorimeter (Fig 2) the following can be
observed: the calorimeter type XRY-1C, work method (Bunte or Regnard-Phunder), type of testing
(determination or calibration), start - stop, mass of sample, temperature, the three periods of testing
(fore, main, and after period), diagram of temperature increase and phase of testing (Fore, Main, After
etc.).
For determining the ash content of the pellets, the general standardised method for
determination was used (ASTM D2866-11:2012, EN ISO 18122:2015). According to this method, the
ground and dried material to 0% moisture content is calcined at a temperature of 650 °C in a
laboratory oven, for at least 3 hours.
458
Fig. 2.
Image of computer software for the calorimeter.
The advanced combustion operation called calcination was performed on a metal crucible that
can withstand high temperatures, and the weighing was realized on an analytical balance with a
precision of 3 decimal places. When determining the ash content, the sample had to be completely
dry and the mass of the empty and clean crucible was also taken into consideration. The equation for
determining the calcined ash content was the following (Eq 5)
m f − mc
Ac = ⋅100 [%] (5)
mi − mc
where:
Ac- ash content, g;
mf- final mass of crucible with calcined sample, in g;
mi- initial mass of crucible with sample subject to testing, in g;
mc- mass of empty crucible, in g.
As pellets have different densities and caloric values, it has been found that the caloric density
is a measure that better characterises the energy offered by the pellets. The equation for the calorific
density of the pellets depends both on the calorific power and on density and is as follows (Eq 6):
(6)
whereː
CV- low calorific power, in MJ/kg;
3
p- density of pellets, in kg/m .
The results obtained were statistically processed, thus obtaining the limiting maximum and
minimum values, the central value, and standard mean deviation. All these statistical values have
been obtained when the acceptance probability was at least 95%.

3 3
The mean value of the effective density for spruce pellets was 1.22 g/cm , 1.18 g/cm , respectively, for
3 3
beech pellets, and the mean value of the bulk density for spruce pellets was 0.693 g/cm , 0.709 g/cm ,
respectively, for beech pellets (Fig 3).
459
Fig. 3.
Density of spruce and beech pellets.
It may be observed that both types of pellets exceed the minimum acceptable value of 1.12
3
g/cm stipulated by the European Standard EN 14961-2, and the difference between the two types of
spruce and beech pellets was statistically insignificant at the 95% level (which means that the wood
species do not influence the density, but the type of pelletizing unit).
In respect of the shear strength, the mean values of the two types of pellets are very close,
2 2
respectively 3.92 N/mm for spruce and 4.02 N/mm for beech but statisticaly signicant at a confidence
level of 95%. These values are in concordance with that of other researchs (Czachor et al 2016) with
2 3
value of 4-5 N/mm for a medium density of 1.1 g/cm . This slight difference may be due to slight
difference in the effective densities of pellets. However, only a slight increase of shear strength with
effective density was observed for both species (Fig 4). The values of shear strength both for spruce
2
and beech pellets are above the limit value found in prior studies of 1.5 N/mm (Griu 2014).
Fig. 4.
The influence of the density on the shear strength of pellets.
460
These increases can be observed on the linear trend equation of values in Fig 4, respectively
(Eq 7) with angle of increasing (obtained from tg α=0.362, or tg α=0.566, respectivelly):
0
Spruce: y=0.362x+3.475, α1=19.9
0 (7)
Beech: y=0.566x+3.399, α2=29.6
Knowing that the coefficient of x in Eq 7 represents the tangent of the angle that the straight line
0 0
makes with Ox axis, the angle can be determined and the angles obtained are 19.9 and 29.6 ,
greater for spruce pellets by 48%, compared to beech pellets.
The caloric value expressed by the calorimeter was given as Net Calorific Value (NCV) Gross
calorific value (GCV), the upper value for spruce pellets was 19184±98 kJ/kg, and for beech pellets
19113±102 kJ/kg (medium values of 8 values), as it can be observed in Fig 5.
Fig. 5.
Values for caloric power for the two types of pellets.
It is observed that the calorific power of the spruce is slightly higher than that of the beech, a
fact which has also been noted by other authors before (Griu and Lunguleasa 2014) and can be
explained by the content of wood resin in resinous species. Even though the resin content in spruce is
low, the calorific power of the resin of 34.6 MJ/kg makes it possible to have a calorific power superior
to the deciduous trees species. Similar values of calorific value were found in the centralized Wood
Fuels Handbook (Aebiom 2013), with a value of 18.8 MJ/kg for spruce and 18.4 MJ/kg for beech.
Taking into consideration the calorific power of the pellets and their effective density, a calorific
density of 23.72 MJ/kg was obtained for spruce pellets, and 22.01 MJ/kg for beech. Calorific density
helps in determining the calorific power on unit of volume and it can be observed that the spruce
pellets had an energy density 7.8% higher than that of beech pellets.
The ash content of pellets indicates the amount of ash which has to be removed daily from the
combustion installation furnace. It can be clearly observed (Fig 6) that the ash content in the case of
beech pellets is higher than for spruce pellets, with a more than double increase.
Fig. 6.
Ash content for spruce and beech pellets.
461
CONCLUSIONS
The beech and spruce pellets analysed in this paper are made of renewable wood biomass
(waste sawdust from spruce and beech), due to its plant origin, obtained through photosynthesis, and
secondly due to the fact that it represents wood residue obtained continually in processing wood and
that would pollute the environment. The properties analysed indicate that these two types of pellets,
regardless of the species obtained from, meet the minimum conditions stipulated by European
standards. If we compare these two types of pellets, it can be observed that the density of spruce
pellets is higher by 3.3% than beech pellets, the shear strength by 2.5%, calorific power by 1.8%, and
the ash content by over 2.6 times better. Even if the values of increases have low differences the
pellets obtained from spruce resin are better than those obtained from beech specie.
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SECTION 8.
ECONOMICS IN
WOOD INDUSTRY
THE BUILDING PROCESS – A BOUNDLESS MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

PROJECT RELATED TO WOODEN MULTI-FAMILY HOUSES IN SWEDEN
Fredrik LINDBLAD
Linnaeus University – Faculty of Technology, Institution of Mechanical Engineering
Lückligsplats 1, 351 95 Växjö, Sweden
Tel: +46 700 135 066, E-mail: fredrik.lindblad@Inu.se
Abstract
The wood-building industry of multi-family houses is increasing its market share in Sweden,
yet the research and education are not incorporating a total building process perspective. Typically,
research is conducted in individual areas without having an overall coordinated perspective, which
increases the risk of sub-optimisation. In a unique project in Sweden, several components in the
building process have been studied within one project; “City development project Torparängen”. The
purpose was to gain a broader understanding of what influence the development of wooden multi-
family houses, combining the effect from technological and non-technological advancements, which
intended to support the development of a new wood building strategy.
By reviewing several areas within the building process provided information related to how
market strategies, procurement methodologies, leadership and project management, equally influence
the development as the more traditional fields in the industry, i.e. material handling, lean production,
logistics and production improvement. Further, having the possibility to capture end-user preferences
in this process provides opportunities to develop a more agile building process, adjusting market and
production activities accordingly. The study was conducted during two years and involved
approximately 250 respondents in different roles, and active in the building process within companies
and governmental organisations across Sweden.
Key words: wooden multi-family houses; research and education; multidisciplinary; development
strategy; building process.
BACKGROUND OF WOOD-BUILDING DEVELOPMENT WITHIN VÄXJÖ MUNICIPALITY

Several buildings out of wood had been constructed in Växjö, even before the first wood
construction strategy was adopted in Sweden. The same year, 1994, as the ban on building houses
over two floors with wooden frames was abolished, Värendshus built a three-story house using
wooden frames that became the first building built following the new building regulation (VKAB 2016).
Shortly after that, in 1996, Sweden's first modern 5-story wood-frame building was built at Välludden,
Växjö, as a demonstration building for the purpose of developing wood construction technology
following changes to the regulations. Thereafter, a research project was initiated 'Multi-storey buildings
with wooden frames and light flooring' (VKAB 2016). The municipality had already been working to
strengthen the local business community and the university, prior to its timber building strategy.
Therefore, since the municipality adopted their wood construction strategy 2005, they have
continuously worked to identify partners and contribute to the processes that promote wood
construction.
Växjö municipality has since its goal of becoming a fossil fuel-free municipality actively been
working on profiling itself as a municipality focusing on environmental and climate and has the slogan
'Europe's Greenest City' (Växjö Kommun 2011). An important aspect in the municipality's
environmental and climate ambition has become its focus on using wood as a construction material,
where 50% of all municipal new construction projects will be wood-based by 2020 "(Växjö
Kommun 2014). Växjö municipalities renewed wood construction strategy "Växjö - the modern wooden
town" contains more links with the municipality's goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions per the
municipality's environmental program (Växjö Kommun 2013).
With the new urban development project, Torparängen in Växjö provides new opportunities for
a wood-building arena to once again take on the role as Sweden's leading municipality related to wood
construction. Torparängen can provide the basis for increased cooperation related to research,
business and education. Hence, the university and the municipality can jointly work together and
create a greater interest in the industry for wood constructions, which can provide an increase of more
sustainable housing being produced in an economically cost-efficient way. The aim in Växjö
municipality's wood building strategy is to increase the proportion of wood-based construction in new
developments, which is among others defined as 50% of new developments by 2023 should be based
467
on a wood-based construction solution. Implementing this strategy requires a combined approach that
create both economic- and technical possibilities for sustained development.
Research project Torparängen

In recent years, a number of high residential buildings have been built using a wooden frame.
Several of these buildings are advanced constructions and are products of best practices and
innovative solutions. Commonly, the technical challenges are, e.g. sound transmission, vibration,
stabilisation, moisture and statics etc. But equally important are the controlling mechanisms if the
buildings can be built or not, i.e. construction cost, the long-term financial and operational implications
of building using a wood frame. This can include areas such as process management, logistics,
industrial construction, production management and procurement.
Project Torparängen includes a major research study, which is seen as the starting point for a
new wood construction focus in Växjö and how the Växjö-model can be transferred and generate a
boost for a national wide wood-building drive. The benefit with the project is that the research has
followed a specific development located in Växjö, which provided access to the decision-making
process from start to finish not common in other research projects. The project proposal contains
several parts, preliminary studies, procurement, production, technical conditions, operationalization
and follow-up, Fig. 1. All of these elements have been defined in 10 research projects.
1. Market study, why is not wood used to any 6. Wind-induced vibrations

extent in construction today? 7. Acoustics and vibrations
2. Procurement and tendering 8. Measurements of moisture and heat
3. Construction development 9. Measurements of vertical relativity
4. Production displacements
5. Delivery and assembly, including lacer 10. End-user analysis, expected and perceived
scanning customer value
The research has managed to produce 25 different studies within the scope of the different
phases, Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Mapping the research projects in the general structure.
These projects have been held together and through coordinated project management to
provide a birds-eye perspective throughout the project and not lose focus related to the
interconnectivity between the sub-projects. The research sub-projects where decided at the start of
the project as being of importance for the development of the wood-building construction industry and
incorporate an end-to-end perspective.
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RESULT FROM RESEARCH PROJECT TORPARÄNGEN

The recent increase of sustainable development strategies enhances the importance of urban
planning focusing on ecological sustainability (Carmona 2009). Also, The UN has included 17 global
sustainable objectives emphasising the importance of sustainable building-solutions, using local
materials that can be recycled locally (UN 2015, Process Objective 11c; UN-Habitat 2016, §71, §76).
The EU's ambition is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 (Regeringskansliet,
[Government Offices of Sweden], 2017) whereas the Swedish target is a reduction of 40 % compared
to the 1990 emission levels (Boverket, [National Board of Housing, Building and Planning], 2016a).
Buildings using wood frames have nearly half of the climate impact to a comparable building using a
concrete solution, which would have a positive effect on fulfilling the environmental target linked to the
projected building demand during the coming decade (Norén & Jarnehammar 2001; Gustavsson &
Sathre 2006). The execution of new building development plans is the responsibility of the Swedish
municipalities, based on their internal strategies combined with the Government's goals towards
sustainability (Boverket 2016b). Hence, the building development plan is intended to incorporate the
environmental effect by combining new building strategies and technologies (FORMAS 2012). Also,
new initiatives with a focus on climate change in our economies recommend the development of
wood-based industries to improve sustainability (EU, 2011. COM 2020) and implementing technology
and strategies to increase wood as an environmental and sustainable building material (EU 2012.
COM 433).
The challenges of using wood as a building material are not only linked to technical limitations;
equally important are the market factors. These factors are to some extent limiting the development
potential for both producers of single-family and multi-family wooden houses, and where product and
production development could be necessary to increase profitability and to be established in the
market segment successfully (Besanko et al. 2013). Also, companies producing wood building
solutions within the industry for multi-family houses have not fully taken advantage of the possibilities
related to best in class industrialised building techniques and leverage this entry barrier (Stehn &
Brege 2007). This can be advantageous considering the market segment is mainly developing
towards industrialisation through the off-site construction of pre-fabricated building elements or
modules and assembled on-site (Pan & Goodier 2011). This has several benefits in regards to the
production environment, logistics, quality and cost, which is not equally favourable for on-site
construction (Stehn & Brege 2007).
Market factors influencing the development

The focus on enhancing standards and technological capabilities, linked to the environmental
advantages of using wood, has increased the utilisation of wood in building construction (Nord 2013).
This affects the production costs, reducing rents for consumers, and increase its competitiveness
towards traditional building materials and improve the development of wooden multi-family houses
(Lindblad 2016). The construction using wood, in relation to traditional building material such as
concrete, face a similar market situation, yet require alternative strategies to mitigate internal and
external market challenges. Producers of wood-building solutions have an advantage with their off-site
production technology, which will enable wooden single- and multi-family houses producers to
outperform competitors using concrete (Nord 2013).
Therefore, companies producing wooden multi-family houses need to adjust and leverage
their organisation towards the new market barriers to create a competitive advantage using, e.g.
improved technological advances towards those companies already established within the market
(Karakaya & Parayitam 2013) Additionally, political decisions and actions through legislation, duties,
and taxation can support the companies’ development into a new industry or market (Björheden 2006;
Tudor et al. 2006). However, this should not solely be supported by political decisions, equally
important are company activities to leverage internal synergies, i.e. financial planning, project
development teams, strategic development, combined with governmental actions (Chiu & Yong 2004;
Roberts 2004). Also, companies aligning their market strategies with the external market context, e.g.
procurement situation, legislation and market maturity, have a greater possibility to minimise the effect
from market entry activities (Venkatraman & Prescott 1990). The market barriers facing the producers
of wooden multi-family houses are not static over time, rather something that evolves dependent on
the internal and external market conditions, i.e. financial status, political situation, interest rates or
legislation (OECD Policy Brief 2007).
Pre-conditions for building development

In 2005, a national wood-building strategy was adopted with the aim that 30 % of all new
buildings within 10-15 years should use a wood-frame and that the number of buildings out of wood
469
increase by 30% within five years (Ds 2004:1). Despite this, less than 10 % of the multi-family houses
are currently being built in wood, and the building developments in Sweden continue to show an
upward trend for using concrete in building solutions for multi-family houses (Sveriges
Träbyggnadskansli 2017; Svensk Betong 2016). However, several municipalities in Sweden chose to
develop against this prevailing trend, Växjö municipality being one of them. Hence, Växjö municipality
have since the implementation of the national wood-building strategy focused on using wood in new
building projects. The municipality is expected to achieve Sweden's environmental and climate
objectives, while at the same time the government are attempting to influence municipalities through
the planning and environmental legislation that regulates construction (Boverket 2016c).
There are several possibilities and limitations to pose specific municipal requirements in the
guidelines regarding land development agreement with reference to wood. The legislation permits
municipalities to pose specific requirements and guidelines for land allocation agreements (Act on
Guidelines for Municipality Land Allocations) based on the municipality's internal targets and policy
documents (SFS 2014:899). However, the Planning and Building Act pose restrictions regarding the
municipality’s possibilities to pose specific technical requirements for land development projects. This
complexity is also analysed by Sveriges Kommuner och Landsting [Swedish Association of Local
Authorities and Regions] (SKL), reviewing land allocation and confirming the municipalities position
using civil law to pose specific requirements when selling their land for building projects (SKL, 2014).
In order to identify the administrative instruments controlling the possibilities or limitations for the
municipalities' prerequisites for the development of wood construction a number of regulations have to
be reviewed; The Swedish Environmental Code (SFS 1998:808), The Planning and Building Act (SFS
2010:900), the Boverket’s Building Regulations (BFS 2011:6) and The Public Procurement Act (SFS
2016:1145).
Operational development
The industry producing multi-family wooden houses have had an upturn with higher demand
due to an increased market requirement for accommodation and a new awareness of sustainability in
the construction industry. Hence, like any other industry, the construction industry tries to be more
effective to increase production and improve productivity, generating higher profitability (Lindblad,
2016). One way of achieving this goal is to automate the production, similar to the traditional
industrialised concepts in, e.g. automotive and electronic industries, which have already been
implemented in certain areas of the industry to a varied extent. However, improvements in the
information flow have not come as far as the developments of production methodology, and it is
necessary to streamline the entire process and reduce the amount of manual and duplicated work
using standardisation, thereby avoid sub-optimisation and improve productivity. This is not only
applicable to the industrialization of the manufacturing process but also in a large degree to the design
process (Lindblad et al. 2018a).
Furthermore, the requirements to increase efficiencies within the industry are not only focused
on improvements in the information flow leading into the production process. Equally, the
industrialization of the building processes to leverage the benefits of wood-building solutions by
transitioning from traditional on-site production to off-site prefabrication is challenging and requires
additional information and planning processes (Ohlager 2013). Also, well-balanced material flow is of
great importance to obtain high productivity in the production process, which require a certain degree
of technological development throughout the value chain (Jonsson 2008). These actions are deemed
as important considering many house producers are in the starting phases of introducing advanced
automation technologies in their off-site production processes and require detailed process control to
take advantage of the strength of wood-building solutions and increase their market share. The
conditions for the industrial market have also changed combined with this development and customer
expectations regarding quality, high reliability, fast delivery and low price are getting higher, forcing
companies to become more productive and update their processes in order to meet these new
demands. In this context, well-functioning manufacturing processes with high-quality products and
good production planning are required to fulfil these goals, which further emphasises a shift in focus
towards internal operations and processes to better meet the customer's increased expectations (Nord
2013).
There are several areas to focus on in regards to the assembly phase of the building process,
which are related to process improvement, efficiencies and increased environmental focus
(Langlois 2004). Initially, the logistics process must become more efficient, starting with the inbound
flow to the construction site. The use of transports, dependent on building solution influence the
environmental impact, and an increased understanding provides greater possibilities to contribute to
an environmentally sustainable solution. Hence, the use of heavy vehicles transports should be
470
examined further to meet the climate objectives. There are currently several factors influencing the
impact on the amount of emitted CO2, most important have been the volume/weight factors related to
the distribution of concrete of wood-building solutions. This is however only important in a like-for-like
comparison where the driving distance from the production site to construction site is similar, which in
these cases favour wood as a construction material. In reality, the market strength of concrete building
solution provides a more comprehensive production infrastructure with shorter driving distances that
can outperform the environmental advantage identified for wood-building solutions (Lindblad, Lehman
& Aggerstam 2019).
The effect of an efficient inbound logistics process on the construction phase is only fully
efficient if the material handling process is structured and planned efficiently at the construction site.
One factor in leveraging the effect of an efficient material handling process is to have a clear picture of
the construction site, which can be conducted using laser scanning. This procedure is used to produce
a 3D-model that can be applied in different areas besides an efficient construction site, e.g. to
document cultural buildings, reconstructions city models and calculate volumes. This information can
be useful for the planning during the construction phase and later stages of the building process
related to a suitable site infrastructure. This can be established by georeferencing certain areas for
storage based on material type in relation to the construction cycle (Lindblad et al. 2018b).
There are problems identified with material deliveries and material management at many
construction sites, making the material handling process at building sites a barrier that can contribute
to improved efficiency. The activities related to making the material flow process more efficient on
construction sites are associated to suitable storage sites, materials arrive at the wrong time, waste of
storage space, unnecessary tracking of materials or wrong quantities arriving at the sites. This is a
process that can be supported and improved by technology such as Radio Frequency Identification,
RFID, which is a wireless technology used to identify objects and can be linked into BIM or on-site
construction plans if required. Material handling using RFID can improve time effectiveness, minimise
waste and monitor moisture levels in the material efficiently, creating improved sustainability within the
building process.
CONCLUDING STATEMENTS
Market evolvement
The gradually changing behaviour of the population, towards urbanisation, led to an increased
shortage of available housing. This development has resulted in not enough companies are providing
solutions for multi-family houses in wood. Potential companies that could fill this increasing demand
are those in the single-family house industry. These companies have promising positions to invest in
product development towards wooden multi-family houses and gain a competitive advantage by
diversifying into the growing wooden multi-family house industry. The limited capability to fulfil the
increased building demand also restricts the possibilities for development towards innovation, bio-
economy and sustainability. The municipalities in Sweden are responsible for the planning of building
development in their region based on their projected requirements. This normally involves the
development of local strategies regarding, e.g. design, material choice and geographical development.
By identifying drivers and barriers found in the industry and market, enables improved market entry
activities related to public building initiatives using wood-based solutions. In this context, the industry
experience barriers associated with the municipalities' actions and knowledge level related to wood as
a building solution, combined with the strength of concrete as a building material is an issue since the
municipalities tend to opt for familiar solutions. These factors contribute to uncertainty and sub-
optimisation for the developers proposing a wood-based building solution and where increased
sustainability in the building process cannot be achieved at the desired level.
Public actions
Växjö Municipality has during some time made a strategic decision to be profiled as a green
city with a focus on sustainability, which has contributed to an increased focus on wood construction.
Therefore, any new building developments under the municipality's control are required to test and
present the new building developments based using a wood-building solution. Hence, the governance
of the public process affects the development towards wood-based building solutions by
communicating an ambition to focus on sustainability, which provides a faster pace regarding new
developments using wood. Several areas have been identified as barriers, which provide guidance on
how the Swedish municipalities can adjust their current process and enable a more efficient result:
increased knowledge regarding the procurement process, changed approach towards land allocation
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activities based on new buyer/seller perspective, evaluating functional specification and increased
knowledge regarding wood building solutions.
The municipalities have several options to initiate building developments based on the
projected demand, e.g. using public procurement of new developments or the land allocation activity.
Växjö Municipality has to a large degree opted for the land allocation activity since it provides more
flexibility to pose specific demands regarding the building specification, which is not possible using
public procurement that is limited by the public procurement act. The reason for these differences
related to the selected models are based on land allocation activity is a sale of land with specific buyer
requirements imposed on the developers by the municipality. However, this is not a view shared by
the developers who have to provide a detailed proposal of their intended solution, which also is an
activity more associated with a sales process. This can be derived from an unclear buyer/seller
relationship that provides uncertainty in their internal expectations. Reviewing the interaction between
municipalities and developers from a public procurement situation requires an understanding of the
specific conditions and legislative constraints to efficiently reorganise the process (McCue &
Prier 2008; Johnston & Seidenstat 2007). Furthermore, the perception of the participant's roles in the
land allocation activity also influences how and what kind of information is provided by the
municipalities, which currently is lacking, and limit the effectiveness of the process (Nyman, Nilsson &
Rapp 2005).
The municipalities are recommended to treat the land allocation activity similar to a normal
procurement process to provide more control and transparency throughout the project life cycle. Only
if the municipalities start adjusting their perception towards a procurement situation, instead of a sales
situation defined in the land allocation process, will the possibility to evaluate the various process
steps successfully be incorporated (Arrowsmith 2010). Hence, it becomes more important to design a
new process that is adjusted to the land allocation activity, using clearly defined process steps of pre-
acquisition, acquisition and post-acquisition. This will provide internal guidance for the municipality as
well as increased transparency regarding the project requirements for the developers – evaluation
criteria, extending municipalities’ focus beyond the point of sale and project fulfilment rate as well as
accountability for discrepancies with the initial proposal (Arrowsmith 2010; Dimitri 2013).
It would also be beneficial if the evaluation criteria could include quantifiable information such
as project budget and cost per square meter, in addition to design and sustainability. The decision-
makers within municipalities are more likely to continue opting for solutions based on concrete if they
have a long tradition of evaluating building projects based on this solution.
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STATE OF RESEARCH ON THE OPTIMIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION

MANAGEMENT PROCESS THROUGH TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
METHODS IN WOOD INDUSTRY
Radu Dan PALTAN

Tel: 0040 745823722, E-mail: radu.paltan@unitbv.ro
Loredana Anne-Marie RADULESCU

Tel: 0040 722953653, E-mail: loredana@unitbv.ro
Cristina Maria BIRIS

Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Engineering
Bulevardul Victoriei 10, Sibiu 550024, Romania
Tel: 0040 269 216 062, E-mail: cristina.biris@ulbsibiu.ro
Abstract
Generally speaking, the quality and cost of goods and in particular of wood products are
decisive conditions in their sales on the market and at the same time must satisfy the clients’
demands.
This article aims to present how can be increased the quality of the final product (including its
finishing) through the optimization of the production process by using the total quality management
(TCM) methods. This study is destined for using ways and methods to make production more efficient
it in the wood industry
The authors, based on the research carried out and brainstorming meetings focused on the
choice of a scientific method or criteria for measuring interdependencies in order to optimize the solid
wood processing. Poor literature was found in the applicability of Six Sigma method in wood and
finished wood products industry.
The studies conducted by the authors over the course of two years showed that Six Sigma
method is an extremely efficient method for optimizing technological flows in industry.
From preliminary research, it was estimated that all the items found contribute to a significant
decrease in production costs that are reflected in the cost of the finished/final product and
consequently increase of production yield and at the same time maximize the company profit.
Key words: Total Quality Management; efficiency; production; wood industry.
INTRODUCTION
From the multitude of Total Quality Management Control Techniques (TQM) and economic
analysis methods (The Target Costing method, The Taguchi method, Pokayoke method, Kaizen
method etc.) that are used to optimize the production costs, following a meeting with the company's
management, along with engineers directly involved in production, several methods have been
selected and studied (The Six Sigma Method was chosen for the economic efficiency evaluation after
applying the Multi-criteria Analysis at SC Famos SA Company which is a company with specificity in
wood industry. Modern Six Sigma methodology was initiated by Motorola in the early 1980s in
response to the challenge of corporate leadership to reduce ten-fold defects within five years. Six
Sigma methodology was taken over by GE Aircraft Engines, Texas Instruments, Allied Signal,
Eastman Kodak, BorgWarner Automotive, GenCorp, Navistar International etc.
Six Sigma is a management technique that aims to improve business processes to create and
deliver almost perfect products and services. This measures how many defects exist in a process and
then determines in a systematic way how to improve this business activity. At the same time, this
method uses the standard deviation in statistics and has the purpose of increasing product quality by
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continuously determining and removing the causes of defects and process variability (potential or
detected) so as to ensure customer satisfaction. It is based on FMEA methods (Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis) and QFD (Quality Function Deployment) as well as on modern management methods
which are applied to the mixed teams of the producer, supplier, customer, specialist, research centers
etc.
The method quantifies the value of a variable (or more) that shows the distribution of an output
characteristic in a process. A higher value for the Sigma index indicates a more stable process (less
risk for scrap, lower costs). The symbol for this indicator is σ, the Greek letter used in statistics to
represent the standard deviation (Fig.1., 2).
Fig.1. Fig. 2.
Representation of 6σ (Source: Lean six Distribution representation for a generic process
sigma community). (Source: Lean six sigma community).
Improvement is achieved by focusing on the customer and, thanks to this, it increase the
consumer satisfaction.
Table 1
Correlation Six Sigma and ISO 9001:2008 (Rohan 2014)
By reducing losses, improving the quality and lifecycle of products and customer satisfaction,
the profit grows and leads to an increase in employee satisfaction. The easier it is to maximize profits,
the lower the operating costs and the significant recovery of investments, which is the result of
changing in the operating mode: "working smarter not harder".
476
By implementing the Six Sigma method, the organization also implements requirements from
quality standards; (e.g. ISO 9000) standard which is based on the use of fundamental principles of
quality management. Integrating the Six Sigma strategy with the ISO 9001: 2008 quality management
system, helps the organization to increase its benefits, as is outlined in Table 1.
OBJECTIVE
Any technological process based on machines, equipment and industrial installations can be
characterized by inputs and outputs of materials, energy and information.
In the process that will be subjected to analyze it will be considered only the inputs and
outputs of materials and energy consumption. On this process it will be applied the TQM method in the
form of six sigma in order to evaluate the amount of defects/losses and the places in the technological
streamline where they appear and find different ethical solutions to minimize them
Since the production process in wood industry as a component of the entire cycle of
manufacturing system includes activities that employ solid wood and other raw materials, in order to
obtain a finished product, furniture or an intermediate product as a reconstituted wood panels. These
can bear a series of losses that are sum both quantitatively and in value.
That is why the manufacturing system can be represented as a set of elements between which
there are connections and interdependences and on which it can act from the outside and which, in
turn, act on the external environment, but all of them have a common denominator, meaning the
monetary expression, because everything is ultimately quantified in money.
The vision over the technological process as a system in which the inputs are transformed into
outputs in order to achieve the objectives set in the fabrication, leads to the representation showed in
Fig. 2, where xi1, xi2… xin represent the inputs in the system and xe1, xe2 ... xen represent outputs
of the system.
Fig. 2.
Schematic representation of the manufacturing process.
In this manufacturing system, wood raw material undergoes physical and chemical
transformation processes (drying, machining, finishing etc), as well as disruptive actions that are offset
by order quantities. Output variables are dependent on inputs, disturbance and command factors. This
dependence can be expressed mathematically by the relation:
xe = f(xi, xp, i, e) (1)
where:
xe – the size of the output variables (intermediate product (reconstituted wood panel) or
finished product (furniture));
xi - the size of input variables (raw material (solid wood), energy, auxiliary materials
(varnishes, paints, abrasive material etc.);
xp - disturbing factors (variation of the raw material composition (wood quality), change in the
environmental factors (wood drying degree etc.);
i, e – command (control) variables.
477
Input sizes and output sizes are called characteristic variables and can be grouped as in Fig.
3.
Fig. 3.
Classification of characteristic variables.
METHOD, MATERIAL, EQUIPMENT IN TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS

The TQM through the Six Sigma method describes any structured approach to be used in
determining the general preferences of several alternative options, options that lead to achieving a
number of objectives.
The overall function of a manufacturing system is to convert a flow of raw materials, materials,
and a flow of information by means of an energy flow so as to increase the value of the products
obtained at the system exit achieved by their superior quality or longer life cycle.
The manufacturing process is conditioned both by the correct operation of each subsystem and
each component of interaction and by many interlinked that are established between these subsystems:
resource sharing, synchronization of operations, competition.
Therefore, the technological process is characterized by variables that intervene at the input and
output of the process, or during the process. These variables can be:
- Controllable independent variables are those sizes and characteristics that can be modified by
the operator/ manufacturer within the technological process at the desired value and sense so that
the performance required by the manufacturing system to be obtained (quality, quantity, profit etc.).
- Non-controllable independent variables, also called disturbances, are those sizes and
characteristics (in our case the quality of wood raw material) that cannot be modified by the
operator in the desired sense, they are random variables;
- Performance dependent variables are those sizes and characteristics that lead to the
assessment of the economic and technical performance of the technological process. These
variables are: cost of production, productivity, yield, and profit, quantity of main products, quantity
of by-products, quality of resulting products, protection of workers and the environment.
- Intermediate variables can be important indicators in monitoring of industrial process with
advanced retrofitting, with the aim of modifying the command (control) variables (in particular the
technological parameters of machines), so that at the end of production process the desired results
are obtained.
Resource sharing is the complex process of rational design for raw materials, energy (fuel) and
information materials, as well as human resources needed to conduct a particular production activity.
In a modern manufacturing system, flows of materials and raw materials, energy and information
are directly interrelated which leads to increased performance of company in terms of productivity,
profitability, environment and competitive products.
The resources involved in the manufacturing process are divided into human resources,
technical-material resources and energy resources
478
► Human resources represent all the employees involved in the manufacturing process. Human
involvement is present through its activities in all systems, even in subsystems.
► Technical and material resources include raw materials, materials, energy, all equipment, and
machinery components of the manufacturing system. Run the manufacturing process in optimal
conditions is conditioned, besides other factors, on the nature, quality, accessibility of the raw
materials and materials used.
In this study the technical-material resources and energy resources are considered.
The material balance is a document with all raw materials and materials subjected to
transformations during manufacturing process. Its content depends on the type and peculiarities of the
technological process. The quantitative representation of materials (inputs and outputs) is made in RON
in order to have a common comparative value (for the price), even these are characterized by different
units of measure (UM). An example as is presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Balance sheet material
Nr. INPUT MATERIALS QUANTITY TOTAL PRICE
(RON)
UM Quantity Ron/UM
1. Raw materials (solid oak wood) m3 6 30 180
2. Auxiliary materials (hinges) pieces 2 12 24
3. Recovered and reused materials kg 3 3 9
(sawdust)
4. Energy kwh 5 22 110
TOTAL: 323
Nr. OUTPUT MATERIALS QUANTITY TOTAL EFFECT

PRICE
UM Quantity Ron/UM (RON)
1. Finished product (furniture set) pieces 15 800 12000 +
2. Semi-manufactured (reconstituted m 5 32 160 +
panel)
3. By-product (firewood) kg 100 15 1500 +
4. Waste kg 3 5 15 -
5. Reject material pieces 1 500 500 -
6. Recoverable materials (sawdust) kg 3 3 9 +
7. Technological losses (powder/ g 0,5 32 16 -
dust/)
TOTAL: 13138
Input materials include:

- Raw materials: the initial materials subjected to transformations during the technological process.
They are found in the highest proportion in the finished product. New manufacturing technologies are
focused towards reducing the raw material consumption and the usage of all its components;
- Auxiliary materials: auxiliary materials (dyes, varnishes, additives etc.) involved in the raw material
processing, without which the finished product cannot be achieved; they are consumed in small
quantities compared to raw materials.
- Materials recovered from other manufacturing processes used to reduce the consumption of raw
materials and implicitly the manufacturing costs;
- Energy calculated in the material balance (only if it reacts with the raw material and materials). It is
expressed in KWh or Mwah and refers to electricity, natural gas and thermal energy.
Output materials:
- Finished products (also called main products) which have to meet the quality requirements specified
in the technological documentation.
- Semi-manufactured products - products of a certain degree of processing, intended to be further
processed in order to obtain the finished product;
479
- By-products - products resulting from the technological process along with the main product, but in
much smaller quantities;
- Waste materials, parts of the raw material, which may be reused in the same or another process, for
the purpose of recovering the raw material and reducing the specific consumption and material costs (eg
chips resulting from planning);
- Scraps - finished products that do not meet the quality requirements set out in the technical
documentation of the product. Scraps can be:
• recoverable if defects can be remedied by additional operations or can be capitalized with
manufacturing wastes in order to expand the raw material base, which is reflected in a positive financial
results at the level of the economic operator;
• irrecoverable if they cannot be reintroduced into a manufacturing process;
- Technological losses, The smaller the technological losses the more efficient is the process.
The balance is calculated based on the law of mass conservation: the sum of masses of all input
materials is equal to the sum of masses of materials resulting from the process.
Depending on when it is made, the material balance for a manufacturing process can be pre-calculated
and post-calculated. The material balance can be compiled for each part of the technological process
(partial balance) or for the whole technological process (total balance).
► Energy resource has an important role in carrying out any manufacturing process, as it involves
consumption of a certain amount of energy. The energy required is generally transmitted from outside in
the system as electric or thermal energy. From the energy input, only one part becomes useful energy,
the rest representing energy losses.
The amount of energy required is calculated using the energy balance, which is based on the law of
energy conservation and is expressed by the following formula:
Ei = Eu + Ep (2)
where:
Ei - energy input (available), in kWh
Eu - energy used, in kWh
Ep - energy losses, in Kwh
An energy balance is expressed in a single form of energy (kWh).

Energy losses are determined by:
- the equipment constructive deficiency, machinery that are used morally or obsolete;
- the technical condition of the equipment;
- the raw material and materials quality,
- energy imperfections of technological lines.
Like the material balance, the energy balance can be pre-calculated or post-calculated, partially
or totally

In the current case, our main goal is to optimize production by reducing costs at SC Famos
SA.
The research was based on the use of brainstorming techniques and multi-criteria analysis in
order to identify the optimization method with the greatest applicability in wood processing industry.
Within this step there were identified the alternative criteria to be taken into account. In our
case the options considered: alternative 1 the Target Costing method; alternative 2 the Taguchi
method, alternative 3 the 6 Sigma method.
The Target Costing method: is part of a strategic management approach according to which
each cost carrier is analyzed throughout their life cycle. The target or objective cost is a cost
management concept used and developed in Japanese companies, especially in the automotive
industry since the 70s. Underlying this target cost concept there was the need to produce smaller
series of products that can better adapt to the market needs, the introduction of the new production
organization methods (Just In Time operating system) and the introduction of automation-based
technologies (CIM - Computer Integrated Manufacturing - systems).
The Taguchi method imposed itself as being more effective than other methods of experiment
planning. It derives from the method of factorial experiments and proposes an alternative method for
calculating the average effects of factors and interactions, thus making mathematical modeling much
easier. Its efficiency is due to reducing the number of tests given by the split plan method, which
480
allows modeling with much less experiments than the full plan method. The Taguchi method is one of
these split plan methods and has also the advantage that it is easy to apply in practice. When
determining the number of experiments involving the study of a phenomenon by this method, stricter
conditions must be applied.
The Six Sigma Method represents the standard deviation in statistics and it is a management
methodology aimed at increasing product quality by determining and removing the continuous causes
of defects and process variability (potential or detected) in order to ensure customer satisfaction,
based on the methods FMEA (Failure Mode and effect and Analysis) and QFD (Quality Function
Deployment) and modern management methods applied to the joint teams made up of manufacturer,
supplier, client, professional, research centers etc.
The analysis and monitoring of industrial processes related to manufacturing systems in terms
of the used technologies must highlight in which way these systems are the ability to easily adapt to
the new production tasks by using their own technological lines.
If these capacities do not exist or do not meet the requirements, even by adapting to the type
of production and products produced, then they will be subject to an advanced upgrading, which will
ultimately lead to industrial automation, cybernetization and robotization of the operating processes.
This is a definite step to optimizing the technological flow to respond changing market and customer
desires in relation with quantity and quality of products. New technologies are the result of human
creativity, innovation and technical progress and aiming to increase the production flexibility, product
quality with positive impact on the quality of the professional life and environment.
CONCLUSIONS
The proposed optimization solution is efficient for furniture industry in Romania which
represents a real vehicle for the national economy and a viable solution to the problem of irrational or
exploitation of wood and unjustified wood raw material export. It is possible to conclude for an export
for added value of high finished products and in the case of Romanian wood and by low to forbid the
export of no processed wood. The lack of this solutions brings possibilities of cargo valences, by
offering to the foreign companies the opportunity to bring added value.
1. In the scientific researches carried out in this article on the TQM and Six Sigma method with
application in wood processing, it was concluded that researches of this type are relatively low
/ or probably less popular, especially in our country or abroad (books and article found
2. The TQM method applied to the technological flow could positively influence the quality and
cost of wood products satisfying the client’s desires and exigencies.
3. As a result of the above, we find that the current state of knowledge in the field of mechanical
woodworking has reached a very high level in terms of: technology, machine tool and tooling
system, optimization solutions of the processing process on various criteria technical. There
are information databases on technical research and inventions in the field of wood
processing technology and wood-based products
4. The quality and value of products depends greatly on the machinery and equipment
performance, the organization of the manufacturing processes. Thus, this analysis will came
with some proposals, like:
- jointing some stages from technological flow this will lead to removal of classical equipment (which
perform simple operations), with high energy, time and raw materials consumption. By retrofitting
and/or replacing those with CNCs will optimize the above mentioned consumptions.
- focusing on the production with high added value products and by retrofitting the production lines
with high-tech and specific machines (Veneer Panning Machine, Edge Panning Unit, Panels Cutting
Aggregate) will increase the quality of product finishing, minimizes the scraps and the quantity of
waste (Rohan 2014).
- acquiring new machines replacing the old ones increase the production capacity, maximize
productivity and eliminate the tight places (stocks in the production stream) (e.g. spraying rooms).
- increasing the efficiency of wastes utilization resulted from the technological process and reduction
of their footprint on the environment by acquiring an exhaust system (Lobonț and Zerbes 2014) and
also a wood regasification plant with a generator for producing electric power. In the researches that
stand at the base of this article result that in the furniture production the largest share in the production
cost is after the raw materials the energy costs. The price per unit of energy is the highest for the
energy produced from gas (Table 1) and which is used predominantly for the drying of wood and for
gluing presses. The lowest price is the production on own by burning waste resulted from the
production process and turning it into energy and that can be used also for the same machines.
481
- reducing working time and auxiliary time by acquiring elevators and machines for flipping and
handling wood panels which lead to increase in labor efficiency.
The new technologies are the result of human creativity, innovation and technical progress
and aim both at increasing product flexibility and product quality, reducing consumption and, implicitly
all the costs, and increasing the quality of professional life and protecting the environment
The easier it is to maximize the profit through the implementation of new advanced technologies, the
quicker it is to lower the operating costs and the significant recovery of investments, which will result in
a change of operating mode: "working smarter not harder".
REFERENCES
Bailliencourt C (2018) Conception des dispositifs de captage sur machine a bois (Paris INRS).
Coșereanu C (2013) Furniture technology – Technological structure, (Braşov, Ed.Univ. Transilvania).
Dantzig G (1955) The generalized simplex method for minimizing a linear formula under linear
inequality restrains vol 5.
Lobonț ML, Zerbes V (2014) Techniques and tools for quality improvement, (Sibiu, Ed. Univ. L. Blaga).
Lean six sigma community site- https://isssp.org/
Păltan RD, Rădulescu LAM (2017) Use of Multicriteria Analysis to select an optimization method in
industrial technology processes, (Brașov) Creativity and Innovation Journal, 9.
Păltan RD, Biriș C, Rădulescu LA (2017) Comparative study between different methods of making
production activity more efficient in the wood industry MATEC Web of Conferences, 121.
Paltan RD, Rădulescu LAM, Biriș C (2017) Applied Economic Engineering Aspects in the
Manufacturing Decision for Optimizing Wood Process Processes ICWSE Conference.
Păltan RD, Răduescu LAM, Biriș C (2017) Fundamental Managerial Decision in the Wood Panels
Manufacturing Process for the Manufacturing of Furniture trough a Method of Statistical Optimization,
AGIR Buletin 4 160.
Rohan R (2014) Note de Curs- Managementul Calității 2014 (Bucuresti, Univers.Politehnica).
482
THE BALANCE OF PRODUCTION COST AND PROFIT IN THE CASE OF

PRODUCING SPRUCE TIMBER ASSORTMENTS. CASE STUDY - HARGHITA
COUNTY
Gábor MOLNÁR
Tel: 0040 268 419581, Fax: 0040 268 419581, E-mail: molgabor@yahoo.com
Loredana Anne-Marie RĂDULESCU

E-mail: loredana@unitbv.ro
Abstract
Spruce wood is a very sought after good in all domestic and international markets, with a
beneficial utility for mankind, through the many forms it takes after the processing process, from the
simplest objects, to the increasingly complex uses, such as wooden houses, furniture, etc., up to
musical instruments.
Spruce wood processing is an art that consists of a series of activities with an engineering
character of transformation into the finished products needed for daily living.
The importance of the higher processing of wood is that it generates income, jobs, budget
revenues, bioenergy benefits, added value and social value for citizens.
In this paper I have proposed to bring to your attention a very current subject, with pronounced
practical valences, namely the choice of using the vertical frame saw or log band saw to cut spruce
wood in Harghita County, for use superior in different forms.
Key words: spruce; log band saw; vertical frame saw; processing.
INTRODUCTION
Timber processing in Harghita County has, over time, combined local traditions and modern
trends, to meet the increased demands of the internal market, but also to benefit from the benefits of
external markets. In addition, the value obtained by selling finished products has been regarded as an
advantage for both producers and workers in the area, especially since, for many localities in the
mountain area, wood processing is the main economic activity.
From the territory of Harghita county, forests represent 35.6%, a value higher than the national
average of 29.56%, and slightly below the European average value of 37.6%. In contrast, if the climate
and hydrogeographic data of the county are taken into account, this value can be considered reduced,
as forests can occupy up to 45-50% of the county territory.
The species that occupies the largest share in the Harghita County forest fund is spruce
(Picea abies [L.] Karst.), With 65% of the total area of the forest fund, that is 89% of the woods of
forested (Barbu & Barbu 1993), being also the most productive woody species in the county, both due
to the favorable climatic conditions and the low altitudes.
A spruce wood processing company, regardless of size, adapts its working and operating
strategy according to the evolutions and needs of the consumer society, technologically, economically
and socially. In the current period, the strategy has as a priority the satisfaction of customers.
The technical and technological progress of spruce wood processing in general and the
development of limitless means of communication, in particular, as well as the increase of the culture
level and the expectations of life, practically of the standard of living, determine the rapid evolution of
preferences, tastes and diversifying the needs of people, regardless of geographical boundaries.
Under these conditions, wood processing companies become more efficient, which, through
the assortments of finished products offered, can ensure the flexibility of this economic sector and can
satisfy the customers' requirements.
At the same time, customers, regardless of their standard of living, are becoming more and
more demanding regarding the quality of semi-finished or finished products from spruce wood. They
formulate a series of requirements regarding the characteristics of the products and their compatibility
with similar products, seen in different information channels.
483
Under the conditions of the global market economy, the entire activity related to the quality of
semi-finished or finished products from spruce wood is stimulated by the pressure of competition, so
maintaining the quality of the products is a constant concern of the specialists in the field.
OBJECTIVE
The research objectives consist of studying the spruce log cutting, considering the cost of
production and the resulting profit, from Harghita county, taking into account the previous studies,
supplemented with the research carried out by the author.

At present, due to the specific conditions in the area, in the spruce forests of Harghita the
method of masts is used. The mast is the part of the spruce tree, without cracks, between the felling
cut and the one practiced for removing the tip, to a diameter. of the spindle about 5 cm.
Spruce wood, in the form of a mast, is subjected to cutting operations to transform into
reusable logs, logs and scraps (Radu 1977).
The obtained logs are subjected to the primary cutting operations on vertical frame saws and
log band saws, obtaining pieces of timber in the form of unedged boards, edges and semi-planks.
The operations of primary cutting respectively the timber assortments obtained can be
quantified in costs and revenues. These costs and revenues we calculate for the vertical saw
respectively for the log saw band saws.
With tables and graphs we try to study the differences in cost and income using the two
methods of cutting.
Cutting with vertical frame saw (GV)

We know that when cutting spruce logs in timber assortments we must also take into account
the losses resulting from cutting (Ene and Tătar 2008). These losses or by-products are in the form of
sawdust (11.5%), remnants (3%), oversize (5%), edges and sides (1%), etc After cutting we obtain
assortments of long timber, short timber, chips, beams and rulers (Other).
Table 1 presents the variation of the gross profit resulting from the manufacture of the timber
assortments after their sale, respectively the total gross profit realized after the sale of the timber
assortments and the resulting by-products.
3
To calculate the cost of the bark for one m of timber we have the following known data:
3 3
- the density of one m of bark is 364 kg / m (Gryc et. al. 2011);
- at 55% humidity, 75-80 kg / 1st (Petrovici and Popa 1997);
3
- 92.82 lei a m namely 364 kg of bark;
So, 75 kg of bark costs 19.12 lei.

Table 1
The balance of the gross profit realized when selling the assortments of green and dry timber
respectively of the by-products
Asso Production Average log

Coef Productio Average acquisition Average acquisition
Qua rtme cost of purchase in
qualit n cost of green timber in dry timber in 2016
lity. nt green 2016 3 3
y dry timber 3 2016 [lei/m ] [lei/m ]
[%] timber, GV [lei/m ]
103 103+100 346,6 675,5 820
Gross profit on the sale of timber assortments
675,5-346,6-103 = 820-346,6-203 =
3 3
225,9 lei/m 270,4 lei/m
484
Gross profit on the sale of timber assortments according to the quality class
675,5* 1.4-346,6-
3 820*1.4-346,6-203
A 1.4 12 103 = 496,1 lei/m 3
= 598.4 lei/m
= 73.44%
675,5*1.3-346,6- 820-346,6-203 =
B 1.3 29.5 3 3
103 = 428,5 lei/m 516,4 lei/m
675,5*1.2-346,6- 820*1,2-346,6-203
C 1.2 26 3 3
103 = 361 lei/m = 434,4 lei/m
675,5-346,6-103 = 820-346,6-203 =
D 1 10 3 3
225,9 lei/m 270,4 lei/m
Oth 675,5*0.8-346,6- 820*0.8-346,6-203

0.8 22.5 3 3
ers 103 = 90,8 lei/m = 106,4 lei/m
Sawdust 50 lei/tona
3
Remains 300 lei/m
3
Sideways, edges 300 lei/m
3
Oversized 300 lei/m
3
65 lei/ms or 92,82 lei/m and 19,12 lei*
Bark
0,68/75*0,68 kg
496,1 + 67.5*0.115
+ 300*0,03 +
3
Total Class A 300*0.01+300*0,05 646,18lei/m
+ 19,12*0.68 =
3
543.88 lei/m
3 3
Total Class B 476,2 lei/m 564,18 lei/m
3 3
Total Class C 408,78 lei/m 482,48 lei/m
3 3
Total Class D 273,68 lei/m 318,18 lei/m
3 3
Total others 138,58 lei/m 154,18 lei/m
3
The gross profit calculated for one m of timber taking into account the quality classes
0.12*496,1 = 59.53 0.12*598,4 = 71.8
Class A
.lei lei
0.295*428,5 = 0.295*516,4 =
Class B
126.4 lei 152.33
0.26 * 434,4 =
Class C 0.26 * 361= 93.86
112.94
0.1 * 270,4 =
Class D 0.1*225,9 = 22.59
27.04
485
0.225* 106,4 =
Others 0.225*90.8 = 20.43
23.94
3 3 or
3 322.82 lei/m or 388.07 lei/m
Total profit timber for 1m
47.78% 47.32%
3
Sawdust 50 lei/tona= 67.5 lei/m
3
Remains 300 lei/m
3
Sideways, edges 300 lei/m
3
Oversized 300 lei/m
3
65 lei/ms or 92,82 lei/m and 19,12* 0,68
Bark
lei/75*0,68 kg
= 322,82 +
67,5*0,115 +
3 300*0,03 + 3
Total for 1m of logs 435,85 lei/m
300*0,01+300*0,05
+ 19,12*0.68=
3
370,60 lei/m
Cutting with log band saw (FP)

We know that when cutting spruce logs in sawmills with log band saws, we must also consider
the losses resulting from cutting (Ene and Tătar 2008). These losses or by-products are in the form of
sawdust (1%).
Table 2 shows the variation of gross profit resulting from the manufacture of timber
assortments, with log band saws, after their sale respectively the total gross profit realized after the
sale of the timber assortments and the resulting by-products.
Table 2
The balance of the gross profit realized when selling the assortments of timber,
obtained by cutting on log band saw, green and dry respectively the by-products
Production Average log Average
Coef. Assort Productio Average acquisition
Quali cost of purchase in acquisition dry
qualit mentl n cost of green timber in
ty green 2016 3 timber in 2016
y % dry timber 3 2016 [lei/m ]
timber, FP [lei/m ] [lei/m3]
80 80+100 346,6 675,5 820
Gross profit on the sale of timber assortments
675,5-346,6-80 = 820-346,6-180 =
3 3
248,9 lei/m 293,4 lei/m
Gross profit on the sale of timber assortments according to the quality class
675,5* 1.4-346,6-
3 820*1.4-346,6-180
A 1.4 12 80 = 519,1 lei/m 3
= 621,4 lei/m
= 76,8%
675,5*1.3-346,6 - 820-346,6-180 =
B 1.3 29.5 3 3
80 = 451,5 lei/m 539,4 lei/m
675,5*1.2-346,6- 820*1,2-346,6-180
C 1.2 26 3 3
80 = 384 lei/m = 457,4 lei/m
675,5-346,6-80 = 820-346,6-180 =
D 1 10 3 3
248,9 lei/m 293,4 lei/m
486
Othe 675,5*0.8-346,6- 820*0.8-346,6-180

0.8 22.5 3 3
rs 80 = 113,8 lei/m = 129,4 lei/m
Sawdust 50 lei/tona
3
65 lei/ms or 92,82 lei/m and 19,12
Bark
*0.795 (Iu) lei/75 kg
519,1 + 67.5*0.01
3
Total class A 19,12*0.795 = 637,27 lei/m
3
534,98 lei/m
3 3
Total class B 467,39 lei/m 555,30lei/m
3 3
Total class C 399,88 lei/m 473,28 lei/m
3 3
Total class D 264,79 lei/m 309,28 lei/m
3 3
Total others 129,69 lei/m 145,29 lei/m
3
The gross profit calculated for one m of timber taking into account the quality classes
0.12*519.1 = 0.12*621,4 =
Class A
62,29 lei 74,56 lei
0.295*451,5 = 0.295*539,4 =
Class B
133.2 lei 159.12
0.26 * 384 = 0.26 * 457,4 =
Class C
99.84 118.92
0.1 * 293,4 =
Class D 0.1*248,9 = 24.89
29.34
0.225*113.8 = 0.225* 129,4 =
Others
25.60 29.11
3 3
3 345.82 lei/m or 411.05 lei/m or
Total profit timber for 1m
51,1% 50,1%
3
Sawdust 50 lei/tona= 67.5 lei/m
3
65 lei/ms or 92,82 lei/m and 19,12* Iu,
Bark
lei/75* Iu, kg
345,82 +
3 67,5*0,01 + 3
Total for 1m of logs 426,89 lei/m
19.12*0.795 =
3
361,70 lei/m

Cutting with vertical frame saw (GV)
What we can see is that if we make a correct sorting of logs, we can get a higher gross profit.
3
At the same time, if we make a qualitative sorting of the timber, correct, knowing that from a m of logs
we can obtain timber of different qualities, in different percentages, at the same time capitalizing on
the resulting by-products we can obtain a higher gross profit, which of course will be taxed.
If we study this table above as a percentage or Fig. 1, and taking into account the quality
class, we can see that the gross profit on the green timber assortments, when using the vertical
sawmill, is higher than with the dry timber assortments.
At the same time, by simulating the gross profit, depending on the quality class, when selling
the green and wet timber assortments (Fig. 2), we notice that the profit obtained after the sale of the
dry timber assortments is higher. So these two aspects must be balanced, the gross profit and the
gross profit percentage (Fig. 3).
487
80
70
60
Gross profitul %
50
40
30
20
10
0
A B C D Others
% green timber 73,44189489 63,43449297 53,44189489 33,44189489 13,44189489
% dry timber 72,97560976 62,97560976 52,97560976 32,97560976 12,97560976
Fig.1.
Variation of gross profit in the production of green and dry timber assortments.
Fig. 2.
Gross profit simulation.
Below, in Fig. 3, the variation of the gross profit appears, taking into account the price
differences calculated between the assortments of the respective dry green timber according to
quality.
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Fig. 3.
Variation of gross profit in the manufacture of timber assortments with vertical frame saw.
Cutting with log band saw (FP)

What we can see is that if we make a correct sorting of logs, we can get a higher gross profit
in this case. At the same time, if we make a qualitative sorting of the timber, correct, knowing that from
3
a m of logs we can obtain the timber of different qualities, in different percentages, at the same time
capitalizing on the resulting sawdust but also the bark, we can obtain a higher gross profit, which of
course will be taxed.
If we study this table or the data in Fig. 4, and the quality class is taken into account, it can be
observed that the gross profit on the green timber assortments, in the case of using the log band saw,
is higher than with the dry timber assortments.
Fig. 4.
Variation of gross profit in the manufacture of green and dry timber assortments with log
band saw.
489
At the same time, by simulating the gross profit, depending on the quality class, when selling the
green and wet timber assortments (Fig. 5), it is observed that the profit obtained after the sale of the
dry timber assortments is higher.
Fig. 5.
The simulation of the gross profit, in the case of the manufacture with the log band saw.
So we have to balance these two aspects, the gross profit and the gross profit percentage. Below, in
figure 6, the variation of the gross profit appears, taking into account the price differences calculated
between the assortments of the respective dry green timber according to quality.
Fig. 6.
Variation of the gross profit in the manufacture with the log band saw of the assortments of
timber.
CONCLUSIONS
As a conclusion, regarding a cubic meter of timber, obtained by cutting on vertical frame saw
regarding the figures we can state that:
- even if the quantitative percentages of the timber, depending on the quality demanded differ
and have a significant fluctuation, the blue line, the gross profit obtained does not fluctuate intensely,
the red line,
- if we do not take into account the marginal values, the minimum and the maximum, we see a
very small variation, within 0.60% of the gross profit, the red line,
490
- even if the quantity is a big difference between class A, D and classes B respectively C, the
resulting gross profit is about the same, so the difference is in the cost of processing quantities larger
than the timber in class B respectively C,
- we notice that it is more profitable in this case to manufacture assortments of dry timber.
As a conclusion, regarding a cubic meter of timber obtained by cutting on log band saws,
regarding the figures above we can state that:
- even if the quantitative percentages of the timber, depending on the quality demanded differ
and have a significant fluctuation, the blue line, the gross profit obtained does not fluctuate intensely,
the red line, even has a linear tendency to decrease with the decrease of quality,
- if we do not take into account the marginal values, the minimum and the maximum, we see a
small variation, in the interval of 1.13% of the gross profit, the red line;
- what can we see that the manufacture of quality class A timber is the most profitable, even if
the quantity is low;
- even if the quantity is a big difference between class A, D and classes B respectively C, the
resulting gross profit is about the same, so the difference is in the cost of processing quantities higher
than the timber in class B respectively C;
- we note that even in this case it is more profitable to manufacture dry timber assortments.
At the same time, regarding the two types of processing for obtaining the timber assortments
presented, we can conclude that:
- the gross profit is higher using the vertical saw, but with the handling of several by-products
which consumes us a higher cost with handling, storage, transport;
- even if the profit is lower in case of the use of the log band saw, smaller by 0.5%, we think
that it is more useful to use this type of processing due to the fact that the secondary assortments do
not result, so the costs of handling, storage are lower;
- the sale of the by-products helps to alleviate the social problems existing in the localities, at
the same time it is a source of raw material for briquettes, pellets and plates;
- With the log band saw we can cut larger diameters using other types of cutting diagrams, for
example radial cutting of the resonance spruce.
REFERENCES
Barbu I, Barbu V (1993) Molidul (Picea abies L. Karst) în literatura ştiinţifică românească (1890-1990).
Bucovina Forestieră 1(1-2):46-52.
Ene N, Tătar CG (2008) Ingineria cherestelei, Editura Lux Libris, Braşov.
Gryc V, Horacek P, Šezingerová J, Vavrcik H (2011) Basic density of spruce wood, wood with bark,
and bark of branches in locations in the Czech Republic. Wood Research. 56:23-32.
Petrovici VGh, Popa IV (1997) Chimia şi prelucrarea chimică a lemnului. Chimia lemnului, Editura Lux
Libris, Braşov.
Radu A (1977) Maşini pentru prelucrarea lemnului, Editura didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti.
491
492
SECTION 9.
FURNITURE DESIGN
VERNACULAR HOUSING AND FURNISHING PATTERNS OF CERNATU

VILLAGE, COVASNA COUNTY, ROMANIA
Biborka BARTHA
Str. Universităţii nr. 1, 500068 Braşov, Romania
E-mail: biborka.bartha@unitbv.ro
Alin M. OLĂRESCU
Str. Universităţii nr. 1, 500068 Braşov, Romania
E-mail: a.olarescu@unitbv.ro
Abstract
This analysis is based on the investigation of specific structures used in traditional vernacular
architecture and furniture by researching rural settlements specially chosen for this purpose on the
following criteria: presence of specific structures in the construction and furniture, diversified utilisation
patterns of wooden species, architectural and furniture joints.
The purpose of the research in the village of Cernatu, situated in the center of Covasna
County, was to investigate and evaluate a series of rural landmarks that can provide the necessary
data to draw conclusions regarding the forms of manifestation of specific vernacular architecture.
After a general research regarding vernacular housing typologies, three households were
selected for detailed presentation in this article. The results of the on-site investigation are structured
in special summarizing tables which contain drawings and photos realised on site. A short descriptive
text which provides an overview of the current local context precedes the summarizing tables which
contain detailed presentations of the three selected households.
Key words: vernacular architecture and furniture; interior space; Cernatu village; on-site investigation.
INTRODUCTION
Wood as a material is closely related to living. The tradition of wooden buildings, in spite its
fragmented and discontinuous development has always managed to adapt itself to the modern context
due to its important role in the (mostly rural) collective conception concerning life and living
(Gronegger 2013, Jose 2010, Oikonomou 2011).
The natural environment is one of the shaping factors of traditional wooden architecture,
through the orientation towards south of the main façade (the porch being oriented towards south), the
general shape of the construction follows the lines of the landscape, taking over the organic curves of
the land on which it is set on, becoming one with the natural context by establishing a new visual and
spatial harmony (Mitrache 2008).
Regarding the repertoire of construction systems and materials, it can be stated that these
reflect general principles on the effective use of local resources, and offer diverse expressions not
only on a structural level, but also on a functional and aesthetic one (Mitrache 2008). These functional
elements have been in an interdependent relationship with the structural ones, along with the change
regarding the needs of residents, new solutions had to be found in order to satisfy the inhabitant’s
needs on both levels.
The selected area of Covasna County, Cernatu village, can provide a series of relevant
conclusions regarding the stylistic, architectural and structural evolution overlapping with local
tradition, geographical context, climate, thus shaping the traditional wooden vernacular house as we
know it today.
OBJECTIVES AND METHOD

The objective of this research is to address in a critical and synthetic manner forms and
structural typologies of wooden vernacular construction and furniture of Covasna County in order to
obtain results that will set the basis of the development process of an improvement methodology
regarding traditional cultural and architectural values in the contemporary context.
The analysis is focused on the research regarding traditional wooden architecture of Cernatu
village, Covasna County (Fig.1). There were taken into consideration a number of aspects: the
495
household structure, the general volume and its subcomponents (walls, porch and roof), the interior
space and wooden furniture of the house, the presence of timber as primary building and furnishing
material.
The purpose of the research was to investigate and evaluate a series of rural landmarks that
can provide the necessary data to draw conclusions regarding the forms of manifestation of specific
contemporary vernacular architecture. The research was conducted on several levels (having a
holistic approach): a) investigations concerning the context and community structure (general data -
geography, economy, utilities, population, surface and utilisation pattern of the built area, wooden
species, household - architecture, structure and building materials, interior space composition and
furnishing patterns).
After a general research regarding vernacular housing typologies, three households were
selected the results of the on-site investigation being presented in summarizing tables below.
Fig. 1.
General plan of Cernatu village showing the location of the three case studies
ANALYSIS OF LOCAL VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE AND FURNITURE OF CERNATU

VILLAGE
Cernat is located in the center of Covasna County, in the sub-Carpathian area of Bodoc
Mountains, in the western basin of Târgu-Secuiesc, small town which is at 28 km from Sfântu-
Gheorghe on DN11 (Braşov - Târgu Secuiesc - Onesti). The studied village is crossed by the Cernat
brook, occupies a 12900 ha surface and has over 4000 inhabitants.
The first historical testimony dates from 1332. On the right bank of the Cernat valley a stone
carved foundation of a XI – XII century-old settlement was discovered. In the place called "The Holy
th
Garden" were found the traces of a XIII century Romanesque church. On the height of "Ika Citadel"
there are the remains of a fortress with stone walls connected with earth, with an oval floor plan shape
and towers, dating from the sec. XIII - XIV.
496
The household: architecture, structure, materials, space utilisation patterns

The first aspect that can be remarked compared to other research areas (Sibiu, Argeș or
Brașov Counties) is the scale of the plot and the position of the house which is not oriented towards
the street and is protected and not close to it. The house is positioned at the base of the slope, not to
steep usually.
Regarding the structure of the traditional local house oak is the most frequent choice (Quercus
robur) in the manufacture of the sill beams and posts (Bartha, Cionca 2014). Over time, fir (Abies
Alba) replaced oak, due to the decreased geographical spread of the species. This type of round fir
log structure is very common in the studied area and has a number of typologies: round horizontal
beams – log construction, post-and-truss construction, and mixed structures (Fig.2, Fig.3). The wall
structure of vernacular housing is typically made of logs (fir, oak) with dimensions ranging between
120-150 mm for the width and 200-300 mm for the height. These horizontal elements have special
joints at the corner intersections, dovetail or lap joints being used (Bartha 2014).
a. b. c.
Fig. 2.
Specific vernacular wood connections regarding the façade, wall structure – log construction:
a-Log joints: shaped, notched, tabled, dovetailed pectination; b-Halved and lapped joints; c-
Angle joints
The main structural and compositional components of the traditional housing unit are the
following: the foundation - foundation pits are 60-80 cm deep, usually made of the best stone
mountain, grounds or sill beams - are usually made from hardwoods like oak (Quercus robur) and are
arranged along the axes of the foundation walls; beams - are etched and arranged similar to the
ground’s longitudinal axis position, are made of oak (Quercus robur), fir (Abies alba) (Păcală 1915);
secondary beams (smaller but more robust beams that are arranged between the yokes made of oak
trunks); rafter (usually sectioned at the bottom to support on eaves and on the upper side to rest on
the ridge and are made of fir); collars (horizontal elements connecting the rafters and are made
usually of fir) to the ridge purlin (it is the top beam of the roof where the rafters meet and are made of
fir or oak); gable (the triangular closing of the attic is covered with a number of wooden boards;
clapboard (oak, willow, poplar and conifers) (Lăzărescu 2010, Zwerger 2000).
The house is built overlooking the yard, facing usually south. It is raised from the ground with
approx. 2-3 m and the access to the porch is via stone or wooden steps. Such a transit area offered by
the space of the porch has emerged first of all due to the harsh winter climate and also as a necessity
in order to extend the activities of the inhabitants and obtain in the same time supplementary storage
space. In time, the porch has acquired a meaning not only on a functional and aesthetic level, but also
on a social one (becoming a place for family gathering).
497
a. b.
Fig. 3.
Specific vernacular wood connections of the house structure – post and truss construction:
a-Halved and notched joints; b-Stepped joints
The plot, which is mainly cultivated, is facing south and has plenty of sunlight. The main
volume of the housing unit is continued with a series of annexes, these being directly added to the
back of the ground floor. Each of these annexes has the following roles: to store hay, animals or tools.
The general volume of the house is opaque, with small openings (due to the fact that low
temperatures are present 6 months of the year), the porch being the only element of the main façade
which can change its status: becoming open in the summer (for outdoor activities) and closed in the
winter (mainly for storage and also protection from cold weather and snow) (fig.4).
Fig. 4.
Specific vernacular household, spatial and functional pattern of the house, main facade
A two-room dwelling and an entrance hall, an open courtyard on the southern façade, walls
made of horizontal beams of resinous wood with ground bonding are the main characteristic elements
of the traditional wooden house in this area. The household is composed of the house, the summer
kitchen in the first yard; the hare house, the hatchery and the poultry house in the second yard; the
dung store and the sanitary group in the garden.
The interior space is simple, the oven being placed in the center of the house, in the entrance
hall, thus providing warmth to both rooms. Access is only possible through the courtyard. The kitchen
can also function as an independent unit having its own access on the side facade of the house.
Hay is stacked in the gable of the barn roof structure and can be approached through a
dormer, on the ground floor animal, tool and food storage spaces being found.
498
Gates and fences in the research area are of modest size their components being the
following: wooden pillar with carvings which start ½ m from ground level.
The household: interior space composition, furnishing patterns

Regarding the Romanian territory, wooden constructions have known a long tradition and
spread throughout the country. Archaeological research testifies to the existence of the first houses in
the year 5800 BC (Curinschi 1981, Pănoiu 1977). The first designs were realised without the use of
any „artificial” tools, a large sector which might be regarded as an example of this is wattlework where
pieces of wood are simply gathered and not at all processed.
The interior space of the vernacular house (which is also characteristic for this region) is
organized according to four compositional principles or centers: heating and cooking area, sleeping
area, sitting area (long benches), storage areas (in chests, cabinets, cupboards).
Characteristic and most common vernacular wooden furniture items are: beds, tables (low,
high), cabinet-table, chairs, benches, chests (Capesius 1974).
a. b. c. d.
e. f.
Fig. 5.
Specific vernacular wooden connections for furniture, Cernatu village, Covasna
County: a-Angle joints (bed); b-lapped joints; c-tongue and groove joints (chests); d-finger
joints (table); e-joints employing pegs; f-parallel tenon joints (high chair)
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These objects were assembled at the beginning using simple joints: tongue and groove joints,
halved and lapped joints, notched and edge to edge joints – represented in figure 5 above - without
using adhesives. With the diversification of specialized tools concerning wood processing (profiled
planers, saws, chisels) complex assembly methods replaced the simple ones: tenon, step, angle
joints, also joints employing pegs – seen also in figure 5.
In the case of the analysed area the specific furniture items are the following: beds, low tables
(round with three legs) tall tables, cupboard table, carved chairs, low round chairs (with simple joints),
dish shelves, wooden cases and chests. These objects were realized in the first phase, by simple,
fixed assembly methods, the most common joints being the notch, lapped and butt joints (Cismaru
2003). The next phase meant using specialized tools and led to the emergence of more complex joints
like the tenon joints, finger joints, dovetail joints, or joints which employed wooden pegs (Olărescu
2012).
Fig. 6.
Specific vernacular interior, furniture and ornaments, Cernatu village, Covasna County
The interior space is composed of three main areas: the porch, the living area and the storage
area. All these spaces are organized according to the longitudinal compositional axis of the house as
follows: the porch facing the street, the entrance hall and two rooms (guest and living room) placed in
the core, and finally, facing the courtyard, in the back of the house, the kitchen(the stove is placed
500
here along with cooking utensils) and storage space. Regarding the interior a series of aesthetic and
qualitative differences can be observed between the two main rooms of the house (living room –
multifunctional space and guest room) (Bartha 2017). The living area was furnished as follows: two
wooden beds (set against the walls), a wardrobe, a low table (if any); in the guest room high table,
chairs, benches, beds, chests and textile ornaments were placed.
Case studies: presentation of the three selected households from Cernatu village
The summarizing tables below collect and reflect in a synthetic manner the results of the on-
site investigation of three households (Fig.7, 8, 9) chosen for presentation due to their relevance in
offering insight regarding vernacular architecture and furniture of Cernatu village. The investigation
focused on two main aspects: exterior– household, construction typologies/details; interior– furniture,
space utilization patterns.
501
Fig. 7.
Summarizing table with results from the on-site investigation of household 1
502
Fig. 8.
503
Fig. 9.
504
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

In terms of the use of building materials (in the three cases studied, but also on a regional
level), a diversification can be observed after 1989, this process being presented in a synthesized
manner as follows: until the 1930s the wall structure consisted of solid wooden logs plastered with
earth or mortar and stone foundation; between the 1950’s - 70’s brick started to be utilised as a
construction materials for walls, after the 90’s reinforced concrete in combination with other materials
being the main choice regarding utilisation patterns.
The traditional household has seen many changes over time. The current form and structure
th
have their origins in the early 19 century when the rural built environment suffered massive
systematization on a national level. (Olărescu 2012, Bartha 2014).
Fig. 10.
Summarizing table containing general data and conclusions regarding the specific local
household and furniture of Cernatu village
In time the household was structured according to the local climatic and geographical context,
thus the household organisation and functional pattern being synthetised as follows: the main house
(in most cases with a closed porch oriented towards the street), small storage area attached directly to
the volume of the house, the kitchen (as a complementary space also attached directly to the main
living areas of the house); a barn construction with haystack on the level of the gable roof, stable on
the ground floor (including the swinery, henhouse); also in some cases a sepparate staple for cattle
and sheep; manure storage and the toilet in the garden (Fig. 10). These functional models persisted
and improved continuously being adapted to new requirements regarding comfort.
Regarding the wooden furniture, the range of utilized wood species was limited at first to the
following: beech (Fagus sylvatica) and oak (Quercus robur). In the investigated households no
th
furniture items dating from this period (16 century) were found. After the diversification of wood
processing tools the number of species has grown including spruce (Picea abies), fir (Abies alba),
sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), elm (Ulmus glabra), plum (Prunus domestica), cherry (Prunus
avium), walnut (Juglans regia). In the case of the three households (case study 1, 2 and 3) we can
th th
observe the presence of vernacular wooden furniture dating from the 18 and 19 century: a chest
employing tongue and groove connections, also a high table and a series of benches (utilising tenon
joints) and also three legged low chairs with tenon joints or ones employing wooden nails or pegs.
The organic composition of the household is subject to an evolution dictated by the changing
needs of contemporary society, thus the vernacular house has to embody a set of valuable assets that
can provide inspiration and coherent guideline for contemporary creative thinking and building, which
can set the base for qualitative furniture projects in neo-vernacular spirit.
REFERENCES
Bartha B (2019) Romanian Vernacular: Wood Utilization and Furnishing Patterns, LAP Lambert
Academic Publishing, ISBN 978-620-0-08394-4.
505
Bartha B, Olărescu A (2017) Guide for Value-Adding Contemporary Architecture and Furniture Design
in Contemporary Spirit, Jurnal BDI: PRO LIGNO, Vol. 13(4):471-481.
Bartha B (2014) Wood Utilization Patterns Concerning Vernacular Architecture and Furniture in
Vâlcea, Sibiu and Buzău Counties, PRO LIGNO, Vol. 10(1):38-46.
Bartha B (2014) Traditional Structures Regarding Wooden Vernacular Architecture and Furniture in
Sibiu, Vâlcea and Buzău Counties – Romania, BULLETIN OF THE TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF
BRASOV • VOL. 7 (56) NO. 2 – 2014 SERIES II - FORESTRY • WOOD INDUSTRY •
AGRICULTURAL FOOD ENGINEERING, ISSN 2065-2135 (PRINT), ISSN 2065-2143 (CD-ROM).
Bartha B, Cionca M (2014) Vernacular Architecture and Furniture of Vâlcea and Sibiu County,
Romania in a European Context, PRO LIGNO, Vol. 10(4):53-62.
Cantacuzino GM (1977) Fountain and halt (in Romanian), Eminescu Publishing House, Bucharest.
Capesius R (1974) Traditional Romanian Furniture (in Romanian), Dacia Publishing House, Cluj-
Napoca.
Cismaru M (2003) Wooden structures for furnishings (in Romanian), Transilvania University Publishing
House, Braşov.
Curinschi V (1981) The history of architecture in Romania, (Romanian) Technical literature Edition,
Bucharest.
Filipovici J (1965) Study of Wood, Volume 1+2 (in Romanian), Didactic Publishing House, Bucharest.
Gronegger T, Perger J, Caminada G (2013) Beyond modernisms – A manifesto for dealing with rural
culture of building, cultural landscape, crafts, identity and diversity, Research manuscript, New Design
University, Sankt Polten, Austria.
Jose M (2010) Methodological bases for documenting and reusing vernacular farm architecture,
Journal of Cultural Heritage 11, pg. 119-129.
Lăzărescu C (2010) Wooden Structures, Volume IV (in Romanian), Transilvania University Publishing
House, Braşov.
Mitrache G (2008) Tradition and Modernism in Romanian Architecture (in Romanian), Ion Mincu
University Publishing House, Bucharest.
Oikonomou A (2011) Architectural structure and environmental performance of the traditional buildings
in Florina, NW Greece, Building and Environment 46:669-689.
Olărescu A (2012) The tradition of built rural landscape, Arges and Muscel, (Romanian) Transilvania
University Edition, Brasov.
Păcală V (1915) The monograph of Răşinari village (in Romanian), Arhidiecezan Typography, Sibiu.
Pănoiu A (1977) Wood Architecture (in Romanian), Technical Publishing House, Bucharest.
Zwerger K (2000) Wood and Wood Joints, Birkhauser, Basel.
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DESIGN OF A FURNITURE FOR PATIENTS IN REHABILITATION STAGE.

KEY STUDY OF THE DEPARTED SECTION
Sotiria FERFYRH
University of Thessaly, Faculty of Wood Technology and Furniture Design
Laboratory of Wood Design
V. Griva 11, Karditsa Greece
E-mail: Ferfyrhsot@yahoo.gr
Abstract
Human spin is a complicate and sensitive body part. Every spine is as unique as a fingerprint.
Every person has his own unique ‘spine print’, and that print changes as the person’s posture
changes. Injuries in the spine can cause serious problems in a person's daily life. Sometimes the
conservative treatment that is often applied is not enough, so surgical intervention is necessary. A
serious kind of spine surgery is spinal fusion, a surgical procedure to correct problems with small
bones in the spine. After this stage, the patient is undergoing rehabilitation, a stage that varies from
person to person and is temporary but very critical for patient’s recovery. In current research, we
studied the design of an auxiliary furniture, aimed το improving the quality of life of people in
rehabilitation stage after a back surgery. The study and design of the wood furniture includes initially
the use of creative thinking and logging of ideas such as Brain Storming, Mind Map, Story Board to
define the final specifications of the furniture so to imprint them by creating original and final sketches
and 3d models using 3D CAD software. More emphasis was given to the horizontally detached
surface that it has and serves to facilitate other functions.
Key words: Furniture Design; Universal Design; Patients; Spinal Fusion; Rehabilitation Stage.
INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of industrial design since the end of the 19th century, when it began to
appear until today, is the design of furniture and other industrial products that aim to improve the
everyday life of the people who use them. With the evolution of science, materials and technology,
people's needs have grown dramatically. Furniture and other industrial products should be
increasingly complex and sophisticated to cover a larger group of human needs (Clarkson et al. 2013).
Many times these needs are not covered from a classic industrial design process but we have to adopt
more efficient methods like Universal Design. According to Roger Coleman the following questions
have to be answered in a new design "Who is going to use my design?" "What do they need from my
design?" "How do I take any medical needs into account? (Coleman et al. 1994)
The evolution of medical science is continuous, new methods of treatment are constantly
being discovered, new wound treatment techniques are being implemented. A large number of wound
treatment techniques result in surgical procedures (Outi et al. 2017). The patient after a surgical
procedure should follow a rehabilitation step following specific medical instructions. Indeed, in some
post-operative rehabilitation stages such as Spinal fusion, the patient should follow a long
rehabilitation phase that may take several months. During that time, the patient should be in upright
position (Laureen et al. 2017).
The purpose of this paper is to design interior furniture that will be able to support and
facilitate the patient in the rehabilitation phase after Spinal fusion surgery. Beyond the ergonomic
design of the entire skeleton of the auxiliary furniture, great importance was given to its horizontal
detachable surface. This over the storage character that has a significant function is that it can be
detached from the base skeleton. This surface may be placed on any horizontal surface of the
surrounding area as well as on the bed surface of the person using it. The role of this surface is very
important since transporting will also serve the transfer of useful objects which are directly recruited for
the person in the reporting stage.
Both design and construction materials should facilitate easy disconnection from the main
skeleton and the transport away from it. Ideally, the transfer could be carried out by the patient
himself.
For this purpose, a survey was carried out with the distribution of questionnaires in
rehabilitation centers in Central Greece, as well as the method of personal interviews from people in
the process of rehabilitation or who have already completed this stage. Subsequently, based on the
data collected, they were utilized using tools for the design and development of furniture and other
507
industrial products. The methods used as design tools are Brainstorming, Story Board, Mind mapping,
concept design and cad modeling.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present study was to assess the needs of people in the process of
surgery recover and to create auxiliary furniture for them in the home. Both the patient's needs and the
functions that arose from the research held about the needs that the furniture could cover, aimed to
provide the details for its ergonomic design. The most important point was the possibility of
transferring its horizontal surface according to everyday needs.
METHOD, MATERIAL, EQUIPMENT

In order to search the necessity of designing a furniture that supports the patient at the
rehabilitation stage, a survey was carried out which was based on the questionnaires responded by
patients undergoing rehabilitation after a surgical procedure and personal interviews of patients who
completed the stage of rehabilitation. A market survey was also conducted to find similar furniture -
aids that serve patients' needs. The answers given from the questionnaires, shows the need for
designing a product - furniture that will serve the needs of the patients at home. Overall, the
questionnaire contained 15 questions and responded to it by 73 people who are either ill themselves
or have a patient in their family. Specifically, the question of how much such furniture would help the
movement of the persons in their space, 38% of respondents answered “very much” while 40%
responded ‘much’ (Fig. 1). To the question of how important it is to detach the horizontal surface of the
furniture from the base frame 83% answered yes and 17% answered no. (Fig. 2). As regards the
required characteristics of the horizontal surface, the needs of the patients that are essential to be
covered are primarily that of eating and the placement of devices and objects for entertainment
purposes. Necessary elements are to create recesses in appropriate dimensions and to add a non-slip
surface to securely support all of the above. The ability to detach this surface will make it possible to
place it on the patient's bed when he is there. It will also be possible to place it on any other surface
desired by the patient.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Persons who were in their immediate vicinity The importance, of removing the horizontal
a person who could use the particular surface from the base frame.
furniture.
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Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Daily activities that are lacking or that are How much help would offer such furniture to
difficult for people in recovery. people with temporary difficulty in movement
Most respondents (52%) believe that daily activities that are lacking or that are difficult for
people in rehabilitation stage are the daily care and survival processes. Then they are considered to
be lacking entertainment (21%) (TV, board games, reading books etc.). The next activity that is
considered to be lacking or becoming difficult is communication (16%) (phone, internet etc.) and the
last activity they are lacking is creativity (11%) (embroidery, knitting, modeling constructions etc.)
(Fig.3). In Fig. 4 are presented the answers about how useful it would be a furniture like this, so 28
(38%) respondents answered "very much", 29 (40%) people answered "very much", a smaller
percentage of respondents (16%) answered the help it could offer would be "modest" while only two of
them (3%) responded minimally, and 2 others (3%) said that such furniture would not provide any
assistance to people with difficulty in moving.
Fig. 5.
How important is furniture dimensions to be adapted?
Regarding to how necessary it would be, the dimensions of this auxiliary furniture to be
adapted to the user, most of the respondents 63% (46 people) responded positively and a fairly large
number 37% (27 people) replied that this possibility would be "possible" necessary. It is worth noticing
that none of the respondents answered negatively to the possibility of adapting the dimensions of this
auxiliary furniture to the individual user (Fig. 5).
At the same time, the market research showed that the most popular device used by patients
is the walker. The research carried out showed that auxiliary furniture should meet the following
509
objectives: a) To offer any improvement to the new conditions of their everyday life b) To make
pleasant and productive, for people with temporary difficulty in the movement, to stay in the home area
c) To support the communication with their relatives additional functions despite the difficulty of
moving outside the home d) to give those who use it the impression of temporary use rather than a
permanent status e) to offer in a successful way the impression of minimizing the diversity of the
people who make use of auxiliary furniture. (f) its construction is such that it is easy to move and
detach its individual parts from the user himself.
BRAINSTORMING
Brain Storming is called the process where the constraints set are to be addressed and met by
targeted solutions and proposals, a team of designers, through a process of creative search for new
ideas, solving problems, meeting the constraints and leading to innovative solutions. The goal of a
brain storming is to externalize different ideas from team members. The process begins by identifying
the problem, as well as determining queries that will stimulate creative thinking. The main purpose of
brain storming for the design of auxiliary furniture is to meet the needs of the users and the functions
that it should cover. The need to support in the home, but also to meet the basic necessity of the food
is where the priority was given. Great importance should also be given on the ergonomics of furniture
based on anthropometry (Yayici 2016). Special attention was also given to safety factor so that
furniture can safely support the user when moving in the house. Considerable care should also be
given to the design of the auxiliary furniture, with the auxiliary surfaces that it will have to include for
the installation of a mobile phone, laptop, tablet etc. Also, the materials should not have a heavy
weight.
STORYBOARD
The aim of the Story Board is to help the designer understand the user's needs, the content
and use of the product, the interactions between the users - products. Story Board is used throughout
the design process, from the birth of the idea to its evaluation. Through this the emphasis was placed
on the operation of the product and the intended behavior of the product. It also helped to pay
attention to the technical functions of the product as well as to psychological / social / economic /
cultural functions. Finally, the Story Board tried to answer questions like Where? When? What? Why?
With whom? For how long?
MIND MAP
This method is being used at the beginning of "Searching for the Idea". The designer begins
by creating illustrations on how to develop opportunities for innovation development. A thematic core
is defined in the center of the map (Bednar 2009). Mapping our ideas shows the potential relationships
that develop (or are about to being developed) from the opportunities or solutions that the designer
discovers through the map. It is a map depicting specific relationships and hierarchies. Such a tool
helps the designer to develop discussions to find the solution. The method helps to further detect and
develop a concept. On the map to be developed in five stages: a) Definition of the Thematic Core and
related sub-themes b) Mapping of the Thematic Core and related sub-themes c) Exploring the
potential opportunities around the Thematic Core and related issues d) Improving the Thematic Core
map according to the initial requirements e) Map analysis and identification of final areas for further
exploration.
CONCEPT DESIGN – CAD MODELING

The concept design refers to the initial design of ideas in sketches. Sketches should capture
design suggestions that meet the user's needs as outlined in the previous steps. The idea that will be
selected by the evaluation will be detailed below in CAD Modeling. After selecting the final idea,
follows the stage of 3d modeling where the pre-designed idea should be designed in every detail. The
design software is AutoCAD 2018. During the detailed design process, the designer is able to identify
any errors or omissions that were not detected earlier. It is likely that significant improvements will
emerge, or even changes in the central concept, so that the furniture - product is constructively and
structurally correct.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSION

The research carried out showed that auxiliary furniture should meet the following objectives:
a) To offer any improvement to the new conditions of their everyday life b) To make pleasant and
productive, for people with temporary difficulty in the movement, to stay in the home area c) To
support the communication with their relatives additional functions) despite the difficulty of moving
outside the home d) to give those who use it the impression of temporary use rather than a permanent
status e) to offer in a successful way the impression of minimizing the diversity of the people who
make use of auxiliary furniture (f) its construction is such that it is easy to move and detach its
individual parts from the user himself. The main purpose of brain storming for the design of auxiliary
furniture is to meet the needs of the users and the functions that it should cover. The need to support
in the home, but also to meet the basic necessity of the food, was where the priority given. So the
detached surface should initially be a simple horizontal surface for any use that would be necessary to
the patient. Placing a food, a reading book or an electronic device (tablet, laptop) is the most
necessary need that should definitely be served. In a second year, a glass and some daily use items
such as a mobile, a pen and a paper, paper towels, glasses and other items of everyday use would be
very convenient for the patient to be placed on the detached surface of the furniture.
Great importance should also be given on the ergonomics of furniture based on anthropometry.
Particular attention was also given to the issue of safety to the safety factor so that the furniture safely
supports the user when moving within the home. Considerable care should also be given to the design
of the auxiliary furniture, depending on the auxiliary surfaces that it will have to place for the
installation of a mobile phone, laptop, tablet etc. Also, the materials should not have a heavy weight
(Fig.6).
Fig. 6.
Brain Storming.
The final mind and map storyboard are presented in Fig.7 and Fig.8
511
Fig. 7.
Mind Map.
Fig. 8.
Storyboard.
FINAL CONCEPT DESIGN

Covering the needs of patients through the ergonomic design of the furniture is the basic
criterion for choosing and developing the final design concept. In the initial sketch we try to give a
basic shape in the furniture (Fig. 9). The final idea was chosen based on the following criteria as they
emerged from the mind map: a) Ensuring the stability of the furniture when moving the patient inside
the house b) Choosing the least volume and weight design c) The ability to store the user's personal
small items d) Allowing the user to move freely. The final form of the auxiliary furniture is shown in Fig.
10
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Fig. 9.
Initial Sketch Designs.
Fig. 10.
Final Sketch.
FINAL 3D CAD MODELING

The final sketch design is the guide for the 3d model in AutoCad 2018 (Fig.11, 12), during
modeling process we are able to find mistakes in initial design and to correct them. After the 3d model
design we have to make the construction drawings.
513
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Final 3d Modeling. Exploded view of 3d Model.
Fig. 13.
Horizontally detached surface.
CONCLUSIONS
The idea of designing an auxiliary furniture started from the need of people who, after a
surgery involving the vertebral region and then at the stage of rehabilitation. During the rehabilitation
phase, the patient should be able to serve their needs at home in the best possible way. This is where
the present research focused. It was considered necessary to provide answers to questions
concerning the process of patient transition from rehabilitation to normal lifestyles. In the first stage,
what is deprived of these people as well as the needs that are created by returning to the home, since
others are less able to self-service. Those who know best this information are none other than the
patients themselves for whom it is intended to design such auxiliary furniture and by themselves to
514
use it. So it was to draw up a questionnaire which would include all those questions that would be able
through the answers that would emerge to "describe" the form, the functions, the materials, the design,
any additional benefits but and the cost of furniture.
The analysis of the results of the questionnaires in conjunction with brainstorming, mind map
and storyboard determine the initial design of the auxiliary furniture. The answers to the questionnaire
show that users would like to have such furniture. They expressed their opinion on the cost of auxiliary
equipment, their preference for the construction of the morphology and the use of its parts, as well as
the existence or not of auxiliary storage areas. Finally, it was considered very practical to be detached
into the individual sections and said that after the recovery phase it could be used as a daily use
furniture.
The functional and morphological features which proposed in the questionnaires are those that
were depicted in the first sketches. The general morphology of the furniture should give a picture of
robust design and stability, while at the same time it should serve in a distinctive way the very specific
needs of the users. Storage spaces should be clearly visible and serve accordingly, giving many
activities to the user of the furniture. Its basic functions should be user-friendly and easy to implement.
The ease of moving within home was also considered a very important feature of the furniture.
In the final sketches, we had to include the income data from the previous stage Keep those data that
are thought to meet the purpose for which they were designed and meet the ergonomic and functional
requirements. There were also some new sketches, which better cover the need for discretion. Among
other things, some thoughts had to be made about the future use of furniture with a different function.
The final drawings, based on the final drawings, provide detailed design details of the resulting design
data.
Some further thoughts on improving the furniture are presented below: a) Add sensors to
avoid collision with furniture and surfaces inside the house. This function on such furniture could be a
further advantage for the added safety of the users. It can be an extra function which could be a
choice to purchase the furniture b) Choosing colors in the different parts of the construction. Different
coloring of the parts of the furniture could be a choice of users c) use by people with different mobility
problems after the design changes d) Second use of the furniture after the first one.
REFERENCES
Bednar P, Lynn D (2009) Systemic combinatory use of Brainstorming, Mind-Maps and Rich Pictures
for analysis of complex problem spaces, ECRM 2009.
Clarkson P, Coleman R (2013) History of Inclusive Design in the UK, Applied Ergonomics.
Coleman R (1994) The Case for Inclusive Design – an Overview, 12th Triennial Congress.
International Ergonomics Association and the Human P. John Clarkson, Roger Coleman.
Laureen DH, Christopher SA, Michael GFL (2017) Assessment and management of acute spinal cord
injury: From point of injury to rehabilitation, Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine Volume 40, Issue 6, 2
November 2017, Pages 665-675.
Outi I, Arja H, Joost D, Pekkanen K, Piitulainen SJ, Marttinen K, Vihtonen M, Neva H (2017) Quality of
life and disability: can they be improved by active postoperative rehabilitation after spinal fusion
surgery in patients with spondylolisthesis? A randomised controlled trial with 12-month follow-up,
European Spine Journal March 2017, Volume 26(3):777–784.
Sami T (2014) Rehabilitation after Lumbar Spine Fusion, Development of an Exercise Program,
Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä.
Yayici E (2016) Design Thinking Methodology Book, ISBN: 978-6058603752
Wu-Chen Su, Shih-Ching Yeh, Si-Huei Lee, Hsiang-Chun Huang (2015) A Virtual Reality Lower Back
Pain Rehabilitation Approach, System Design and User Acceptance Analysis.
515
THE EFFECT OF SHELF BRACKETS ON THE FRONT TO BACK LOAD AND

COMPARING OF THE MECHANICAL STRENGTHS IN THE SCHOOL CHAIRS
MADE FROM LOTUS (ZIZIPHUS SPINA-CHRISTI) AND POPLAR (POPULUS-
NIGRA) SPECIES
Ali BAYATKASHKOLI
University of Zabol, Faculty of Natural Resources, Department of Paper and
Wood Technology Zabol, Iran
Tel: +989177153975, Fax: 0098 543 2232600, E-mail: ali.bayatkashkoli@gmail.com
Mahmoud-Reza HOSSEINI-TABATABAEI
University of Zabol, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering Zabol, Iran
E-mail: mhoseini.tabatabaei@yahoo.com
Toktam HEMATI
Tel: +989177153975, Fax: 0098 543 2232600, E-mail: toktam_hemati86@yahoo.com,
Mehdi JAMSHIDZADEH
Tel: +989177153975, Fax: 0098 543 2232600, E-mail:m.jamshidzade@yahoo.com
Farhad KOOL
Tel: +989177153975, Fax: 0098 543 2232600, E-mail: farhadkool@gmail.com
Ehsan SANEAI-SISTANE
Tel: +989177153975, Fax: 0098 543 2232600, E-mail: e_saneii@yahoo.com
Abstract
The lack of forest resources is the reason of using small diameter silvan species in furniture
industries. Lotus and Poplar trees exist frequently in many regions. It is possible to use these species
for making chairs. The strength of the furniture must be enough against external loads. One way to
increase resistance of the furniture frame corners against the bending moment and bending stress is
to use wood shelf brackets and Stretchers. Wooden chairs made of Lotus and Poplar with bracket,
tenon and mortise joint, are compared to chairs without bracket. Front to back load was applied on the
chairs by Universal Testing Machine according to the DIN EN-1729-2:2006 Standard. The results
indicated that the chairs had an acceptable strength and it was possible to use Poplar wood in
furniture industry. Chairs with bracket had a maximum strength. Also, chair with lotus wood showed
better strength than chair with Poplar wood. Type stretcher and brackets changed the failure location
at the joint between the back or front post and side rail. The strength of tenon and mortise, and side
rail against bending moment are 2697 and 4162 N.cm, respectively. Chairs with bracket have a higher
bending moment of failure than chairs without brackets (approximately; twice). This force distribution
transfers the stress to the front post and front rail.
Key words: Lotus; Poplar; Bending moment resistance; School chair.
INTRODUCTION
Due to the lack of forest resources, furniture durability must be increased against external
loads by using small diameter species, in order that the lack of raw material at furniture industry is
resolve.
The designs and joints of furniture must be complementary and compatible, and their
undesirable effects should be decreased in field conditions. Joints and design of chair are very
516
important to manufacture chairs with higher performance, and can be affect its strength and service
life. Failure of wood structures mainly occurs in the joints. One way to increase the bending moment
resistance and bending stress of the furniture frame corners is to use wood shelf brackets and
stretchers. This is also useful to increase the resistance against applied shear forces in furniture
frames. Length of service life is one of the most important considerations in the design of furniture,
and in most cases, it is a function of joint construction (Eckelman 2003; Eckelman and Haviarova
2006).
Eckelman and Haviarona (2006) determined that chairs with tenon and mortice joints were
stronger than chairs with other joints. Another study indicated that chairs with round tenon and mortise
joint and half lap joint are the most resistant. The loads had distributed desirably in the chairs
stretchers and hence, they had high strength (Haviarova et al. 2001). Glued round and rectangular
mortise and tenon joints had the highest levels of cyclic load durability whereas bed bolts had the least
(Uysal et al. 2015). The effect of cross pinning the tenons of round mortise and tenon joints on the
bending moment capacity of the joints is investigated by Eckelman et al. (2004). The shoulders on
tenons significantly increase the bending moment capacity of a joint when the shoulders of the tenon
fit firmly against the side of the member in which the tenon is inserted. The shoulders have a
substantial effect on the bending moment capacity of the joints. In general, the larger the shoulder
caused to the greater the effect. To be fully effective, the shoulder must ‘butt’ up against the wall of the
member containing the mortise. A mortise and tenon joint becomes stiffer as either tenon length or
tenon depth is increased. Tenon depth has a more significant effect on joint flexibility than tenon
length. Furthermore, the presence of a shoulder on the rail member of a mortise and tenon joint
substantially contributes to the stiffness of the joint (Erdil et al. 2005).
A stiffness analysis of a statically indeterminate wood-chair side-frame is presented by
Hajdarevic and Busuladzic (2015). The results of the calculation indicate that chair side frame
becomes stiffer as the position of the stretcher is lowered and/or the stretcher cross section is
increased. The results revealed that stiffness of joints in a frame had a considerable impact on the
structure deflection. A satisfactory agreement was found between the numerical results and the results
obtained by direct stiffness method.
The strength of chairs against the applied loads is important, especially against the front to
back load that mostly exists in practice. Physical and mechanical qualities of Lotus wood are more
suitable than Poplar wood. Poplar wood is light and is hardly polishing and has a low durability. The
defects can be removed with using technique of compressed and laminated wood. Lotus tree also has
a very small diameter. The chair structure can be reinforced with shelf brackets. Lotus and Poplar
grow in large areas of the world and wood raw materials are less available in their growth regions.
Since, small diameter Poplar and Lotus woods can be used in furniture industry. School chairs are one
of these products.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of the study is compare strength of school chairs made from shelf brackets,
Lotus and Poplar wood. The present study is a solution for using Poplar and Lotus woods.

Wooden chairs are manufactured with different designs in workshops and factories. The
design used in the research is a chair design with stretchers that is largely produced. The chairs are
often produced in workshops and factories of Iran. The dimensions of the chair and its components
are based on a field survey, Published data (Noll 2007; Jackson and Day 1995; Horwood 1999) and
the DIN EN 1729-1. The patterns of manufacture of the chair and their dimensions are shown in
Figure 1.
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Fig. 1.
The pattern of manufacture of the chair and size of its component parts.
Poplar (Populus nigra) and Lotus (Ziziphus spina-christi) species were used in the study.
Tenon and mortise joint is largely applied in wooden chairs.
Wooden chairs were constructed with Stretchers, tenon and mortise joint, Poplar and Lotus
woods. The wood shelf brackets were used to increase the chair's mechanical strength that located at
the between the back post and side rail. The brackets parts were joined at the angle 45˚ with glue and
dowel (the diameter 10 mm and the penetration depth 1 cm) to the back post and side rail of the
chairs.
Polyvinyl acetate glue was used as an adhesive. The characteristics of the adhesive are
presented at Table 1.
Table 1
The characteristics of the polyvinyl acetate glue
Appearance Milky white, smooth and free of foreign particles

pH 3.2
Film forming properties Smooth and colorless and transparent
Minimum film forming temperature 20° C
Storage time 6 months
Solid materials 32%
Assembly time 10 minutes
Preparation Not need
The final assembly of the chairs was accomplished with Polyvinyl acetate glue and fastener in
four different types patterns. The chairs were kept at normal atmospheric conditions for a period of 24
hours for the adhesive used in the joints to become completely cured. Front to back load was applied
on the prepared chairs by Universal Testing Machine according to the DIN EN-1729-2:2006 Standard
and Eckelman (1999). The loading speed was set at 6.5 mm/min to measure the maximum load. The
chair was fixed on the machine's span. The fixed chair does not slide when loading from front to back.
Loading method applied from front to back on the chair by the Universal Testing Machine. The
experimental error decreases for uniform conditions of construction, including the same of glue line
thickness, size of dimensions parts and joints size.
Analysis of chair side-frame

Chair side-frame analysis is not possible with static balancing rules. But if the behavior of
dimension parts of chair is known, the analysis can be performed approximately. The presumptions
are used to simplify the analyses.
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Moment capacity
At the first, the chair was modeled as a two 2D frame. Moment capacity is calculated from the
sum of the moments of the external forces loaded on the chair. The modeled chair is analyzed by
applied forces as follows:
Loading distribution is showed at frames of chairs structure (Figure 2).
Fig. 2.
Loading distribution on the chair frame.
Analysis of modeled chair under applied forces
where:
Maximum load on the chair (N), Mc: sum of produced bending moments around the C point
(N.cm), RB: reaction of chair frame at B support (N), Ryc,Rxc: vertical and horizontal reactions of chair
frame at C support (N), respectively.
Formula of moment capacity
Bending moment of side rail
The presumptions are used that load is applied as horizental from front to back. The load is
located at node 5.
The bending moment at both ends of the stretchers is obtained from the following formula
approximately:
According to the assumption
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as a result
The bending moment formula of stretchers:
where:
PH : the horizontal force applied at 5 point of the chair frame (N);
L25: side rail length (cm);
L34: back rail length (cm);
M25: stretcher bending moment (N.cm);
M34 : back rail bending moment (N.cm)
Shelf bracket bending moment

The moment capacity of the chair with shelf bracket is subtracted from that haven’t the shelf
bracket and the bending moment of the shelf bracket is obtained.
M1= moment capacity of the chair without shelf bracket (N.cm),

M2 = moment capacity of the shelf bracket (N.cm)
Shelf bracket has seen at frames of chairs structure (Figure 3).
Fig. 3.
The shelf bracket piece and the joint of the component in the chair.
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The physical and mechanical qualities of Lotus wood and Poplar wood are presented in Table
2. The results of the calculation of the maximum load means and its standard deviations of the
treatments are presented in Table 3. Means of maximum load of the chairs designs with shelf bracket
or without shelf bracket are determined.
Table 2
Physical and mechanical qualities of Lotus and Poplar wood
Species Physical properties mechanical properties

Density gr/cm3 MOE (Mpa) MOR (Mpa)
Poplar 0.37 1426 30
Lotus 0.56 2137 72
Table 3
Means of maximum load and its standard deviations of the treatments
Species type Design type Means of maximum standard deviations

load (N)
Poplar With shelf bracket 2043.67 58.8
Poplar Without shelf bracket 1019.47 39.1
Lotus With shelf bracket 2336.33 216.8
Lotus Without shelf bracket 1423.67 30.4
The results of the statistical analyses are presented in table 4, and are showed that the
treatments and their intercept are significantly different. The results of the front to back load test on the
chairs have showed that the chairs with shelf brackets are the highest strength. Chairs with Lotus
wood are stronger than chairs with Poplar wood (Table 4 and Figure 4). Therefore, the chairs with
shelf brackets and without brackets are significantly different, and chairs with Poplar and Lotus woods
also are significantly different (Table 4).
Table 4
ANOVA results of the treatments
Source Mean square df F Sig.
Corrected model 1062378.830 3 80.300 0.000
Intercept 3.492×107 1 2.639×103 0.000
Species 364217.363 1 27.529 0.001
Design 2813589.363 1 212.666 0.000
Species*Design 9329.763 1 0.705 0.425
Error 13230.093 8
Total 12
R Squared =0 .968 (Adjusted R Squared =0 .956)
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Fig. 4.
The intercept of the design and wood species on the chairs' strength.
Duncan's test shows that the following treatment groups have the highest to the lowest
strength, respectively: chair with shelf brackets made from lotus wood, chair with shelf brackets made
from Poplar wood, chair without shelf brackets made from lotus wood and chair without shelf brackets
made from Poplar wood (Figure 4). Type stretcher and brackets changed the failure location at the
joint between the back or front post and side rail. Failure location for chair without shelf brackets under
front to back load occurred at the joint between the back post and side rail, but for chair with shelf
brackets located at the joint between the front post and side rail.
The fixed support elements of the chair with shelf brackets are larger than that without
brackets. In addition, the load distribution is better in chair with shelf brackets. The front to back load is
transferred by the shelf brackets to other parts of the chair such as the side rail and the front post.
While chair without brackets, the front to back load is concentrated in the joint between back post and
side rail, and the joint line is split in this position. The front to back load is applied to chair with shelf
brackets has transferred through bracket elements to the front post, and stress concentration is
located in the joint line between front post and side rail that is split position. Therefore, chairs have a
different failure location that due to different force distribution. Front to back load on the chair frame
caused to the shear strength and axial forces and bending moment occurred, and the load is
transferred to side rail and joint line. It is useful to use the wood shelf brackets which increase the
shear strength and bending moment in the armchair and furniture frame exposed to large loads.
As a result is showed at Figure 4, chairs made of Lotus wood are stronger than those made
of Poplar wood. The reason can be related to better mechanical and physical properties of Lotus wood
than Poplar wood (Table 2). On the other hand, if the joint elements have a smooth surface, the
contact angle between the glue and surface is low and glue line very clearly show the superior
performance. Therefore, the strength of the structure frame increases against applied stress at the
glue line. Generally, Lotus wood has a smooth surface is because the high density and condenser
texture when compared with samples of Poplar wood. Since, samples of lotus wood have a better glue
line performance than Poplar wood. Chairs made of oak species are stronger than those made of
Poplar species, because the mechanical and physical properties of oak wood are better than those of
Poplar wood. Hence, chairs made of oak species are more resistant to the applied load (Eckelman
and Havriarova 2006).
Failure locations of chair frame are changed from back post-side rail to front post-side rail due
to the shelf brackets. Failure of chair frame without brackets is due to the difference between the
bending moment of the side rail and that of the joint. The bending moment of the joint is less than that
of the side rail. For example, the tenon and mortise bending moment is 2697 N.cm and the side rail
bending moment is 4162 N.cm. Chairs with brackets have higher moment capacity (7357.2 N.cm and
6590.4 N.cm) compared with chairs without brackets (3670.28 N.cm and 3198.6 N.cm), and the stress
transfers to the front post-side rail. Transfer of load to front post creates a deflection in the front
stretcher. The deflection caused to the glue line separation between the front post and stretcher. The
moment capacity of the chairs and the bending moment of stretcher were calculated and the
calculations results are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
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The results of the front to back load test of chairs showed that the chair with shelf brackets
had the highest side rail bending moment. Also, Lotus wood showed better strength than Poplar wood
(Figure 5). Therefore, chairs with brackets and without brackets, on the other hand, which made from
Poplar and Lotus woods, are significantly different.
Fig. 5.
The intercept of design and species type on the stretcher bending moment.
The results of the front to back load test of chairs showed that the chairs with brackets had the
highest moment capacity (Figure 6). Therefore, the moment capacity of chairs with brackets and
without brackets, and on the other hand, which made from Poplar and Lotus woods are significantly
different.
The mean bending moment of brackets is 3686.92 N.cm (chair with tenon and mortise joint)
and 3115.453 N.cm (chair with double joint), and the bending moment of tenon and mortise joint is
2697.6 N.cm and wooden double joint is 405.93 N.cm.
Fig. 6.
The intercept of design and species types on the moment capacity.
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Availability of Poplar wood is advantage, but its low quality is disadvantage. Low quality of
Poplar wood can be modifying by compression and lamination. Since, Poplar wood can be used for
furniture through lamination and compression.
CONCLUSIONS
It is possible that the chairs made from Poplar and Lotus wood with acceptable strengths. The
maximum front to back load of the chairs exceeds the standard value. Chairs made of Lotus wood
have the highest strength, because its physical and mechanical properties are better than Poplar
wood. Lotus wood has a higher density, denser texture, smooth surface and more suitable adhesive
bonding, and hence, its glue line occurred firm. Also, chair with shelf brackets has a maximum front to
back load. The loads distribution of chair with brackets has the best performance. Force uniform
distribution in chair frame with brackets cause that the stress transfers to the front post-side rail. While,
the front to back load on the chair without brackets is concentrated in the back post-side rail.
Therefore, failure locations of glue line at chair frame with brackets and without brackets are different.
The wood shelf brackets caused to increases the shear strength and bending moment of school
chairs. The technique used which Poplar wood can be used in furniture industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is supported by University of Zabol (Reference No. UOZ-GR-9517-25).
REFERENCES
Buyuksari U (2012) Physical and mechanical properties of particleboard laminated with thermally
compressed veneer. Laminated particleboard properties, bioresources 7(1):1084-1091.
DIN EN 1729-1: 2006. Furniture –Chairs and tables for educational institutions - Part 1: Functional
dimensions.
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FURNITURE DESIGN IN CONCEPT LEGO
Octavia ZELENIUC
Tel: 0040 268 419581, Fax: 0040 268 419581, E-mail: zoctavia@unitbv.ro
Catalin MATEIU
E-mail: z3ro72@ygmail.com
Abstract
Furniture design has changed from traditional to new, original and practical ones. Creation of
new furniture design is a challenge. Furniture is not only a part of the interior design but it also should
offer comfort, flexibility, functionality and aesthetic appeal. The paper presents an original piece of
furniture based on Lego concept. It is made of fir (Abies Alba L.) wood block units assembled by
dowels. The furniture structure is designed in such a way that from the basic piece (the table) by
combining the component blocks (the cubes and rectangular parallelepipeds) and the plates (superior,
inferior) and lateral walls it can be achieved pieces of small furniture like stool, benches and a storage
box. The manufacturing steps are also presented and by using imagination and creativity other
different pieces of furniture could be made, just play with.
Key words: fir; cube; rectangular parallelepipeds; blocks; lego-furniture; dowel.
INTRODUCTION
Any child starts to play with different objects, the most attractive being those that form the
LEGO game. This develops the imagination and constructive spirit: to do together, gather and
combine more pieces which have different sizes, colors, figures in a variety of themes.
At the beginning the bricks (the basic unit of the Lego game) were made from plastic. From
1949 until 1963 cellulose acetate was used. Then the polymer was changed in favor of acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) (https://www.compoundchem.com/).
From 60 billion parts manufactured by Lego in 2014, at least 318 million are miniature tyres for
Lego vehicles which are made from styrene butadiene styrene (SBS).
History of Lego starts in 1932 in the carpentry workshop of Ole Kirk Christiansen, in Billund,
Denmark (https://www.craftechind.com/). In 1934, Ole Kirk organized a competition with all staff to find
a suitable name for the company offering as a prize a bottle of wine. Christiansen had two names in
mind, "Legio" (short for "legions of Toys") and "Lego "(a combination of words from Danish language
"leg godt", which means "play well." From plastic toys the company developed the modern brick
design and patented Lego brick in 1958 and in 1964 cellulose acetate was replaced by ABS, material
which is non-toxic, is less prone to discoloration and deformation and is more resistant to heat, acids,
salt and other chemicals. There were developed Duplo bricks (double size of Lego bricks) (1969) safer
for small children, these being compatible with Lego bricks (Fig.1)
Fig. 1.
Lego bricks (Meers 2017).
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In 1980 the Lego group founded the Educational Products Department (Lego Dacta in 1989
from the Greek word “didactic”) to expand the educational possibilities of their toys
(https://www.lego.com/). Lego bricks was named “toy of the century”.
In more than 140 countries, Lego toys were sold by 2015 and they have maintained their
place in the top of the list of the most popular toys in the world (Rosenberg 2019).
The interest for LEGO system was expanded from toys to furniture area, where designer used
their creativity to image and create LEGO furniture or different objects. Among these it can be
mentioned staircase- made from lego, coffee table with lego on top, dining table, chair etc. (Fig. 2)
Fig. 2.
Furniture design inspired by Lego system (Homedit 2019).
Lego concept represented a challenge and designers used their imagination and built different
pieces of furniture without screws or glue. Yusong Zhang designed a table which seems to be made
from white bricks, but a lateral view reveals playful layers, like a rainbow of red, yellow and green
color, as well as an empty center (Taggart 2018) (Fig. 3 a). LEGO adult projects were developed
including sets of blocks with architectural themes, even a bedroom was made of 20 000 colored
modules. Among these the most versatile was EverBlock LEGO giant that can be used to build chairs,
tables walls and structures (Schulz, 2015) (Fig. 3 b, c, d).
a. b.
c. d.
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e. f.
Fig. 3.
Lego-system applied to different pieces of furniture and structures: a - coffee table; b -
EverBlock coffe table; c - EverBlock house structure for disaster and military applications; d -
Everblock -modular wall; e - MUEBLOCK over -the-shelf bed; f - MUEBLOCK Sofa.
Chilean designer Raab Francis used wood materials as, plywood and pine wood, to create the
modular furniture Muebloc. This included blocks that can be combined into various pieces like
dressers, sofa, tables, bed (Fig. 3 e, f) (Paul 2015).
What is the magic behind LEGO? It is not a simple game, behind it hides creativity,
imagination, innovation, simplicity and desire to create-recreate other systems. It started from a
necessity and was developed on complex interactive games. Designers were included the LEGO
concept in different furniture pieces, decorative partitions, using vivid or pastel colors. The pieces are
designed in a cubist style with rectangular and square shapes jointed together.
OBJECTIVE
Wood is not so much present in Lego system and even more in furniture based on Lego.
Wood is warm, lightweight, eco and renewable material that can provide us a wide source of
inspiration.
The main objective of this research was to develop a wood furniture piece in concept LEGO
using a simple and attractive design. Additionally, starting from the basic structure, other small pieces
of furniture could be developed through different assemblies using the system of dowel jointing.

The wooden material used consisted of fir (Abies Alba L.) reconstituted panels of 38 mm and
24 mm, timber of 20 mm and scantlings of 60 mm thicknesses. The panels were made of 40 mm width
strips. The raw material was achieved from the Romanian market. The wood moisture content was in
3
average 11% and the density 450 kg/m .
The wood raw materials were subjected to the mechanical processes by cross-cutting, edging,
trimming, planing and sanding in order to straighten and obtain the necessary dimensions and
surfaces quality of pieces.
a. b.
Fig. 4.
The frame and the basic unit for furniture design: a - the frame for the superior plate;
b – cube: the block unit.
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The inferior (lower) and superior (top) plates and also the lateral walls fitted on the inferior
plate were made from the reconstituted panels and the frame was made from 20 mm timber (Fig. 4 a).
The frame fixed the superior plate on legs, through dowels. The blocks as the basic unit for the
LEGO furniture system, were the cube and rectangular parallelepiped, representing the constructive
and assembly elements (Fig.4 b).
The cubes of 54 x 54 mm and parallelepipeds of 108 x 54 mm were obtained by cross-cutting
of scantlings to a circular saw. After a slight sanding in order to remove the chips from the edges, the
cubes and parallelepipeds (160 pieces) were drilled on a vertical drilling machine (Fig. 5).
a. b.
Exhaust system
c. d.
Fig. 5.
Block processing: a - cross-cutting; b - sanding; c - drilling; d - final cubes and
parallelepipeds.
To make holes accurately in the middle of all cubes faces, a device for drilling was made. The
exhaust system had the aim to keep all pieces in the right/fix position.
In order to accomplish the furniture assembly the lateral walls and the inferior plate were
drilled on edges and surfaces (Fig. 6) and the jointing was made by dowels of 6Øx30 mm.
Fig. 6.
Drilling the lateral walls and the inferior plate.
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The finishing of furniture pieces was achieved by brushing the water based coloured enamel
2
(Evrika) in two layers to a specific consumption of 200 g/m . It is odourless enamel and it is
recommended for the painting of furniture and carpentry items in living spaces such as children's
room, kindergartens, schools, children's toys (https://www.azur.ro/).
The cubes were coated with blue color on the sides and yellow on heads and parallelepipeds
with yellow on the sides and blue on heads, this helping to easier assembly of all pieces (Fig. 7). After
drying the first coat of enamel, a slight sanding with abrasive H 240 was performed, followed by the
dust removal and final enamel coat application. After drying, a final sanding was achieved with
abrasive H 360, to give a proper gloss to the surfaces.
a. b.
c. d.
Fig. 7.
Coloring method for cubes, parallelepipeds, plates and lateral wall: a - cube and
parallelepipedic units; b - superior (top) plate; c - inferior (lower) plate; d - lateral wall.
For the design of superior and inferior plates, several variants of decoration in the puzzle
system were considered (only simulation without puzzle constituent parts).
The colors have been chosen so that to be suitable for both adults and children. Yellow is a
cheerful and energetic color, associated with happiness, which stimulates concentration and memory.
Especially, the light and warm shades give a sunny and bright appearance and emit hope and
optimism. It can stimulate the creative part of the child and adult also.
Blue represents the sky and the sea and has a calming effect, lowers blood pressure, anxiety
and aggressiveness. This color is associated with freedom, imagination, inspiration, sensitivity and
has a positive effect on the mind and body emanating a refreshing and relaxing light. Psychologists
recommend this color around the child because it favors relaxation and helps him to overcome any
insomnia and even to calm down. Children in a blue room may play alone, quietly and are satisfied.
It seems that people are more productive when they work in the blue rooms.

Furniture design
The furniture structure was designed in such a way that from the basic piece (the table) (Fig.
8), by combining the block units (the cubes and parallelepipeds) are achieved other pieces of small
furniture like stool, two benches and a storage box for Lego pieces (Fig. 9).”M-Cub” name describes
practically this LEGO-furniture. These are just some of the possible variants that can be obtained by
assembling the block units. By combining the cubes, other small pieces could be created based on
imagination.
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Superior (top) plate (800 x 400 x 18 mm)

Legs from cubes and parallelepipeds (54 x 54 x 54 mm)
Lateral wall (400/300 x 250 x 18 mm)

Inferior (lower) plate (800 x 40 x 27 mm)
Fig. 8.
The basic piece of furniture: the table.
a.
b.
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c.
Fig. 9.
Design of different variants of LEGO- furniture “M-Cub” derived from the basic piece: a -
benches made from the lateral walls; b - stool made from lateral walls and cubes or
parallelepipeds for legs; c - storage box.
Consumption of raw material

The raw material consumption (including wood and others materials) used to carried out the
furniture pieces is showed in Table 1.
Table 1
Raw material consumption
3
I. Raw wood material consumption, in m
1.1. Timber, 24 mm 0.035538
1.2. Timber, 38 mm 0.022154
1.3. Timber, 20 mm 0.002498
1.4. Scantlings, 60 mm 0.064601
3
Total wood raw material consumption, m 0.124791
II. Wood dowels and screws
2.1 Dowel (Ø6x30 mm), in pieces 400
2.2. Screw (3.5 x 20 mm), in pieces 12
III. Finishing materials
3.1 Disc sanding paper (P80, P120), set 4
2
3.2 P240, P360 (sheets of 230x280 mm), set
3.3 Water based enamel, in l 1.5
The wood raw materials (Table 1) are the representative items included in the calculation of
the furniture price. Most of people assume that “custom” furniture is too expensive and generally is out
of the ordinary furniture price range. The custom hand-made furniture includes much effort and time
for conception, choosing the materials, thus a high labour work is necessary to create the
personalised furniture pieces.
CONCLUSIONS
This unique furniture piece namely “M-Cub” represent not only a simple table, it could be
viewed as a complex design that can be transformed in different small pieces through imagination and
creation. The design is a friendly one, the colors used are saffron yellow and celest blue, colors both
being energizing and relaxing in the same time. The assembly (the basic furniture) is based on
combinations of the constructive block units (the cubes and rectangular parallelepipeds) through
dowels. It is a removable constructive system which can be assembled easier into different ways using
creativity. The diversity of the assemblies that could result is limited only by imagination.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the project of graduated student at Faculty of Wood
Industry and the technical support of Wood processing laboratory from ICDT Research Institute of
Brasov.
REFERENCES
Homedit (Home Decorating trends) (2019) Lego-Inspired Furniture and Designs with Nostalgic Flair on
line at: https://www.homedit.com/lego-furniture-design-ideas/lego-table-design/
Meers K (2017) Limburgse bedrijven brainstormen met blokjes. On line at:
http://www.madeinlimburg.be/nieuws/limburgse-bedrijven-brainstormen-met-lego-blok
Paul R (2015) Muebloc Introduces a Variety of Wood Finishes to the World of LEGO Furniture. On line
at: https://www.6sqft.com/muebloc-introduces-a-variety-of-wood-finishes-to-the-world-of-lego-furniture/
Rosenberg J (2019) The History of Lego. Everyone’s favourite building blocks born in 1958. On line at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/lego-toy-bricks-first-introduced-1779349
Schulz D (2015) Giant LEGO Blocks Let You Build Anything from a Coffee Table to an Entire Room.
On line at: https://www.6sqft.com/giant-lego-blocks-let-you-build-anything-from-a-coffee-table-to-an-
entire-room/
Taggart E (2018) Designer Builds a Fully Functioning Coffee Table From More Than 10,000 LEGO
Bricks. My Modern Met. On line at: https://mymodernmet.com/lego-furniture-coffee-table-yusong-
zhang/
https://www.compoundchem.com/2018/04/09/lego/
https://www.craftechind.com/which-plastic-material-is-used-in-lego-sets/
https://www.lego.com/en-us/aboutus/lego-group/the_lego_history/1980
https://www.azur.ro/ro/produse-decorative/emailuri-pentru-lemn-metal-si-beton/evrika-email-
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AN INTERPRETATION OF AUSPICIOUS PATTERNS DECORATED ON CHINESE

HISTORIC FURNITURE
Jiufang LV
Tel: 0086 25 85428621, E-mail: 1025593064@qq.com
Huan YE
Houyi HUANG
Abstract
This paper has explored the kinds of motifs used to create and design the auspicious patterns
on Chinese historic furniture, and explained the colorful meanings of these auspicious patterns
according to the Chinese culture and customs. Through recognition and comprehension of these
meanings，this paper can bring appreciation of the decorative arts from Chinese historic furniture and
carry forward this material culture for future use.
Key words: chinese historic furniture; decorative arts; auspicious patterns.
INTRODUCTION
There are numerous carved or painted decorative patterns on Chinese folk historic furniture.
This paper focuses on the auspicious patterns. Auspicious patterns are widely used one kind of
popular decoration widely used on Chinese articles for daily use life such as bronze, ceramics,
porcelain, metalwork, jades, ivory and rhinoceros horns, lacquer-wares, textile, and furniture (Chen
2001). According to the unique techniques of expression, auspicious patterns which include metaphor,
analogy, pun, symbol, and euphony, the different motifs which range from imagery of people, animals,
flowers, birds and wares to auspicious Chinese characters, proverbs, benedictions and fairy tales.
These motifs have been combined together to form meaningful designs which met the demand of the
user for happiness, peace, safety, longevity, wealth and honor. In China, this kind of ornamental
designs with certain propitious meanings created in this way was called auspicious patterns. It
originated from the Shang and Zhou dynasties, took shape in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed in
the Tang and Song dynasties, and matured during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In the Qing dynasty,
all designs must have a meaning and that meaning must be auspicious, this became the artisan’s
motto. A single pattern often contains a benediction for happiness or longevity, and can be seen in
people's everyday life as well as on jubilant occasions.
As a culture and an art, the auspicious designs have been widely disseminated and admired
in China for several thousand years. It is a lifelong pursuit for people to promote the good and repress
the evil, avoid disasters, and prey for happiness. Auspicious patterns symbolizing these meanings
such as peace and safety, good luck and happiness are inherited from one generation to generation
(Clinas 1987). Over time, the contents and forms of auspicious designs have been developed to suit
the taste of people in different periods. Furniture is utilitarian and therefore primarily functional, but it
also reflects the social influences and tastes of different periods. These tastes being expressed by
auspicious patterns represent an important part of the decorative arts in Chinese culture.
CHINESE AUSPICIOUS CHARACTERS TO EXPRESS “GOOD WISHES”

Stylized Chinese characters signifying good health and good fortune appear regularly on
lacquer-ware and furniture. The character of 福（happiness, is carved on door panels of furniture to
pray for the arrival of happiness. The character of 寿（longevity）is decorated on furniture surrounded
by some other motifs, which wish the owner a life as long as “South Mountain” or enjoying both felicity
533
and longevity. The character of 吉means good, happy, and not disadvantageous, and the character of
祥 also means good, happy, and beneficial. The combination of the Chinese characters of 吉 and 祥 is
believed to have come from the "Human World" of Chuang-tzu, a famous philosopher in the period of
Warring states(475 BC—221BC) in Chinese history. Cheng Xuanying, a scholar from the Tang
Dynasty, explained: "吉 means something good and beneficial, and 祥 means an auspicious sign.”
Fig. 1.
Five bats surrounding a character of 寿 .
HOMONYMS USED TO CONVEY CERTAIN MEANINGS

For instance, bat (蝙蝠）is used to imply happiness (福), because the 蝠is the homonym of 福
(happiness) in Chinese, so the design of bat is regarded as punning symbols of happiness (see Fig. 1)
鹿(deer), to mean 禄 (wealth); 金鱼 (goldfish), to represent 金玉 (gold and jade) (Fig. 2); 桂子 (laurel),
to compare to 贵子(adorable son); 瓶(bottle), to represent 平 (peace)；穗 (wheat), to 岁 (year); 柿(the
fruit of persimmon) (Fig. 3), to 事(thing or event); 钱（money, to前（before）；梅(plum), to 眉
(eyebrow); and 馨 (a kind of traditional Chinese music instrument made of stone), to 庆 (celebration).
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
A board from Chinese furniture carved
The design of Ru-yi (如意) and the fruit of persimmon.
with a 馨 and two fishes.
CHINESE CHARACTER IN A PHRASE IS USED TO FORM A NEW PHRASE WITH AN AUSPICIOUS

MEANING
For instance, 仙 of 水仙(narcissus)is used to form 群仙祝寿，a phrase meaning immortals
offering birthday congratulations; 百 of 百合(lily)is used to form the phrase of 百年好合，meaning a
happy union or marriage for one hundred years; 喜 of 喜鹊 is used to form the phrase of
喜上眉梢，literally happiness that appears on the eyebrows means happiness is coming (Fig. 4); and
天 of 天竹 (nandin) is used to form 天长地久，a phrase that means everlasting and unchanging; grey
starling (白头翁) that forms the composition of 富贵白头 (Fig.5), meaning riches and honours that
accompany one till one reaches old age; the two Chinese characters 鹤 and 鹿 are put together to
534
form the phrase of 鹤鹿同春，symbolizing longevity and wealth that are full of vigor like the season of
spring (Fig.5).
Fig. 4.
The pattern of magpies standing on the branch of flowering plum.
Fig. 5.
The pattern of grey starling (白头翁) and the peony.
MOTIFS USED AS METAPHORS OR SYMBOLS IN THE FORMATION OF AUSPICIOUS DESIGN

Plants are widely used in this aspect. The ginkgo tree symbolizes ancient civilization because
the tree, known as a living fossil, can grow as long as several thousand years; Peony represents
prosperity, wealth, and rank; azalea, home return; bamboo, uprightness and modesty; camellia, a
combat hero; the sensitive plant, feelings of shyness; lotus, purity; chrysanthemum, mobility and
cleanness; pomegranate, prosperous descendants; Olive branches are a symbol of peace; pine and
cypress trees, staunchness and greatness; plum blossoms, firm and unyielding; lily flowers, unity and
friendship; twin lotus flowers on one stalk, affectionate couple; “Flowers of the Twelve Months,” are as
follows, although this group varies in different parts of China: plum (梅花)， Prunus Mumei，is the
symbol of January; Peach Blossom (桃花), Amygdalus persica, is the symbol of February; peony
(牡丹)，paonia Mutan, is the symbol of March; cherry (樱桃)，Prunus Pseudocerasus, is the symbol
of April; magnolia ( 玉兰), Magnolia Yulan, is the symbol of May; pomegranate（石榴），Punica
granatum，is the symbol of June; Lotus (莲花) (see Fig. 6)，Nelumbium speciosum，is the symbol of
July; pear (海棠)，Pyrus spectabilis，is the symbol of August; mallow (锦葵), Malva verticillata, is the
symbol of September; chrysanthemum（菊花），C. indicum，is the symbol of October; gardenia
(栀子花)，Gardenia florida, is the symbol of November; poppy (罂粟)，Papaver somniferum，is the
symbol of December. Narcissus (水仙) is supposed to confer good fortune for the next twelve months.
It is called the Water Fairly flower in China. It is grown from bulbs in bowls filled with pebbles in water,
and forced into bloom at the Chinese New Year. The ‘Three Friends in the cold of the year’, the pine,
bamboo and plum, are the three plants which survive through the winter months (Pu 2001). The
Chinese plum blossoms in December, so the pine tree, bamboo and plum blossoms are joined as
"Three Durable Plants of Cold Winter," indicating people's unyielding and defiant characteristics;
peach is the symbol of longevity, etc.
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Fig. 6.
Zi-tan wood throne with lotus flower carving.
Animals are also extensively used to form auspicious designs. To the Chinese, turtle, white
crane, Chinese unicorn (see Fig.7), deer, dragon and phoenix are auspicious and benevolent. The
turtle and white crane symbolized longevity in ancient China, as the saying goes like this: "the white
crane lives a thousand years and the turtle ten thousand years". In auspicious designs, the turtle is
often represented by the patterns on its back; Chinese unicorn symbolizes benevolence, mercy, and
auspiciousness; the deer, prosperity and abundance; the dragon, authority and respect; the phoenix,
good prospect; traditional auspicious dragon-phoenix designs are: "Dragon and Phoenix bringing
prosperity," "Two Dragons playing with a pearl," (Fig.8) "Flying Dragon and dancing Phoenix" and "A
couple of Phoenix singing in harmony." They are always seen at the wedding furniture as a wish for
happiness in the couple's marriage. Besides these, the tiger represents the power of the dislodgement
of evil spirits and guarding the house; the horse, force and speed; the ox, diligence and hardworking;
the elephant, kindness, virtue, and uprightness; the sheep, propitiousness and prosperity; the bat, the
arrival of happiness.
Birds are also symbolic in Chinese mythology of many attributes: the peacock drives away evil
and is a symbol of dignity and beauty; the oriole is the bird of joy and music, and symbolizes
friendship; besides these, the dove, peace and loyalty; the magpie, and approaching happy event,
whilst the insects of the butterflies are symbolic of love, like Cupid in European mythology.
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Chinese unicorn pattern on the splat The carving pattern of two dragons disputing a pearl
of chair. in imperial furniture.
SYMBOLS OR MOTIFS FROM TAOISM AND BUDDHISM

Taoism and Buddhism are the two main religions, which have influenced Chinese decorative
arts throughout history. The woodwork of furniture is sculptured with sacred scenes and figures
enclosed in scrolls of flowers, intermingled with the series of conventional emblems, which are related
to the two religions. In Taoism the Eight Immortals are the symbols of longevity. The name of the Eight
Immortals are: Han Zhong-li（汉钟离）, Zhang Guo-lao（张果老）,Han xiang-zi（韩湘子）, Li Tie-
guai（李铁拐）, Cao Guo-jiu（曹国舅）, Lan Cai-he（蓝采和）, He Xian-gu（何仙姑）, Lv Dong-
bin（吕洞宾）. In the Chinese arts, the properties of the Eight Immortals (Fig.9) are fan, fish drum,
flute, gourd, castanets, basket of flowers, lotus and sword (Zu 1989). These symbols have been
536
endowed with auspicious meanings to decorate utensils, such as porcelain, lacquer-ware and
furniture, etc.
Fig. 9.
The properties of the Eight Immortals.
The Taoists take the manifold floral emblems of longevity as their sacred plants, such as Ling-
zhi fungus, and honeysuckle. Ling-zhi is the sacred branching fungus called the polypovus lucidus of
botanists, distinguished by its brightly variegated colours and by its durability (Fig. 10). This was
regarded as both an emblem of good luck and a Taoist emblem of immortality; the Ru-yi symbol
conveys (Fig. 3) the idea “as you wish”, or “in accordance with your heart’s desire”. Its shape is
derived from the head of the Ling-zhi fungus; and the honeysuckle is the symbol of good luck and
propitious omen. Two supernatural animals, the dragon-headed horse (龙马), and the divine
tortoise（神龟）, are also used in Taoism to express auspicious meanings whilst the crane (鹤) is the
symbol of longevity (Tilden 1997).
Fig. 10.
The carving pattern of Ling-zhi on the side panel.
Buddhist patterns also have a long history, the introduction of Buddhism in the period of
Northern and Southern dynasties (420AD -581AD) had a profound and far-reaching influence on the
glyptic art of China. The art of Buddha sculpture in China was born, cherished, and developed in the
service of religion. Buddhist and Taoist shrines are lavishly decorated from end to end, and the
demand for idols and images, for the home as well as the temple, gives occupation to a special class
of workmen known as carver throughout the country (Soame et al. 1963).
The lotus, a rose-colored variety of the Nelumbium speciosum is sacred to Buddhism. It is the
hieratic emblem of purity as it develops its delicious jade-white rhizome under the mud and lifts its rosy
blossoms unsullied in the air. The happy entrant into paradise is seated upon lotus’s broad thalamus;
it therefore forms the resting-place of Buddha. Its peltate leaves are usually gemmed after every
shower with sparkling rain drops, which are taken by the devout Buddhist as emblematic jewels of his
enlightenment; the motif of lotus, intertwined with another water plant with berried fruit, is pleasingly
carved on furniture. Furthermore, the religious motifs of Buddhist eight treasures: wheels, shells,
umbrellas, canopies, flowers, jars, fish, and ribbons are also decorated on furniture.
The lion is the symbol of dignity, power and jubilation in Buddhism, often seen in pairs flanking
a palace gate or a garden gate. Made of bronze or stone, the male lion squats on the left, with one of
its front legs stepping on a ball, and the female on the right stroking a cub (Fig. 11). The former
537
symbolizes power, unification and universality, and the latter fertility. The lion as guardian originated
from Buddhism. Later, the lion came to be regarded as a divine guarding animal, so the pair of lions in
front of a palace gate is also meant to drive away evil forces; it is also a common motif found as
decoration on furniture.
Fig. 11.
The male lion on the left and female lion is on the right.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the auspicious designs composed of Chinese characters, animals, and plants
are works of high artistic quality, with a perceived healthy content. They were created by Chinese
artisans who were able to project their wisdom and rich imagination. They express aspirations of the
people and embody the artistic conception and a taste of the true, the good, and the beautiful in life.
With a novel conception and superb techniques of expression, the concise designs are imbued with a
profound connotation gladdening the mind and pleasing to the eye. They help people find spiritual
sustenance, draw enlightenment, and obtain a sublimation of vitality. Contemporaneous Chinese
auspicious patterns have not only been enriched and improved but have also been subject to bold
innovations. The resulting forms of expression allow the continuance of auspicious designs, as a time-
honored culture, continuing to elevate the symbolic status of this Chinese tradition.
REFERENCES
Chen H (2001) Basic patterns, Fine arts press of Hu-bei province, Wuhan.
Clunas C (1987) Chinese Export Art and Design. Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Pu AG (2001) Furniture decorative arts in Ming-Qing dynasties, photography press of Zhe-jiang
province, Hang-zhou
Soame R, Jenyns &William Watson FSA (1963) Chinese Art. Oldbourne Press, London
Tilden J (1997) First Under Heaven. Hali Publications Limited, London
Zu DL (1989) Chinese traditional auspicious patterns，Scientific popularity press of Shanghai,
Shanghai.
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EDUCATION IN DESIGN FIELD: NON FORMAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

APPROACHES
Alin M. OLĂRESCU
Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
Str. Universitatii nr. 1, 500068 Braşov, Romania
E-mail: a.olarescu@unitbv.ro
Biborka BARTHA
E-mail: biborka.bartha@unitbv.ro
Thomas GRONEGGER
New Design University Sankt Pölten, Austria
E-mail: r.derrico@aon.at
Abstract
In this paper several guidelines and methodological approaches for non-formal education in the
field of design are presented. The research is based on nine years experiences of the authors in
organizing and conducting one week of international (Romanian and Austrian students and teachers)
design workshops in Romania and Austria.
Key words: non-formal education; design; workshop.
INTRODUCTION
For the last 9 years we have been organising 7 days lasting workshops together
(Transilvanian University Brasov UTBV, New Design University NDU, Ion Mincu University Bucharest
UAUIM). The first workshop began in 2011 in Brasov with the theme „window and wall“ (Cionca et al.
2012), this was followed by five workshops at Dealu Frumos, the geographical centre of Romania – in
a little former saxon village where the UAUIM is the owner of the fortified church, the Volksschule and
of a saxon property.
From 2017 we continued with the workshop in a new location at Târgu Lăpuş together also
with our new partners – and generous hosts ”Petru Rareș” Theoretic Highschool, ”Grigore C. Moisil”
Technological High school and the comunity of Târgu Lăpuş, Maramureş County (Gronegger et al.
2017). In 2019, it was the turn of the Romanian students to participate in the design workshop in
Austria, at the New Design University, St. Polten.
The basic ideas of the workshop structure are conducted on three guidelines: research,
exercises and projects.
Research is focused on: working with and in the local and rural context; looking for qualities
and characteristics of villages and local areas; respectful artistic dialogue with villagers, environment
and landscape; thinking and discussing about local and rural spirit, reality and potential.
Exercises are conducted on the following lines: designing and crafting on base of fundamental
material and formal processes; how to explore characteristics and qualities of our used material and
techniques; developing methods to understand forming parameters, material and structure.
Projects - for rural and local places, based on the research, crafting and formal experiences of
the exercise and based on our discussions and thoughts.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
All these elements are gradually introduced with the help of the work modules.
Formation of mixed working groups. It is done on the basis of personal skills and abilities so
that the working group is balanced by avoiding the presence of more than two persons with a strong
personality in a working group.
Group identity. The working group consists of students and pupils from all five institutions
involved; it is natural for each of them to have their own socio-cultural and professional development.
Through this module, it is intended that members of the working group become acquainted with each
other.
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The elements that give the group identity are: adopting a name; creating their own logo. The
name and logo must indicate something important to them. Both elements, names and logo, as well as
the ideational approach will be structured and presented on a poster designed and drawn by each
group (Table 1).
This exercise seeks participants to:
- Have a moment of reflection and personal interrogation, as well as self-characterization;

- Explain what they are defined by;
- To synthesize what they are defined by both personally and as a group;
- Concept and graphic expression of the ideas and characteristics that make up the
expression of the group.
- Synthesizing all information on a poster with a predefined size - all working groups have
the same poster size - but without any limitation on content organization, adds value to this and
stimulates creativity and competition;
- Presenting the group identity poster in a given time (5-10 min) gives all groups the
opportunity to listen and analyze the effort and the ideational path of each group and to learn along the
way.
Measurement and perception of space. Space investigation should have two components:
qualitative and quantitative. By qualitative component, we investigate, gather and analyze data on the
human-to-space relationship (we come to know and to become aware of space) and quantitatively
investigate and aggregate information regarding: dimensions, position, limitations, obstacles etc.
Space needs to be understood, felt and lived. Sensory perception of space is defining. Human
- space interaction is in constant change, this relationship is never static. It depends on boundaries,
routes, directions, observation points, and center, central or strong objects.
Humans live orientated. The orientation system has archetypal roots: up / down; at the hill / valley;
front / rear; left/right; forward / back. Instinctively, man follows these and analyzes and describes his
interaction with space thus creating sensations of freedom, suffocation, constraint, routing on a
particular channel, etc. All these are very important in the qualitative description of the space and can
be used in the arrangement of space.
An instrument developed for qualitative investigation and for preliminary quantitative spatial
data collection is step by step measurement. This measurement is based on the human body as a
measuring instrument and involves a prior preparation of the correspondence from each step and the
metric of measurement of the length in two possibilities: how many normal human steps correspond a
meter in length; what does a step of a meter mean. This creates a system of measurement and
sensory perception of the space through which a profound knowledge of space is reached (Fig.1).
Measurement and perception will take place on the selected local outside situation and on the
building structure. The idea is to enable students to work on site, to develop and handle methods of
measuring with measuring tape and by foot-steps, making hand-drawn plans, using different scales
etc. This is not only a process of technical documentation and visualisation, but also a method to feel
and understand the environment, the structure and qualities of the space, the changes of atmosphere
and how these spaces are enlivened by people. The slow manual or moving process of measurement
will be accompanied by a kind of observing protocol: How is the light, how is the view, how is the
material or structure, what are the special characteristics, how is the atmosphere, how are people
moving … and further more. Outcomes of this module are the following: sketches, plans,
measurements, skills of measuring and observing, observation protocol.
Research and inspiration in the local area. This module can takes place at local villages and
museums. The main interest is focussing on hand crafted wooden construction and construction
details of buildings and wooden environment but also on traditional woven structures, such as fences,
little barns, objects of everyday use. We can observe the haptic and atmospheric qualities of hand-
made objects and constructions, the simplicity and cleverness of their crafts-concept and the huge
range of variety and expression based on local material, low-tech manufacturing and the manual skills
and poetry of the persons who crafted them. Observing, photographing, sketching and making notes is
our method of research and starting point of our further design process (Fig. 2). The outcome of this
module is: sketching, documentary photos, notes.
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Table 1
Identity poster group – Târgu Lăpuş, 2017
LiSuRo UniForm What Wood Weed U

Key words: Life | Sun | How did it start? “It all began I believe that nothing is happening
Rope |Wood | Crafts | with the love that a girl had for random, so when we formed our team
Refreshed |Nature| unicorns. That girl, Ivy, had we started to ask things about each
Roots | New/Old| three unicorn friends, all of them other. We were curious about our
Good/Bad | Flower different in their personality and stories. It was funny because we
The strong symbolism their outer looks. This, one found hard the words to speak and not
and cultural importance could tell immediately by their always what we said made sense . But
of the life flower inspired different colored and patterned we tried, and we played with the
us to use it in our logo horns. “We are all unicorns and words. This is reflected also in the
and make it our main we have unique forms!”, they name of our team – “ What wood
inspiration. Along side said and decided to name their weed u? “. The way is written isn’t
the sun, and also the group “UniForm”. One day they related with the way it’s pronounced.
rope, they are three of were strolling around Lapus Each word simbolise something and
the most commonly Land making people smile and define the way the members of the
used signs in traditional discovered a wooden church. team are. The word “What “ reflects
decorating and wood They were fascinated by the the curiosity of each of us , and from
carving. They are very forms and shapes which they there ,the courage to ask,to
much a part of the had seen and let their search,and to find out. For us,to be
culture, history and imagination run free, creating courious and to feed ourselfs with
"spirit" of the place. together and uniting their answers is a need. The spirit will
We were inspired by the different minds in a special always need to manifest trough
roof element of group logo.”How did it evolve? creations.
construction - șiță-, The logo is based on the We are also brave persons because it
combined with the traditional ornaments used on takes courage to open ourselves in
flower, as a connection wooden crosses, in churches as front of eachother and admit the fact
with the crafting aspect well as on columns, gates and that we don’t have enough
of life in this area, but fences. We tried to simplify the knowledges,but we want to find out
also as a connection ornament and put it in a more new things. “wood”- the strong bond
with the safe space that modern context – a product of we have with the nature, the material
a roof represents, past and present. This modern we use in our creations, the idea of
bringing the community aspect is supported by the very handcrafting,
together. clear and straight font we used “weed” –this word makes the title
The sun brings the for the written text. In the logo funnier and it shows the optimism, the
cosmos and the nature each of us is specifically thing that we see the brighter side of
into the mix, nature represented in our individually every experience. If we refere to the
being so present in the designed horns. All four horns sense that it is heard we can separate
541
life of the community meet in the center of the logo, “weed u” in “we” and “do” – We get
since the beginning of representing our act of creating along well with eachother, we are
time. one product together. The logo hardworkers and we want to
The rope holds it all is the center of the poster, being materialise our ideas,thoughts and
together. It represents colorful and expressive while emotions , we give a shape to our
the always intertwined the rest stays in the background environment ,
good and bad in life, through its simplicity. The logo Our logo simbolizes the process from
and its constant is “held” by a simple frame the moment you start questioning(you
evolution. The circle giving it stability in the space. can remark a question mark there ) to
underlines the never- This frame is based on the the moment you find the answers and
ending growth, change wooden gates common in this the final ,concrete idea ( which is
and evolution. Acting as area and was again simplified. represented by the light bulb – and
a boundary between The combination of the past and because the light bulb is an well
outside and inside, the the present is also reflected in known object it simbolizes the final
rope also focuses the our group name, combining the product of our work). Our poster’s
attention in the centre of original idea of “unicorn” with background is black- that shows the
the logo. the word that evolved, namely emptiness space or the silence where
Therefore, our sign is “uniform”. Through all this, we the ideas come from . We have to
an essentialization of tried to include the theme of this focus on CREATING SOMETHING
multiple local symbols, workshop, namely “People, OUT OF NOTHING. The logo is in the
grounded in nature, as Craft and Tradition” in our logo. center of our poster much brigher than
the root of life. The name “Uniform” can be the rest of it which contains words that
read in different ways and in define our identity as a team. Those
Team LiSuRo: itself is the opposite to its most words define our identity as a team
Paloş Eliza, Sas Diana, common meaning of “the same” and they caracterize us :
Harald Mehofer, Filip or “one shape”. We chose to unabhaengig, roots, inspirație, joy,
Daniel, Enache Cristian divide the word in two parts, family, laughing, amici, kunst, or
Robert. “Uni” standing for “unity” and random words that shows our
“uniqueness” and “form” emotions in that unique moment.
standing for the different forms Those words are written in german
of our personalities. This and romanian which shows our roots
interpretation led to the three and the english is the thing that bring
catchwords (unity-fantasy- us together. It’s our crafting tool to
identity) we chose to use as a socialise. The blank space from the
bottom-line for our poster trying bottom of the page breaks the rules of
to capture the aim of this a normal graphic composition, and let
workshop: To use our fantasy the story to continue and olso makes
for creating a unity out of many the viewer curious about the future
individual identities. and it focuses on the part of the logo
where the name is. Everything on the
Team UniForm: Eveline Liță, poster is very calculated and that
Flaviu Dobrean, Klara Maria reflects our analitycal part and the
Voggeneder, Alex Lăpuşan. thing that we want to shape our ideas
and to everything sense.
Team What Wood Weed U: Roxana

Zorzolan, Georgiana Purcaru, Delia
Pop, Madalin Man, Viktor Schöll.
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Fig. 1.
Foot – steps measuring: area preparing in court yard of Rogoz Museum and measuring
exercises in court yard of “Petru Rareş” Highschool, Târgu Lăpuş, 2018.
Fig. 2.
Research and inspiration in the local area, Rogoz, 2018.
Weaving structure. The introduction of weaving is inspired by the structure of traditional

fences. Wooden strips will be holed in a file. Vertical sticks are pulled in the holes and we can begin to
insert weaving material of round or splitted rattan. The most simple structure to hold in tension
weaving material is to bend short pieces between 3 sticks like warp and weft.
- if we are adding the weft in this constellation one above the other we get the first simple
structure
- if we would like to multiple this field of structure we will see that we get a point of contact
- if we shift this point together in manner that the ends of the wefts are crossing on the same
stick we get a crossing intersection field
- if we turn the second field of structure with its convex part in the opposite part
- if we are adding the weft one above the other and turn the convex part in a changing manner
we get a convex-convex structure
- if we are adding a raw of two (3,4,5…) wefts above the other raw in a changing manner
(2,3,4,5…) we get a convex-convex structure with distances
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- and in this manner on …

Excellent synthesis typology of woven furniture design is presented by Raycheva and
Angelova, 2017.
Students (groups) should develop their own methodic strategies an try to develop possibly a
wide range of variations – from the most simple to the more complicated constellations.
- The development of methodic strategies should base on the morphologic parameters of form
which are part of the weaving process:
- number of covered warp sticks - min. 3 … 4, 5, 6 …
- distance of warp sticks
- rhythm of covering warp sticks with weft material (1:1:1, 1:2:1, 1:3:1; 2:3:2 …)
- rhythm and direction of weft material
- length of weft material
- composition of contact zone or intersection of contact zone
The introduction is accompanied with images of woven structures and woven fences. The
outcome of this module is: models with woven structures in different variations (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Wowen structures – preparation work by Thomas Gronegger, Târgu Lăpuş, 2017.
Orthogonal wooden structure. Introduction on how to use pre-prepared wooden strips to craft
simple orthogonal constructions which create frames filled with thin wooden round elements by sawing
with the handsaw and connected by dowelling with these elements. All the wooden sticks are
prepared with a section 1cm x 1cm corresponding to 10 x 10cm in real size. This allows us to project
models of objects using similar structure and connections as in real size.
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Fig. 4.
Wooden structure and preparative drawing from Thomas Gronegger, Târgu Lăpuş, 2017.
Introduction on how to use pre-prepared wooden strips to craft simple orthogonal

constructions which create frames filled with thin round elements (for these is possible to use usual
roasted sticks) by sawing with the handsaw, and connecting by sawing or dowelling with thin round
elements.
As first exercise we create a simple orthogonal frame with wooden sticks, cutting the
connection joints half size of the size of the sticks and possibly in different directions in order to get a
strong connection. The more precise you cut the stronger the connection will hold (Fig. 4).
- It is important to pay attention to the size of the handsaw (cut inside or outside the marking
line);
- It is important to try to cut exactly the signed profoundness (half size of the wooden stick);
- After splitting out the wooden piece between the cuts, it is possible to clean the cut with a
knife or grind paper;
- If the connection is to lose, it is possible to fix with glue.
The aim was to fill one of the framed fields with thin wooden round elements (distance ca. 1.5
cm, in order to get a perfect model 1:10 of framing structure and substructure, ready to be filled with
weaving material.
The second exercise was regarding the construction of a triangular frame with one orthogonal
connection 90° and two diagonal connections 45°. This experience allows us later to get a bit out of
pure orthogonal forms. We also tried to work with any angle but for the beginning and as exercise it
was enough to experiment working with 45°.
The third exercise was to construct a simple three dimensional structure with wood-
connections.
We constructed a basic three dimensional object with possibly few sticks of wood (orthogonally or
diagonally connected). To develop an idea for a three-dimensional object it is easier to start with a
simple drawing of a transparent cube and after to integrate spatial thoughts.
Wood connection and wooden weawing in real size. In this module it is important to interact
with the material in natural size. A theoretical introduction is necessary regarding the structure of the
wood, the main sections and some properties (shrinkage and swelling) correlated with these sections.
It is also very important to explain and exemplify the working mode when manually cutting the
prefabricated elements (2050x75x50 mm) to obtain the elements necessary for the creation of an
orthogonal frame with the dimensions of 500x500x75 mm.
These include: measuring and marking the material, fixing the workpiece on the work table,
finding the work position (the relationship man - material - cutting tool - the position of the hands in
relation to the cutting tool and the material), determining the type of movement and choosing the right
saw for cross cutting on fiber and cutting along the fiber. Another important problem is that of corner
joints: in the recess, in the right butt, in dovetail, etc. Each of these features the sizing mode for both
the mortise and the tenon, the mode and order of execution of the cuts, and the order of the assembly
operations.
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Fig. 5.
Introduction in wood structure, anatomy and properties and introduction in working process
for wood cutting and connections, made by Alin M. Olărescu. First step of woodworking:
measuring and marking, St. Polten 2019.
Also after the first interaction with the material - the stitching of the frame elements -
participants are urged to create their own joints, being free to create whatever form they want the only
condition being to ensure the stability of the corner joint. In making the joints, start from the execution
(on a corner of the frame) of the simplest: the joining in the rebate and gradually at the last of the four
corners the joint created by the learner is made. Thus the notions are gradually introduced and the
learner develops his / her own abilities in relation to the material and the processing possibilities.
The next step is the introduction, in the frame, of five vertical elements that are the support
structure of the braid. The braiding in this case is done with threads of willow (Salix caprea L.) and
hazelnut (Corylus Avellana L.). In this case the flexibility of the elements must be correlated with their
diameter and length. Also, the irregularities of the section and shape of the threads introduce elements
that need to be understood and capitalized as such.
Fig. 6.
Working process: Timea Marton and Andrei Şneapotă with his self-inventing wooden
conection, at NDU, St. Polten 2019.
Fig. 7.
Weaving process in real size: Irene Haider and Teresa Egger, NDU, St. Polten 2019.
Thinking and designing simple structures/objects for local outside/inside situations. After
measuring an interesting local situation – possibly at Targu Lapus or at the direct surroundings of the
school, the next step was thinking about what kind of improvement could be created by simple
orthogonal wooden constructions covered partly by woven structures. The inspiration could be simple
pavilions, paravans, fences, pergola etc. These can create intimate zones, protected zones, screens
(sun, wind, noise, …) for waiting, playing, staying together etc. The analysis of the local-urban/rural
546
situation, observing how people are enlivening this situation, and what could strengthen and improve
this situation. It is important to think about what kind of object(s) could be created especially for this
environment, where and how could they define places, what size and form could they have; how could
these be integrated in a sensible way in the existing situation.
For an interior object – scholars campus and working place in the area of Rogoz Museum – it
is important to analyze and think about the scholars/students and their situation (communication,
staying together, privacy, working and the others). After measuring and having done the perception
protocol, the next step consisted of thinking about the rooms and spaces and their relation of
“community spaces”, “privat spaces”, “infrastructure spaces”, “working spaces”: what is happening
where, what could happen and where. Is it possible to strengthen with simple orthogonal
furnitures/objects (with partly woven frames) a situation in private, community- or infrastructure
spaces?
- What kind of objects could these be?
- How could these objects/furniture stay in relation with different spaces (proportion, form, size,
position)?
- What kind of use could these objects have?
- What kind of atmospheric expression could these objects have?
- What could be examples for our interventions (parapet, box, bench chair)?
- What kind of improving qualities could these objects introduce in the spaces and their relation?
For both situations – inside/outside object – the design and construction guidelines are:
creating simple orthogonal forms; inserting woven framework (Fig. 5).
Fig. 8.
Object proposal designed for outside/inside spaces, Rogoz and Târgu Lăpuş, 2018.
Artistic visualisation and human figure scale. This is an integrated module in which students
are introduced in the area of artistic techniques and skills to translate their sketches and plans into
artistic visualizations. This will be done in individual tutorials or group tutorials. The next step is the
introduction of contemporary elements in very different techniques for creating a wide panorama of
possible solutions. Students should be encouraged to work and try new and unknown visualisations.
Outcome: Drawings, and Paintings with different artistic techniques.
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Another problem is to introduce the relationship between human body – scale, gesture,
position, posture, interactions – and the designed objects. This can be solved by making human figure
from aluminum foil at different scales. These figures can be constructed such way to simulate all
categories of gesture and interactions between designed object and human body.
If we use photography as an instrument for investigation it is possible to find an interesting
situation and also to find the answer for our questions. In the same time it is possible to simulate and
to create a monumental situation (Gronegger et al. 2014).

The spirit and the attitude regarding this workshop are:
- Developing rules for working and observing methodically.
- Using simple and poor materials, simple techniques, and starting with simple forms.
- Checking out the qualities and poetry of simple structures.
The workshop is not about looking for the new and never seen, but to try to understand and to
establish relations based on the existing qualities of rural or local characteristics (forms, structures,
typologies – and also contents and typical social relations).
We need to have the courage to do our best – not only by working, but also by resting, looking,
walking, reflecting, thinking and enjoying. We need to have the courage not to finalize everything, but
also to show fragments commenting on what is our idea.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on this experience of eight years in organizing and conducting one week of
international (Romanian and Austrian students and teachers) design workshops in Romania, several
guidelines and methodological approaches for non-formal education in the field of design were
discovered, formulated and experimented.
Our focus is the inspiring coming-working together in a wonderful intact cultural, rural
agricultural surrounding area. Also the working process and the process of perception of what we see,
touch, feel, hear with all our senses – and heart is an important element of our main focus.
We are not creating pressure of competition inside or between the groups, but focus on how to
tolerate, respect, observe, share and learn from differences and different approaches.
We tried to divide prudently our forces during the work and evening events (traditional singing
and dancing nights, open work night) – seven days can be long - and it would be nice to come out
relaxed and fresh and rich of experiences.
REFERENCES
Cionca M, Gronegger Th, Timar MC, Olărescu AM, Gurău L, Kenchtl C, Lapadat Marcu M (2012)
Window and Wall. Inside, Outside / Insight. New Design University Press, Sankt Pölten, Austria,
Rumänisches Kulturinstitut Wien.
Gronegger Th, Cionca M, Marcu Lapadat M, Olărescu AM (2014) Inside Outside in-Between I/II
Working with a village. New Design University Press, Sankt Pölten, Austria.
Gronegger Th, Olărescu AM, Cionca M, Marcu Lapadat M (2017) Thinking about rural and local spirit.
Seven years of design and crafts based on research on site. Deutschen Nationalbibliothek, New
Design University, St. Pölten.
Raycheva R, Angelova D (2017) Wowen furniture design: in search of form and texture. In ProLigno,
Vol. 13(4):455 – 465, ISSN – L 1841 – 4737, ISSN Online 2069 – 7430, www.proligno.ro
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STUDENT WORKSHOP: CREATIVITY IN PROGRESS

Desislava ANGELOVA
University of Forestry, Sofia, Faculty of Forest Industry
10, Kliment Ochridski Blvd., Sofia 1797, Bulgaria
Mobile Tel.: +359 888759227, E-mail: d_i_angelova@abv.bg
Regina RAYCHEVA
Mobile Tel.: +359899864347, e-mail: rexi@abv.bg
Rangel CHIPEV
Mobile Tel.: +359 890120702, E-mail:chipev@gmail.com
Abstract
In the paper, a specific example of a Students’ Design Workshop that took place at the
University of Forestry in November 2018 is considered. The workshop, sponsored by IKEA-Bulgaria,
was carried out according to an established routine and was guided by a team of teachers and
designer professionals. The progress during 5 days of all 6 teams was followed. Pictures were made
and presented in tables for all design stages; success and failures were witnessed. Group dynamics
was researched by observing the process and recording participant journals. A questionnaire filled in
after the end by all participants, provided respondent answers, to show students’ views of the event.
The paper aims at recording difficulties in group work, in concept development and in teacher-student
interaction and turn academic attention to more practical assignments.
Key words: design education; workshop; group work; product design; furniture design.
INTRODUCTION
Practical-based design learning is an issue, very much published on. Janice Whatley gave the
following definition of Project-based learning: “a form of constructivist and collaborative learning,
allowing several students to work together on a problem, and learn from each other as they co-
construct knowledge" (Whatley 2012). In previous articles on the same subject the authors’ team has
concentrated on more general questions, like the reasons for introducing the module, a survey on
literature on the subject, and specifically, the group dynamics and the resulting work stages. In this
article, a more specific and concrete report on one particular workshop is the aim. The module is
implemented at the University of Forestry in Sofia for the seventh year since the beginning in 2012.
Each design student participates twice in this module: in his third and in his fourth year of study. The
first workshop was organized as an Intensive Program (IP) with European financing with 6
international universities participating in 2005. The objective was to test this new method of teaching in
local conditions and to see how Bulgarian students will react. 6 years later, this module became a
1
regular part of the Curriculum. In a number of papers , teachers from the University of Forestry
published their observations and conclusions from the seminars.
OBJECTIVE
The present paper aims at recordingthe events of a week’s study module in November 2018,
sponsored by IKEA Bulgaria, with the theme: “Knitwear: from Clothing to Furniture”. The topic of
knitted furniture was investigated the same year in a paper presented at a conference at the University
of Forestry (Raycheva and Angelova 2018). The interest of contemporary designers in textiles
(weaving and knitting) and their use for innovative design solutions for furniture and accessories was
the main reason for its choice. The expected outcome of the workshop was a design concept for a
piece of furniture, presented with drawings, PowerPoint presentations, visualizations and scaled work
1
A total of three papers were published since 2013 till now.
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model. The paper aims at disclosing difficulties in student work in concept development and in
teacher-student interaction and give recommendations for more practical design assignments.
METHODS
For this study, the authors used observation, analysis of students’ work journals, review of
questionnaires and analysis of respondent answers, commentary on design results. Being a specific
report, the paper is well illustrated with pictures from the event. All design stages are commented day
by day; following the actual design solutions of each team. Conclusions are drawn from the specific
workshop, but are representative of the momentary state of educational situation at the University as
well.
OBSERVATIONS AND STUDENT JOURNALS

Here we describe the course of the workshop with all 6 teams, by using our observation and
their journals. This means we are interested in the way they experienced the event. Starting with the
evolution of their ideas, we are following their activity during all 5 days. This is done by following the
stages: Brainstorming (Day 1); Sketching of Situations (Day 2), Middle Presentation (Day 3), preparing
the Final Presentation (Day 4), and Final Presentation (Day 5).
Day 1: Brainstorming (Fig. 1.)

Brainstorm Instructions. One of the goals set in previous publications, was “to inform all
participants with the present findings in the form of ”a workshop 'code' or guidelines before the event.”
(Raycheva et al. 2015). The guidelines were prepared, and before the start of the study module,
teachers submit print-outs with instructions for each day to every team. Since students seem to forget
them, the teacher’s team had to remind them of the goals for each day.
Every team is expected to write words and notions that come to their mind in association with
the assignment theme on sticky notes. The actual notes are between 84 and 119 per team. The first
associated image (usually granma’s knitting) comes along easy enough, but the next one in the chain
is harder, as well as linking words with images. It may be that students encounter this technique for
the first time: it is a situation largely different from routine. Most of their semester study assignments
include preparing drawings of already existing types of furniture.
The beginning of brainstorming is difficult for the following reasons:

• Bad handling of total uncertainty: “What do they (teachers) want from us?” The theme is not
enough to get them going;
• The presentation, that IKEA representative gave, only additionally confused them. It concerns
the emergence and development of the company, and is not, as students think, a direct list of
requirements for their products;
During brainstorming, lists of materials, properties, form-building details appeared with the aim to
immediately reach a product.
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Fig. 1.
Brainstorming results.
• After brainstorming, an insufficient number of notes are produced. As it turns out, 100 sticky
notes were too much.
• Teachers gave the idea to students to visually produce images that come out of thinking of
“knitwear”, but this is not their strong point. They wrote “warmth” and stopped, thus breaking the
association chain too soon.
• Students tried to guess what the teacher team wants, not what the image leads them to.
Fig. 2.
Student’s sketches.
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Day 2: Sketching Situations and Not Products (Fig. 2.)

According to Rumanian colleagues, “Observing, (…) sketching and making notes is the
method of research and starting point of further design process.” Olărescu A., Th.Gronegger, B.
Bartha, M. Cionca, I. Muscu. (2018) Here are our sketching tasks for Day 2:
• The progress from ‘notions’ to ‘sketches’ is difficult. The teacher team had to interfere at
certain places, and make simple sketches. A typical blockage of thinking appears. No ready solutions
are possible, no textbooks exist. The failure of brainstorming badly affects this stage.
• An attempt to push a leader opinion was obvious with 3 teams. Products were already
sketched and launched as team ideas. Where all members have given up leader ambitions, they
directly accepted one image and developed it.
• The stage “sketching situations” is very difficult or is identified with brainstorming, students try
to choose one product straight away;
• Here are some good generated images: ‘the cactus’, ‘the yarn ball with needles’,’ the spaghetti
bowl’ and ‘the bird nest’.
Day 3: Interim Presentation (Fig. 3.)

Free from the pressure to create a product, students enjoyed the Interim Presentation. Teams
can be grouped in two:
• The ones who developed a single idea (yarn ball, bird nest, the spaghetti bowl, the cactus);
• The ‘conformist’ teams developed ideas that were ‘pushed through’ by the leader; e.g. a
cupboard with a ‘sewn door’ reappeared, but included this time in a modular system with a bench.
Another team developed a container coffee table, with an extendable top; this was the result of inner
fights (‘we’ll make my product’).
• A hidden spying of competitors emerged before the Interim presentation (‘ninjas’, according to
one Journal). Fact is, the Final Presentation had two teams with Italian names of their products!
Day 4: Before Final Presentation (Fig. 4)

• This is the day when results from Interim Presentation are discussed and visual materials for
the Final Presentation are prepared. Models are made; some unsuccessful changes to the idea,
shown at the Interim Presentation have turned up. Unsuccessful product names were accepted.
Scenarios for final presentation are made, posters, Powerpoints and Journals.
Fig. 3.
Interim Presentation: Free Minds did Better Work.
• In spite of the efforts of the teacher team, some students reject the proposal of the guest-
designer, and the final results proved they were wrong. It seemed more a matter of lacking design
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experience than an unskillful attempt to ‘push through’ someone’s idea. The concrete case was the
‘yarn ball’: the guest designer proposed three knitting needles to serve as a steady supporting
structure; students decided they like better a single needle plus another broken in two. The ‘spaghetti
bowl’ was also a failure: all white at Interim Presentation, it was shown with poured ‘tomato sauce’ at
the Final Presentation, for a misunderstood realistic effect.
• The need to produce a model and other presentation materials calmed down the tension: after
the division of tasks there was work to be done.
• One fact: in the process of development, the original assignment task, namely, knitting was
somehow lost. One team (the folding coffee table) was so much concerned with their multi-functional
idea that the element of ‘knitted’ net got almost lost.
• It is curious, that almost no one knitted anything (one or two teams used braided wool); thus
the basic potential of the theme was dissipated.
Day 5: Final Presentation

• The Final Presentation was not reflected in the journals, since they were prepared before Day
5.
• Clearly, fatigue was noticed, a desire to finish all this.
• All final presentations were good, but one team’s presentation was really memorable.
• The prizes brought certain disappointment for the most ambitious team that remained with the
“prize of the audience”.
Teams and Their Journals (Fig. 6.)
• Not all students made the effort to describe the difficulties in their journals; in fact some were with
a rather short text.
• Team 1. A happy combination of personalities, without fight for leadership or ‘pushing’ up ideas,
fast generation of the original image. The team had ‘a painter’ to depict the generated idea,
another could evaluate its potential and maintains it, third one has made the model, yet another
one was knitting, the fifth one was a good actor for the presentation. Work division was well
achieved, with their basic rendering technique using a tablet, the model and acting presentations.
The team won First prize.
Fig. 4.
After Interim Presentation.
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Fig. 5.
Final Presentation.
Team 2. There were some difficulties for this group, namely two leaders emerged. The first and
second day, many good drawings were not evaluated; finally a solution was used that was familiar
from the press; this one finally got presented. There were other ideas (a sofa). It was on day 3, Interim
Presentation, after some arguments, that two ideas were combined into one ‘system’, which was not
very well and convincingly presented. The ‘second’ leader was able to manifest his skills in bringing
instruments and making the model. Second prize.
Team 3. A very detailed journal was presented and work was well divided between team members.
The first days, team 3 manifested insecurity, expecting criticism by the teacher team. The product they
came up with was a multi-functional coffee table, used as a container. They were impressed by the
other teams at the Interim Presentation; and were not concentrated in their own work. Finally, they
managed to intensify their work and make a final presentation. No prize.
Fig. 6.
Student’s journal.
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Team 4.This was a larger team (6 instead of 5 participants). It is possible that there were
contradictions between the members; this could be noticed during consultations. The team generated
the original idea with the help of the teacher team. In the final stages, the product was given a
unsuccessful Italian name that practically made no message to the audience. They chose a spaghetti
bowl; sadly, they added “tomato sauce” at the end and annihilated the final effect of the armchair.
Their best achievement was the Interim Presentation, where the bowl was a bowl, and spaghetti was
spaghetti. The team was not aware of the value of this working model, and changed it for the final
presentation; the Italian name they gave did not help in any way for the presentation of the idea.
Team 5.The submitted journal had almost no text, just short captions under pictures. This team,
though, was effective at generating the original idea of a bird nest. With further development of the
idea, the ‘nest’ lost its original power: from a ‘love seat’, it was enlarged to a sofa, and the idea was
dissolved. After the ‘enlargement’, the nest was not a nest anymore. The team was motivated, had a
leader, worked together and had a moto for each day’s page of their journal. They had problems with
the design: the sofa’s legs were a metal net; teachers told them that branches sticking out were a
better-fitting idea for the nest image. They were just a little short of a final effective solution, although
the model was a good one: the surface of the sofa was braided, and this complied with the
assignment. Third prize.
Team 6.They started the brainstorming with long lists of abstract notions; no images. The second day,
they started sketching, and quickly turned to products, because they already had lists of products. A
definite leader emerged, a strong auto-censure was a fact, they had a strong ambition and definitely
were heading to a prize. After they created their product (an armchair in the shape of a ball of yarn),
their basic mistake was the design of the legs. The teacher team proposed a base of three knitting
needles; the team kept their first idea of one needle and one bent needle, but the final solution was not
convincing; an almost certain prize was lost. No prize.
SUMMARYOF STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE ANSWERS
Questions of the survey (30 question in total) could be roughly summarized in three
categories: the assignment; the team work and the team dynamics and the educational aspect of
teacher consultations.
Considering the difficulties in complying with the assignment, 61.3% think that the theme is
interesting; 35,5% have no opinion, and 3,2% consider the theme to be complex and not specified.
93,5% of the students point out that they have understood the assignment; 80,6% believe they have
managed the task successfully. 83,9% of the surveyed have noticed a progress in relation to their
previous participation in the same study module; 9,7% did not record any progress; 6,5% cannot give
an answer.
The group cohesion and team difficulties were easily overcome for 77,4%; 12,5% gave no
opinion; for 9,7% this was hard. Students give the following specified positive aspects of team work:
creativity and common ideas (5 students); mutual understanding and good communication (4),
effective joint work (4), evaluation of good personal qualities and skills of other team members (3),
readiness for compromises (3). Negative aspects noticed were large teams, different views on certain
issues, misunderstanding the assignment and not knowing the team members.
87,1% self-evaluate team work as effective, while 12,9% do not give an answer. The positive
aspects, contributing for effective team work were: good task distribution (9), united and synchronized
group work (8), creativity (5), diligence (3), striving toward victory (1). Although 12 people say there
were no negative aspects, the rest note the following: bad communication (3), hard adaptation, team
members not included in the work, too many people in the team, chaotic thinking and unorganized
design process, unorganized time, difficulty in implementing the task.
As far as obstacles that led to difficult fulfillment of the task are concerned, following answers
were given: no such obstacles (5), bad working conditions (lack of heating, lack of Wi-Fi, lack of
workspace for the models (7), disorganization (6), lack of communication and discord in the team (4),
blocking creative thinking (3), over-fatigue, lack of motivation and self-confidence. Students gave high
self-estimation of their own presentations on the design, on the 5-level system from 1 to 5, where 5 is
the highest, as follows: 29 respondents gave 5 (64,5%) and 11 respondents gave 4 (35,5%).
Table 1
Evaluation of teacher team
Criterion Yes No Maybe
They give clear 67,7% 12,9% 19,4%
directions
They take enough time 80,6% 9,7% 9,7%
Contradictory opinions 25,8% 38,7% 35,5%
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The common evaluation of the teacher activities is as follows: 5 – 15 (48,4%), 4 – 14 (45,2%)

and 3 – 2 (6,5%).
The overall evaluation of the event is as follows: 5 – 21 (67,7%), 4 – 8 (25,8%) and 3 – 2
(6,5%).
Of the general commentary of students, we can point out the following recommendations:
more such practical applied study events should be implemented in the study process (6); designs
should be more professionally presented by sketches, good visualizations, good models, professional
presentations without acting and deviations from the theme with training in these matters increased
during study process; clear criteria should be defined in advance for evaluation; working conditions
should be improved (7); expenses of materials and printing should be covered; the event should be
better organized; teachers should distribute equally their consultation time between the teams; fully
content and without remarks (6).
DISCUSSION
In the described study module, we have encountered the whole range of group work
situations, successful and unsuccessful. The number of participants was fixed to 5, but one group had
to have 6 people; they could not organize their work very well. Successful collaboration was more the
matter of understanding and further developing positive results from Brainstorming and Sketching
sessions. What characterizes the success team? Interestingly enough, it was not the one who had the
best idea; it was the team that most efficiently evolved their solution to the final presentation. One of
the participants in this team was older and with some practice, and was very quick to estimate the
potential of the brainstorming findings and to further reduce possible contradictions. This was the
basic difference with the other teams, where non-productive arguments have taken place. The
conclusion is, students need to be especially careful of teacher advice in the first two days.
Cooperation between participants is possible, if they suppress negative tendencies and remain more
open to each other and to teacher team.
Another issue is the extent of teacher participation. It is a key moment; especially in the
brainstorming phase. From our experience, we have learned that teachers may leave students totally
on their own but in this case certain teams might fail altogether in fulfilling the assignment. Teachers
may actively participate in the work during the whole time, but must be careful not to be too critical,
because this can evoke negative response and/or ‘opposition’. If the teacher team is too controlling,
then students will lose their initiative altogether and just wait for instructions. Oddly enough,
instructions might be more confusing than the lack of them. Student failures are also due to lack of
experience with such modules, where "the individual focuses his attention on direct experience and
behaviour", or the so-called "here and now" orientation (Djonev 1996).We can definitely conclude that
they need to participate in more short-term workshops. For a 4 years Bachelor Program, they should
have not 2, but at least 3 practical modules. Another disclosed fact: product design was far more
difficult than their usual interior design assignments, and needed more attention and inclusion in the
curriculum. Managing the theme and the respective information was seemingly easy, but some of the
teams were disorganized; constantly losing the goal, and playing a passive role of recipients, not of
generators of initiative. Information of already designed products on the Internet exists, of course, but
was not checked up. Lastly, the design outcome showed that students did perceive the theme, but
were not confident in experimenting with the material itself. “A possible approach for furniture
designers is to pick up techniques and ideas from other areas, in this case textile, with which a close
connection is observed.” (Raycheva and Angelova 2018) The technique of knitting did not seem to
interest participants; it was more the braiding technique that was used. With some exceptions, they did
follow the image generation from the brainstorming session; the harder stage eventually turned to be
the interpreting of forms and generating product design. This is yet another proof of lack of enough
drawing and modelling experience in the study process.
CONCLUSION
The study module was successful for the most part of student teams. The first stages were
overcome; the best achievement remained the Interim presentation, where a coherent level of skills by
all teams was demonstrated. Later on the lack of experience manifested itself in the design issues in
the finishing stages, revealing difficulties in evolving the product effectively. The significance of the
study module is both educational and creative. It teaches students self-organization and team
behavior and how to reach consent and present a concept. The usefulness consists in bringing
students out of the classical routine comfort zone with a slow cycle of design assignments. From
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student recommendations in the Questionnaire, we can capture directions for the evolution of the
module: some students find two modules to be insufficient and feel the lack of rendering skills. In this
way, the curriculum needs improving by including more practical assignments in order to ensure
readiness of graduates for managing real work situations.
REFERENCES
Djonev S (1996) Social Psychology, Small Groups (in Bulgarian), Sofia-P, Vol.3, p.152. ISBN 954-
638-035-0
Olărescu A, Gronegger Th, Bartha B, Cionca M, Muscu I (2018) Non Formal Education in Design
Field,Innovation in Woodworking Industry and Engineering Design, 2/2018 (14):3-4, ISSN 1314-6149,
e-ISSN 2367-6663, p. 27-35
Raycheva R, Angelova D, Vodenova P (2015) Project-Based Learning in Engineering Design in
Bulgaria: Expectations, Experiments and Results. European Journal of Engineering Education, ISSN:
1469-5898 (online)
Raycheva R, Jivkov V, Angelova D, Vodenova P (2016) Study Module “Project Week”: through the
Eyes of Students. Innovation in Woodworking Industry and Engineering Design, 1/ 2016 г., ISSN
1314-6149, e-ISSN 2367-6663, p. 46-53.
Raycheva R, Jivkov V, Angelova D, Vodenova P (2013) Design Workshop for Students, Conference
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference “Education, Science, Innovations”, June 9-10 2013,
ISSN 1314-5711, Pernik, p. 85-93
Raycheva R, Angelova D (2018) Knitwear: From Clothing To Furniture, Innovation in Woodworking
Industry and Engineering Design. vol. VII, 2/2018, ISSN 1314-6149, p. 48-60
Whatley J (2012) Evaluation of a Team Project Based Learning Module for Developing Employability
Skills. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, Volume 9, p. 75 – 92.
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MID-CENTURY FURNITURE DESIGN AND ITS IMPACT ON THE DESIGN OF THE

21ST CENTURY
Regina RAYCHEVA
Cell: +359 899864347, E-mail: rexi@abv.bg
Abstract
In design history there have been recurrent ideas and styles in the past. In this paper, such a
style is considered and researched by means of by selecting and comparing pieces of seating
st
furniture from the 50s and 60s and their counterparts from the 21 C. In this way the author
establishes the influential role of mid-century design for contemporary design development. The
definitions and meanings of used terms, such as ‘‘classic”, “vintage”, or “retro”, are considered.
Factors for the emergence of the phenomenon are established and presented, such as: the periodic
change of fashions in furniture industry, continuity with modern movement, re-editions of classical
designs in compliance with technological advance, the search for simplicity and minimalism,
expressive forms, and structure. On the basis of the research, an overall estimation is given to the
st
phenomenon as a re-evaluation of modern classic and a major origin of 21 development in design.
Key words: design classics; antique; vintage; retro; mid-century design; designer-led companies.
INTRODUCTION
st
The first two decades of the 21 C manifest a steady interest to the design of the 1950s and
1960s period. Integrated with achievements of technology and innovative materials, these designs
undergo further evolution. The existing literature offers professional reviews on fashion and analysis in
the form of commercial and journalist commentary on annual furniture fairs. They, however, do not
th
further research the link with the 20 C design, only pointing out basic trends in colour, materials and
style for the general public. The paper discloses the genesis of this phenomenon and presents a more
specific research of the visual features, morphology, structure and overall silhouette of the selected
pieces from the said periods, giving conclusions, important for a long-term trend analysis.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to follow the impact of mid-century design of
th st
the 20 C on furniture designed in the first two decades of the 21 C. The author’s major interest lies
in the developed types, imagery, morphology, specific shape, materials, and function. The aim is, by
researching different cases of individual designers and designer-led companies, to prove the validity of
the said period for today’s creativity. Also, an objective was set up to look at factors for this
phenomenon, and as a conclusion, to establish an evaluation of its significance and general
characteristics.
METHODS
The methods used are researching published information about major furniture exhibitions,
selection of examples, analysis and comparison in chronologic order, case study. The works of
designers that are particularly influential or much re-edited are considered, as well as companies that
manufacture them. The case of two designer-led companies that promote furniture classics are
considered. Re-edited or similar works are compared to their protagonists. Visual information is
organized in tables, where the following information is gathered: name and picture of the product, the
author, year of manufacture, and a short description and morphology features are systematized.
Important trends are outlined and final conclusions are drawn.
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EXPOSÉ
DEFINITIONS
A need arises to clarify the meaning of three terms: vintage, antique and retro. The term
‘vintage’ seems to be more of a journalistic or vendors’ label than a specific term of art history. It relies
heavily on the ‘colour’ or ‘aroma’ of the adjective itself, bringing the high-class idea of vintage wine to
the realm of furniture styles. The original meaning of ‘vintage’ as a noun is: “A. the year or place in
which wine, especially wine of high quality, was produced; and B. the time that something of quality
was produced. As an adjective, the same word has similar meanings: A. 1. Relating to or denoting
wine of high quality; and B. 2.Denoting something from the past of high quality, especially something
representing the best of its kind” (www.bing.com). Abbas, A (2012) is of the opinion that “vintage
furniture” means “old, but not yet antique (…), used to describe a piece between 30 to 100 years old”.
An official Merriam-Webster Dictionary definition for it is: “the term vintage relates primarily to wine and
is an altered form of the French word vendage, meaning "the grapes picked during a season." One of
its secondary definitions is "a period of origin or manufacture" (e.g., a vintage 1960-s Mercedes) or
"length of existence: age." (www.apartmenttherapy.com) A much more helpful explanation notes that
"an item described as 'vintage' should speak of the era in which it was produced.”
(www.apartmenttherapy.com) A definition of ‘antique’ is given by the same author as follows:
“According to Merriam Webster, an antique is "a relic or object (…) made at an earlier period and
according to various customs laws at least 100 years ago." Ruby Lane, an online marketplace of
antique and collectible shops (www.rubylane.com) offers a similar definition, explaining, "Most
authorities consider the actual definition of the term 'antique' to mean an age of at least 100 years."
As we can see, the term ‘vintage’ versus ‘antique’ differs by its age; but ‘retro’ vs. ‘vintage’
might have an overlap of meaning, although higher quality prevails in ‘vintage’. In this paper, by
th
‘classic’, the author denotes established designers of the pre- and the post-war period of the 20 C. As
we can see, the definition of ‘antique’ already covers some of these designers, but it is not acceptable
to use the term ‘antique’ or ‘retro’ for such a revolutionary innovative period. We could only use the
term ‘classic’, which denotes high-value in itself.
Charlotte and Peter Fiell (1991), in their book Modern Furniture Classics, point out, that there
are two main currents in design: the functionalist, rational, industrial design, and the anti-rationalism, a
current concerned with aesthetics and style. They say: “… although certain furniture pieces are closely
related with their time, still one can talk of classics; in this case this is the precursor furniture, or the
one better known than the others. These pieces, known as classic, harmoniously unite the objectives
of design with those of style; and their non-aging aesthetic or functional qualities, strongly express the
spirit of their time. Furniture of the post-war period undoubtedly carries the mark of modernism, an
avant-garde movement born in the first half of the century.”(Fiell, C. and P.1991) The “non-aging”
quality as well as the “mark of modernism” brings us to the next question: continuity.
CONTINUITY
Continuity to the Modern Movement from the 1920-s and 1930-s was an important feature of
the 1950-s design. In the post-war period, companies such as Cassina and Knoll Int., realized the
potential of works by great architects and designers of the Modern movement, still not very well known
to that time. To make their work popular for the wider public was the commercial aspect; the other
aspect was to engage the authors themselves, who were active and working. The evolution of mid-
century design was a direct consequence of accepting, continuing, and further developing the ideas of
the modern movement. This in turn brought about the emergence of the style, typical for the mid-
century. It was, on the one hand, a ‘softer’ version of the modern movement by adopting natural,
organic forms. A new aspect was the attitude towards tradition: by interpreting the vernacular craft
tradition of the 19th C., modern design acquired a ‘human’ face and turned to wood and wood
products. Incorporating new knowledge of the dawn of ergonomic research from the 1940-s, designers
changed considerably seating furniture: lower seats, backrests strongly inclined to give an overall
relaxed silhouette. The technological innovations of the time (bent plywood, fiberglass, plastics) further
encouraged the trend. The above-mentioned materials actually made possible the organic design of
the 50s. The post-war period was a new beginning for countries such as Italy, Great Britain, the United
States (see below the case of Knoll Int.), the Scandinavian countries (especially Denmark), and as
such had a strong potential. In Italy the ricostruzione period laid the foundations of what is known as
the style ‘made in Italy’, by witnessing the emergence of a number of furniture companies that have
become leaders of the sector.
The Cassina company was founded by Cesare Cassina in Milan in 1927. Together with his
brother in 1935 he renamed the company to become Figli di Amedeo Cassina; “before the Second
World War Cassina made only customized furniture for particular clients”. (Conran Design Directory
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1985) “During Italy’s post-war ricostruzione the firm pioneered a more progressive approach to design,
hiring Franco Albini, Gio Ponti, Vico Magistretti, Mario Bellini and many other leading Italian furniture
designers to contribute to its catalogue. But in the mid-sixties the firm returned to its origins in
reproduction furniture with the “I Maestri” series of classics by Le Corbusier, Gerrit Rietveld and
Charles Rennie Mackintosh. Cassina’s reputation is nevertheless as one of Italy’s most forward-
thinking furniture companies.” (Conran Design Directory 1985) In an article on the 90th Anniversary of
the company, Mun-Delsalle, says: “Going through the pages of its catalogue is like perusing the
history books of 20th-century design. Cassina came of age during Italy’s post-war renaissance in the
1950s, launching industrial design during the country’s economic boom by shifting from
handcraftsmanship to serial production”. (Mun-Delsalle 2018)
The American firm Knoll Int. is an overseas example of a company that pioneered the
production of modern furniture in the USA and the world in the 1940s due to America’s stronger
economy and huge market. The company aimed at filling in a niche for modern furniture in the USA,
needed for the buildings of the international style in the 1950s. Started by the German Hans Knoll in
1938, the company began by trying to manufacture simple but modern design from softwood and
“discarded army webbing or parachute cloth” from the wartime period (Larrabee and VIgnelli 1985).
Hans Knoll, a charismatic and persuasive personality, had a gift to win contracts and find the right
people for his business. With the help of architect and spouse Florence Knoll, Hans Knoll turned to
contracting interior assignments for different company offices, and started production of classical
furniture pieces, such as the Barcelona chair by Mies van der Rohe. Having studied at Cranbrook
Academy with Saarinen and Eames, Florence Knoll asked them to create designs for Knoll Int.; these
later became icons of design history. Eero Saarinen, Charles Eames, Harry Bertoia, etc., were the
authors of some of the most famous pieces of the firm, such as the “Tulip Series”, The “Womb” Chair
by Saarinen, the “Diamond Chair” by Bertoia, etc. The company is true to its historic legacy and is
editing these classic mid-century designs to the present day, as we can see at international furniture
fairs.
CRITICISM: THE RADICAL MOVEMENTS IN THE 70S AND 80S

After the design boom of the 60s and 70s, radical movements (Alchimia in Italy) and post-
modernism appeared in Europe and the USA, questioning Bauhaus postulates of ‘Good design’. The
period covered the 1980s, only to slowly die out in the 1990s, when design, after temporary fashions
of exuberant and curving shapes, turned back to rationalism and minimalism. One such critical
operation in the 1970s was re-design. It appeared in Mendini’s terminology and work, as re-dressing
famous models from the design classic in a paradoxical way. “With the collection Irony of the Great
Works, Alchimia group moves away from the area defined by professional orthodoxy”. (Sato, K.
(1988). By ironizing the design classics, though, the radical movement only admitted their special
position in design history, and, ironically, contributed to their recognition.
RE-EDITIONS
Many a company today practices re-editing of well-known design works. This is done with the
aim to update the original design and make it commercially available and profit from their iconic
silhouettes. In fact all of the ‘original’ firms that started the production of design classics have effected
subtle transformations by changing the materials and technologies. An example is the LC Grand
Confort armchair by Le Corbusier, Charlotte Perriand and Pierre Jeanneret. Originally, the upholstery
filling of the seat and back cushions was made of down and feathers. Later foam materials are used
by Cassina after 1965, thus changing the soft wrinkled cushions into tight geometrical shapes.
SIMPLICITY AND MINIMALISM

Furniture of the 1950-s is laconic and monumental, perhaps due to a strong link with modern
abstract sculpture and painting. Many of these works give the impression of a line, drawn in a single
gesture. Furniture classics (Jacobsen’s “Egg” and “Swan” Chair) are an example: morphologically they
feature a one-piece shell on a single leg. They demonstrate a clearly defined supporting structure (a
‘trumpet’ base) and supported ‘cup’ made of fiberglass, injection-moulded, rotation moulded plastics,
etc. Colombo’s “Elda” chair, followed by Karim Rashid’s “Kite” falls into this family. Monumentality is
manifested by Charles Eames’ furniture, influenced by modern sculpture (Henry Moore’s ‘Reclining
figures’), e.g. in order to conceive the “La Chaise” chair with its lying silhouette pierced by a hole in the
middle. Peter Dunas (1996) is of the opinion that “Charles and Ray Eames imagined that a flowing
sculpture by the influential French-American sculptor Gaston Lachaise (1882-1935) would blend in
well with their chair, hence the name.”(Dunas et al. 1996)
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EXPRESSIVE SILHOUETTES
Examples of the ‘organic design era’ have that quality, it comes from following nature and
explains their names: “Swan”, “Egg”, “Aunt”, “Womb”, “Tulip”. Nature is also present in
anthropomorphic designs, such as the “DS-151 Recliner” by Jane Worthington for De Sede, closely
resembling a person lying back, hands behind the head. Of all the 1950s organic examples, the “Tulip”
series by Saarinen seems to have spawned most “successors”: it is enough to look at “Ero/s/” by
Philippe Starck, “Tulip” by Paulin and “Rosa” by Merki Jr., etc. The very idea of cup-like transparent
shell was much employed: Phillip Starck won Good Design Award 2008 with one of his chairs (“Mr.
Impossible” for Kartell) with a similar design.
Table 2
Jacobsen’s Egg Chair and its influence.
MORPHOLOGY/STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

If we look at the overall build of the examples from the tables, we may classify them into three
major groups according to the number of constituent parts for the seat/back:
• A mono-shell with a single, sculptural plastic-molded cup-like shell, open or closed at the top
(here belong the “Egg” chair, the “Ovalia Egg Chair”, the “Tulip” series, etc.). This type uses molded
plastic shells;
• Pieces with two-part structure, or separate back and seat (of different material – bent plywood
shells, molded plastic shells.) This is a much-exploited solution. Here we can include the models of
Eames (LCW etc.: two bentwood shells on different supporting structures of metal, bent wood, steel
rods etc.); “Orange Chair” by Olsen, “Orange Slice Chair” by Paulin, etc. This type is extremely used
today;
• Finally, three and more shells can make a specific structure, such as the Lounge Chair by the
Eamses, the Tre Pezzi by Allbini/Helg and the Corona Chair by Jorgensen.
On the other hand, function development have encouraged further search for comfort; this is also
caused by changes in dwellings: the living room became a place, where not only TV is watched by all
the inhabitants, but also individuals use smaller devices: mobile phones, tablets, laptops (Tasheva S,
Vodenova P Angelova D 2019). This brought about the emergence of the so-called relax, principally a
lounger with (sometimes) additional functions: listening to music, massaging, Internet browsing, work
on the laptop.
MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCE

st
In the book “The Chair in the Beginning of the 21 C”, (Angelova 2015) the following
technologies are included: gas assist molding, 3D printing, injection molding, rotational molding, etc.
The examples we have researched also use glass-reinforced polyester molded shells, injection-
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molded polycarbonate as well as carbon-fiber composites. “With the recent ascendancy of computer-
aided design and rapid prototyping, designers can quite literally give substance to their dreams in a
matter of hours. In fact, rapid prototyping machines that use laser stereolithography have in recent
years become the high-tech “Easy Bake Oven” toys for the design industry”. (Fiell C and P 2007).
Angelova (2015) considers contemporary materials as well; to traditional wood, bent plywood,
plastics and metals, today new materials, such as carbon fibers, felt, tubular knitted textile, 3D textiles,
laser-cut textiles, concrete etc. are used. The Vortice Lounge chair by Giovanni Pagnotta presents an
interesting carbon fiber example, manifesting a complex shape with reduced thickness, due to the
exceptional strength qualities of carbon fibers.

From the review made on the impact of mid-century design on today’s designers in the
presented tables, we can point out the following results:
1. By perpetuating 50s and 60s design, continuity with the modern movement is achieved.
Having in mind the fact that their original manufacturers never, or only temporarily stopped producing
them, we can understand why we can see these originals on practically every large furniture
commercial show in these days. Therefore, not only the public, but professionals have these classics
literally before their eyes;
2. Re-design rather means re-edition today, and is a common procedure of rejuvenating the
design for today’s technological requirements;
2. Simplicity and minimalism is an important characteristic, thus achieving iconic quality. The
laconic silhouettes gave the 1950s production archetypal quality, providing a source for a number of
versions;
3. Belief in and positive attitude towards technology, science, the new materials (plastics) and
the first euphoria of the space age are kept even today. We can talk of ‘a second technological
revolution’, bringing new technologies (3D printing, digital design and manufacturing) and materials
(carbon fibres, polycarbonate) to interest;
5. Craft tradition and handmade quality of objects as a high value were also one direction of
research of the post-war period, but today, designs of the ‘Danish’ era have been reinterpreted with
new materials and newer approach to minimalism;
6. Expressive and memorable silhouettes make furniture and also the age they were
manufactured in recognizable. Today, this line of development has evolved into even greater
complexity, with the works of some designers that use CAD-CAM technologies or 3D printing to this
effect and create designs unthinkable in the previous century.
Table 3
Impact of the “Tulip Series” by Saarinen
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Table 4
Lounge Chair by the Eameses and impact on other versions
Table 5
LCW Chair by the Eameses
CONCLUSIONS
The phenomenon of re-editing of famous creators, such as Jacobsen, Eames, Wegner, gave
st
rise to a strong trend of ‘classic design’ in the first two decades of the 21 C. Due to commercial
reeditions of mid-century design of various manufacturers with special interest (Vitra) or the activity of
designer manufacturing companies, such as Cassina, Zanotta, Fritz Hansen, Knoll Int., a line of
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manufacturing policy is continued that started from their beginning. Although it may look similar to the
th
revival movements of the 19 C, today this cyclic fashion means positioning the mid-century design in
st
the 21 C and interpreting it with new technology and materials. It is a sign of re-evaluation of mid-
century modern classic as a foundation and a source for new ideas, thus proving its archetypal
significance.
Table 6
Three-legged Chair by Hans Wegner
Table 7
The impact of Elda Chair
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REFERENCES
st
Angelova D (2015) The Chair at the Beginning of the 21 C (in Bulgarian), Avangard Prima, Sofia
Bhaskaran L (2006) Design of the Times (in Russian) Art Rodnik, Moscow
Conran Design Directory (1985) ed. by Stephen Bayley. Octopus Conran, London
Dunas, P, Schwartz-Claus M, Maudit S, Rhode P (1996) 100 Masterpieces from the Vitra Design
Museum. Vitra Design Museum
Fiell C and P (1991) Modern Furniture Classics. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London
Fiell C and P (2000) 1000 Chairs, Taschen, Cologne
Fiell C and P (2007) Design Now! Taschen GmbH, Cologne
Larrabee E, Vignelli M (1985) Knoll Design. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York
Sato K (1988) Achimia: Contemporary Italian Design. Rikuyo-sha Publishing Inc., Taco
Verlagsgesellschaft und Agentur mbH, Berlin
Tasheva S, Vodenova P, Angelova D (2019) A Living-Room in Bulgaria: Typology Debut,
Development and Tendencies (in Bulgarian), Nauka, 1:27-33
Web references:
Abbas A (2018) "Vintage" Furniture. https://www.thespruce.com/vintage-furniture-1391684
*** Age Defining: Antique vs. Vintage vs. Retro. https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/age-defining-an-
130615
Mun-Delsalle Y (2017) Iconic Italian Furniture Manufacturer Cassina Marks 90 Years Of
Revolutionizing The Design World. Online at:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/yjeanmundelsalle/2017/10/25/iconic-italian-furniture-manufacturer-
cassina-marks-90-years-of-revolutionizing-the-design-world/#608fb5a92112
https://www.artifort.com/collection/model/detail/armchairs_orange_slice
https://www.bing.com/search?q=what+is+vintage&form=EDGSPH&mkt=bg-
bg&httpsmsn=1&refig=1bc24a8a2938499f9ca437ba474c863e&sp=-1&pq=what+is+vintage&sc=8-
15&qs=n&sk=&cvid=1bc24a8a2938499f9ca437ba474c863e
https://www.cassina.com/en/collection/sofas-and-armchairs/836-tre-pezzi
https://chairinstitute.com/types-of-egg-chairs/
http://collectiononline.design-museum.de/#/de/object/42028?_k=lwxdcu
https://www.desede.ch
https://eames.com/en/dcw
https://www.elledecor.com/shopping/furniture/a14443746/egg-chair-history/
https://www.finnishdesignshop.com/furniture-chairs-armchairs-the-orange-lounge-chair-smoked-oak-
brickrose-p-20538.html?region=us
https://iconicinteriors.com/designer_furniture/category/chairs/corona_chair/#.XPI_vPZuLv8
https://www.knoll.com/product/tulip-arm-chair
http://www.kartell.com/gb/small-armchair_cod20000028.html
http://www.kurtmerkijr.com/projects/product/rosa/
http://www.ora-ito.com/collections/zanotta-en/
https://www.rubylane.com/info/faq?action=View&article=AVW7rcrhIc1iOM8wBi8_
https://www.vitra.com/en-gb/product/lounge-chair
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SECTION 10.
WOOD
CONSTRUCTIONS
POST-BYZANTINE WOOD CARVED ICONOSTASES IN ORTHODOX CHURCHES

OF SIKINOS ISLAND
Evangelia AGNANTOPOULOU
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Forestry & Natural Environment
University Campus, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
Tel: 0030 2310 998895, Fax: 0030 2310 998947, E-mail: agnlilia@yahoo.gr
Ioannis BARBOUTIS
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Forestry & Natural Environment
University Campus, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
E-mail: jbarb@for.auth.gr
Abstract
This paper presents the recording and study results of the post-Byzantine wood carved
iconostases of Sikinos, a small island of the Cyclades, which has preserved to a considerable extent
its traditional characteristics.The island has 13 churches containing old hand-crafted wood carved
th th
iconostases. The most remarkable ones are dated from the late 17 to the late 18 century, have
limited dimensions due to the small size of the churches and present a three-zone horizontal structure
with two arched openings, three base panels and three Despotic icons constructed with wood planks,
while they do not include the row with the Apostles in the upper zone. They are carved in high relief
and their coronation is impressive, with a big cross and dragons. In addition, they are made mainly of
softwood species without resin canals. These structures are being gradually decomposed by decay
and wood-destroying insects, as the protection attempts were limited only to the declaration of the
buildings as historical monuments and did not concern at all the interior wood carvings, mainly due to
the reduced acknowledgement that wood is one of the most significant parts of the cultural heritage in
contrast with the much more rich and impressive ancient Greek findings.
Key words: wood carved iconostasis; post-Byzantine; Sikinos island; Cyclades; cultural heritage.
INTRODUCTION
One of the landscape features of the Cycladic islands is the enormous number of churches,
many of which are post-Byzantine, as the historical circumstances of this period allowed their
construction (Bouras 2001). The post-Byzantine period in the Cyclades did not begin in 1453 with the
conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans (Dimitropoulos 1993), but in 1204 with the invasion of the
French and Venetian crusaders (Lock 1995). After that, the Venetian Republic received the Cyclades
as a share (Georgantopoulos 1889) and established a Duchy, which was preserved for approximately
one century after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, in almost all the islands, until their conquest by the
Ottomans (Vallindas 1882).
During the Venetian occupation, there were no restrictions on the Orthodox worship, although
the Latins granted privileges to the Orthodox inhabitants in order to proselytize them (Vallindas 1882),
but without much success (Tournefort 1717), with the exception of Syros and Tinos islands (Vallindas
1882). Also, during the Ottoman occupation, the Cyclades enjoyed privileges which did not exist in the
rest of Greece (Charilaos 1888), as the Ottomans were rarely appearing there and their aim was
mainly to collect taxes (Tournefort 1717). The inhabitants of the islands, benefiting of such a freedom,
had the opportunity to build new monasteries (Zerlentis 1913) or convert the abandoned Catholic
churches to Orthodox ones, some of which had already been Orthodox before the Latin period
(Kotsakis 2013). Also, they have built many private churches (Olympitou 1997). The performance of
the Christian worship started to be carried out under greater freedom after the four-year rule of the
Russians in the Aegean Sea and the signing of the Russian-Ottoman Treaty of 1715, which included,
among others, the return of the islands to the Ottomans (Charilaos 1888), providing however clear
rights to build and decorate new churches or to repair the existing ones (Vallindas 1882).
These churches are usually simple buildings constructed with local materials (stones), which
follow the non-uniformity principle of the Cycladic architecture (Mamaloukos 2006). Their interiors are
simple, either without the presence of an iconostasis or with the presence of a built-in or a wood
carved or sometimes a marbled iconostasis (Dimitrokalis 1993), as well as mixed, namely marble and
wood carved (Goulaki-Voutira and Karadedos 2001). As in the rest of Greece, many wood carved
iconostases of particular artistic value have been left to be destroyed (Bent 1885), while some others
569
th
have already been removed due to the renovation trends at the beginning of the 20 century
(Barboutis 2013).
Although the iconostases constitute one of the most significant parts of the cultural heritage, in
terms both of religion and wood carving art (Timar et al. 2013), and despite the extremely high number
of post-Byzantine churches, many of which have been declared as historical monuments, there are no
researches focusing on the wood carved iconostases of the Cyclades. The studies that display,
among others, some single mixed iconostases of the islands of Andros (Goulaki-Voutira and
Karadedos 2001), Paros (Mitsani 2006) and Milos (Belivanakis 2007), make an exception.
OBJECTIVE
The present study aims to identify and record the hand-crafted wood carved iconostases that
th
were constructed until the middle of the 19 century in the island of Sikinos and to analyze the most
remarkable ones, with a view to contribute to the preservation and protection of them as valuable
elements of Greek cultural heritage, highlighting the use of wood in structural and decorative
applications, in an area where the production of local timber was and still is absent.

The study was conducted in Sikinos, a small island in the southern part of the Cyclades, which
is geographically located in the central zone of the Aegean Sea, in Greece. The choice of the study
area was based on the fact that this island has preserved its traditional characteristics to a
considerable extent, mainly due to the only recent and mild development of tourism. Sikinos does not
have a natural port, while an artificial one was built recently, which means that product transfer has
been a laborious and costly process in the past.The «Chora» (capital of the island) consists of three
traditional settlements: the «Castle», built during the Venetian domination and «Vouni», which was its
extension, as well as the «Chorio» (village), which was inhabited later. The total population of the
island amounted to 890 inhabitants in 1836 (Gavalas 1931), while nowadays (2011) the population is
no more than 300 inhabitants. As far as vegetation is concerned, Sikinos does not have timber
production forests, as the ecosystem consists of the Mediterranean phrygana (cushion-shaped, spiny
dwarf shrubs), combined with garrigue (sparse and low broad-leaved evergreen shrubs) or juniper
shrubs, as well as a mixture of them (Gerakis et al. 2003).
The study was conducted between the years of 2016 and 2018, implementing visits to all the
old churches of the island, recording the presence or not of wooden iconostases and their type. In the
case of the old, hand-crafted wood carved iconostases, a detailed inventory of their characteristics
was carried out, examining the dimensions, structure, type of relief, presence of paint or gilding, main
decorative patterns, origin dates, subsequent additions, biological degradation (decay, wood-
destroying insects), etc. In addition, macroscopic identification of wood species was performed using a
hand magnifier, which was proven to be difficult in many cases, as the front side of the iconostases
was generally gilded or coloured, while the back side was some times indiscernible, due to natural
ageing, biological degradation or placement of additional layers of materials.

Based on the findings of the recording process followed in this study, Sikinos includes 58 old
churches, six of which are Byzantine, while seven of them have been declared, to date, as post-
rd
Byzantine historical monuments. One of them was a mausoleum of the 3 century AD that was turned
th
into a domed Christian church, getting its particular final form in the 17 century (Frantz et al. 1969).
Concerning the iconostases, the most significant information is summarized hereupon:
• 15 churches bear built-in iconostases, while 9 churches have no iconostases, mainly due to the
removal of the decayed wooden ones or the partial fall of the churches,
• 34 churches have wooden iconostases and specifically:
 21 churches have simple wooden iconostases or modern carved or partly reconstructed using
modern composite wood products, which do not serve any artistic highlighting of the wood,
compared to the old hand-crafted wood carved iconostases,
 12 churches were found to have hand-crafted wood carved iconostases, two of which appear to
have double nave with two iconostases each, while another church had until recently a wood-
carved iconostasis, which has currently been removed due to restoration work of the building.
Taking into account all the above mentioned, the five wood carved iconostases that were considered
to be the most remarkable are presented in the following. A typical arrangement of an iconostasis with
its separate zones is being shown in Fig. 1, based on the initial drawing designed by Makris (1982).
570
Fig. 1.
A typical arrangement of an iconostasis, based on an initial drawing of Makris (1982).
«Pantanassa»
The Exaltation of the Holy Cross or «Pantanassa» is a small post-Byzantine church with a
dome and three-niches, declared as a historical monument (Royal Charter 1936), which is the
metropolitan church of the island located in «Kastro». It bears a wood carved iconostasis of 4.65 m.
length x 3.35 m height (with maximum height of 5.25 m including the cross), which has a three-zone
horizontal structure with two arched openings (the Beautiful Gate in the center and the Prothesis door
on the left). In the bottom zone, there are three simple illustrated wooden base panels (thorakio)
constructed using vertical planks, in the middle zone there are three Despotic icons and above them a
row with horizontal rectangular panels (ketabes), while the row of the semicircular panels (kemeri) is
absent. In these two zones, there are six interrupted complex slender pillars, ribbed or carved, with
corinthian capitals at the top and reversed ones at the bottom. The upper zone of the iconostasis
includes various carved decorative strips and the Dodecaorton icons, ending to the coronation with the
cross and the icons of Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist, supported on the heads of two
dragons, while the row with the Apostles, which is commonly found in mainland of Greece, is absent.
The iconostasis is carved in high relief and the surface is painted gold, with some coloured
parts and red background colour, covering the original gilding. The main decorative pattern is the
twisted vine (Fig. 2) with emphasized leaf veins and bunches of grapes, enriched with flowers and
birds that peck grapes and other scattered patterns (cross, double-headed eagle, etc.). The Beautiful
Gate includes an arched transom with ornate supports, a perforated wood carved curtain and bema
doors which include illustrations and similar to the previous motifs wood-carved decorations.
Τaking into consideration that the dimensions of the iconostasis are perfectly adapted to those
of the church, without any additions or modifications, while a Despotic icon dating back to 1697 was
found, it is speculated that the iconostasis was constructed for this particular church probably at the
th
end of the 17 century. Regarding the wood species, most of the iconostasis has been made of
softwood species without resin canals, maybe cypress wood.
This iconostasis is an excellent wood-carved structure, preserved in relatively good condition,
without showing extensive damage. This is mainly attributed to the fact that the church is metropolitan,
resulting in both its maintenance and the frequent ventilation of the space, thereby reducing the
humidity levels that negatively affect the constructions (in recent years a dehumidifying device
operates in the church). Of course, there are scattered holes caused by wood-destroying insects,
some of which have been filled and covered by the paint, while the wooden base that has contact to
the floor and higher humidity levels, has been partly decayed.
571
Fig. 2.
The iconostasis in the church of Pantanassa – Details of the upper zone.
«Christ»
The Transfiguration of Christ or «Christ» is a small private Byzantine church with an arched
roof, declared as a historical monument (Royal Charter 1936), which is located at a short distance
from the «Chora». It bears a wood carved iconostasis of 4.80 m. length x 2.60 m height (with
maximum height of 3.85 m including the cross), which has a structure similar to the aforementioned
iconostasis regarding the horizontal zones, the pillars and the coronation (Fig. 3), with the exception of
the existence of two even smaller vertical sections at the ends, as well as the absence of the row of
the horizontal rectangular panels above the Despotic icons.
Also, the wood carved parts have a similar relief and main decorative pattern, with the addition
of an angel without a body, but with a head and wings, as well as two carved human-like heads used
to hang the vigil lamps at the coronation. However, the original gilding has been maintained on the
surface with some coloured parts and red background colour. Furthermore, the Beautiful Gate
includes an illustrated wooden curtain constructed with planks, but not an arched transom, although
the Prothesis door has one with solid endings, similarly to the aforementioned iconostasis.
Although the dimension of the upper zone is perfectly adapted to the opening of the church,
the width of the vertical sections at the edges is not the same as the rest of them. Consequently, even
though a painting dating back to 1712 was found at the Prothesis door, allowing the hypothesis that
th
the iconostasis was constructed for this particular church probably at the beginning of the 18 century
and there was a failure in ordering, placing or reassembling (according to information the iconostasis
had previously been removed from the Ephorate of Antiquities), however this can not be claimed
clearly, whereas today's coverage of thοse vertical sections with makeshift materials makes it even
more difficult to draw safe conclusions. Regarding the wood species, most of the iconostasis has been
made of softwood species without resin canals, probably the one of cypress.
This iconostasis is an excellent wood-carved structure, which however is not maintained in
good condition, demonstrating decay, cracks and holes caused by wood-destroying insects. This
situation becomes even worse over time, because of the high humidity levels, caused by the fact that
the church remains closed with the decision of the Ephorate of Antiquities, possibly for the protection
of the Byzantine frescoes. There are also gaps between the separate horizontal zones, which were
probably created after their removal and reassembly.
Holy Unmercenaries & St. Charalambos

Holy Unmercenaries (or the Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple) and St.
Charalambos is a post-Byzantine church with double naves and separate arched roofs, which is
located in «Chorio» and is declared as a historical monument (Ministerial Decisions 1996 & 1967).
The naves communicate internally with two arches, but they have independent entrances and different
iconostases. The nave which is dedicated to Saint Charalambos bears a wood carved iconostasis of
4.00 m. length x 3.30 m height (with maximum height of 4.60 m including the cross). Although it has a
structure similar to the aforementioned iconostases, regarding the horizontal zones, it also presents
several differences, as it has rectangular columns in the bottom zone, base panels with wood-carved
frames, a row with horizontal rectangular panels under the Despotic icons, as well as a row with semi-
circular panels in the middle zone.
The iconostasis is carved in high relief, while is perforated at some points. It presents various
detailed decorative patterns (Fig. 4), like vases with vertical or spiral shoots, rich floral decoration
572
enriched with complex motifs, including two men holding a royal crown, two angels on both sides of a
blazon, a variety of animals (lions, birds that peck grapes and leaves, winged quadruped, etc).
Besides the usual aforementioned twisted vine with birds that peck grapes, the upper zone has also
scattered blazons. The Beautiful Gate includes a perforated three-lobed arched transom with plant
and animal decoration, a royal crown on the top, perforated endings and ornate supports, as well as
bema doors, which combine the illustration positions and the perforated decoration, consisting of birds
that peck grapes and flowers, in combination with lions and snakes, etc.
Τaking into consideration that the dimensions of the iconostasis are perfectly adapted to those
of the church, without any additions or modifications, while two Despotic icons dating back to 1778
were found, it is speculated that the iconostasis was constructed for this particular church probably in
th
the second half of the 18 century. Regarding the wood species, this iconostasis seem also to be
constructed with softwood species, without resin canals, probably the one of cypress.
This iconostasis is an excellent wood-carved structure with complicated patterns, preserved in
relatively good condition, without showing extensive damage, with the exception of the contact points
of the horizontal support beam with the masonry, where decay is more extensive, as well as scattered
holes caused by wood-destroying insects. The great value of this construction has been also reduced
to a small extent, because of the relatively recent painting of the scattered blazons in the upper zone
with white colour.
Fig. 3.
The iconostasis in the church of Christ - Details of the coronation.
Fig. 4.
The iconostasis in the church of St. Charalampos - Details of the middle zone.
St. John the Forerunner

St. John the Forerunner or «Notari», is a small post-Byzantine church with an arched roof,
which is located in the southwest of «Kastro» and is declared as a historical monument (Royal Charter
1936). It bears a wood carved iconostasis of 4.20 m. length x 3.00 m height (with maximum height of
4.40 m including the cross), which has a structure similar to the aforementioned iconostases regarding
573
the horizontal zones, the pillars and the coronation, apart from the presence of wooden frames at the
base panels and a row with horizontal rectangular panels above the Despotic icons which combine
wooden and wood carved parts.
Also, the wood carved parts have a similar relief, although the original gilding has been
maintained on the surface, with some coloured parts and red or cyan background colour. The main
decorative pattern is a twisted stem with various, big in size, flowers and fruits, enriched with a lion
(Fig. 5), two lion heads and a human form, while there are five heads of angels with open wings at the
panels above the Despotic icons. Although generally the twisted vine is the main decorative pattern of
the iconostases, that motif is limited to the arched transom of the Prothesis door in this particular
structure. Also, there are two wood carved birds with open wings, as well as another winged form,
which are used to hang the vigil lamps at the coronation. The Beautiful Gate includes an arched wood
carved transom with perforated endings and ornate supports, a perforated wood carved curtain and
bema doors presenting illustrations and wood-carved decoration with a twisted flowering stem.
The year 1793 is engraved above the Beautiful Gate, apparently referring to the construction
or gilding of the iconostasis, which probably happened directly or some years after its construction.
Τaking into consideration that the dimensions of the iconostasis are perfectly adapted to those of the
church, without any additions or modifications, it can be suggested that the iconostasis was
th
constructed for this particular church probably in the second half of the 18 century. Also in this case,
the iconostasis is constructed using a softwood species, without resin canals, which could be cypress
wood.
This iconostasis is an excellent wood-carved structure, which, although is preserved in good
condition in the upper zone, exhibits extensive decay on the base panels, as well as some cracks and
missing parts in the rest of the structure. Also, in the small thickness carvings, such as in the arched
transom of the Beautiful Gate, although the wooden outer shell has been preserved, the interior has
been completely decomposed and breaks through a simple touch.
Fig. 5.
The iconostasis in the church of St. John the Forerunner - Details of the upper zone.
Holy Trinity
Holy Trinity is a small church with an arched roof, which is located in «Chora» and is
nowadays used as a storage space. It bears a wood carved iconostasis of 4.30 m. length x 3.20 m
height (with maximum height of 4.60 m including the cross), which has a structure similar to the
aforementioned iconostases regarding the horizontal zones, the pillars and the coronation, apart from
the presence of rectangular wood carved columns at the bottom zone, as well as wooden frames at
the row with the rectangular panels above the Despotic icons.
Also, the wood carved parts have a similar relief, although the original gilding has been
maintained on the surface, with some coloured parts and red or cyan background colour. The main
decorative pattern at the lower strip of the upper zone is the twisted vine with emphasized leaf veins
and bunches of grapes, enriched with flowers, birds that peck grapes and an angel head with open
wings in the middle (Fig. 6), while at the upper strip there is a twisted stem with various, big in size,
flowers. In addition, there are two human-like heads used to hang the vigil lamps at the upper zone.
The Beautiful Gate includes an arched polylobed wood carved transom with perforated endings and
ornate supports, as well as bema doors including illustrations and wood-carved decoration.
Τaking into consideration that the dimensions of this iconostasis are perfectly adapted to those
of the church, without any additions or modifications, and although it has not been possible to find a
date, it is assumed, due to many common elements, that this iconostasis was constructed around the
574
same time as the iconostasis of St. John the Forerunner described above, namely in the second half
th
of the 18 century. Regarding the wood species, this iconostasis seem also to be constructed with
softwood species, without resin canals, probably the one of cypress.
This iconostasis is an excellent wood-carved structure, which however is not maintained in
good condition, especially in the contact points with the masonry and the floor, where cracks, decay
and holes caused by wood-destroying insects seem to be more extensive, while there are also
missing parts. The biological degradation of the structure is expected to be deteriorated over time,
influenced by the high humidity levels that prevail, since the church is closed and it is only used as a
storage space.
Fig. 6.
The iconostasis in the church of Holy Trinity – Details of the upper zone.
CONCLUSIONS
The island of Sikinos, despite its limited size and population, in combination with the lack of
local timber production and the absence of a port until recently, has a comparatively large number of
remarkable and precious post-Byzantine hand-crafted wood carved iconostases, dating back to the
th th
late 17 till the end of the 18 century. These iconostases have limited dimensions due to the small
size of the churches and present a three-zone horizontal structure with two arched openings, three
base panels and three Despotic icons constructed with wood planks, while they do not include the row
with the Apostles in the upper zone. They are carved in high relief and their coronation is impressive,
with a big cross and dragons. In addition, they are constructed mainly with softwood species, without
resin canals, probably cypress wood, used also in the islands of the Dodecanese, where it is reported
that the cypress wood was commonly used, although in continental Greece it was mostly used wood
from hardwood species, especially walnut, oak, lime and chestnut (Koutelakis 1986). Several attempts
of research have already been started with a view to clearly identify the exact wood species that were
used in the construction of the aforementioned iconostases, as this knowledge is considered to be
crucial for the appropriate restoration work of them in future (Timar et al. 2013).
Although the presented iconostases constitute exceptional artworks, unfortunately they are
being left to be gradually degraded by decay, wood-destroying insects and ageing. This is attributed to
the fact that the protective action of the Authorities is limited only to the declaration of the buildings as
historical monuments and does not extend to the preservation of the interior wood carvings, due to the
reduced acknowledgement of wood as an important component of the cultural heritage in contrast with
the much more rich and impressive ancient Greek findings.
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Athens. 259 p. (in Greek).
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Ecosystems – Landscapes. In: H Hadjicharalambous and P A Gerakis (eds)., Training package on the
management of protected areas, Part B: Basic texts. Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Athens and
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establishment of the Greek State. PhD Thesis. University of the Peloponnese, Kalamata. 566 p. (in
Greek).
Koutelakis C (1986) Wood carved iconostasis of Dodecanese up to 1700. Published PhD Thesis of
the School of Philosophy-National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Dodoni, Athens. 200 p. (in
Greek, English summary).
Lock P (1995) The Franks in the Aegean, 1204-1500. Longman, London and New York. 416 p.
Makris K (1982). Ecclesiastical wood carvings. Apostolic ministry of the Church of Greece, Athens. 48
p. (in Greek).
Mamaloukos S (2006) The architecture of the Hagioi Anargyroi complex at Kato Sangri, Naxos.
Deltion of the Christian Archaeological Society 27:49-60 (in Greek, English summary).
Ministerial Decision No. 53108/1430 (1996) Buffer zones around post-Byzantine churches and
monasteries of Sikinos island. Official Government Gazette 1036 (Β):10772 (in Greek).
Ministerial Decision No. 10976 (1967) Declaration of historical monuments. Official Government
Gazette 353 (Β): 2654 (in Greek).
Mitsani A (2006) The early Christian templon-screen in the Katapoliani, Paros. Deltion of the Christian
Archaeological Society 27: 75-90 (in Greek, English summary).
Olympitou E (1997) Space organization in Patmos island (16-19th century). PhD Thesis. National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens. 381 p. (in Greek).
Royal Charter (1936) Declaration of churches and monasteries in Cyclades as archaeological
historical monuments. Official Government Gazette 332 (Α): 1687-1688 (in Greek).
Timar M-C, Gurau L, Porojan M and Beldean E. Microscopic identification of wood species-An
important step in furniture conservation. European Journal of Science and Theology 9(4): 243-252.
Tournefort J P (1717) A voyage into Crete and islands of the Archipelago 1700-1702. Translation M &
M Apergi from the original Relation d’ un voyage du Levant (2003). Crete University Press, Heraklion.
530 p. (in Greek).
Vallindas A (1882) Space and history of Kythnos island. Kampani, Ermoupolis-Syros. 162 p. (in
Greek).
Zerlentis P (1913) Historical research about eastern Mediterranean island churches. Vol. A. Freris,
Ermoupolis. 159 p. (in Greek).
576
LIVING QUALITY IN WOODEN MULTI-FAMILY HOUSES
Fredrik LINDBLAD
Linnaeus University – Faculty of Technology, Institution of Mechanical Engineering
Lückligsplats 1, 351 95 Växjö, Sweden
Tel: +46 700 135 066, E-mail: fredrik.lindblad@Inu.se
Abstract
There is an increased demand for multi-family houses in Sweden, which makes it important to
investigate what the residents consider to be building quality in relation to their living situation and
what they prioritise when selecting an apartment. Having the ability to build good housing units is an
essential part of society since it directly affects people's living standard and way of life. Consequently,
understanding living quality creates possibilities to adjust the construction and design of housing units
accordingly. Currently, more multi-family houses are being built with wooden frames than ever before,
and it is therefore interesting to compare if there is a difference in how residents experience the quality
of living in a multi-family house with wooden frames compared with concrete frames.
The purpose is to show what residents consider to be living quality and if there is any quality
difference in housing units using wood or concrete as construction material in the building frame. A
survey has been sent out to a selected amount of multi-family houses in Sweden, Thereby, gain an
understanding of the perceived quality of new building developments, which showed that the quality of
living did not differ between the selected materials and the location in the city was the most important
parameter when choosing accommodation for the residents.
Key words: wooden multi-family houses; living quality; wood construction; design selection; building
material.
INTRODUCTION
According to Sanal (2018), the construction sector is discussing what can be done to reduce
global warming in the quest for a sustainable future and one step in this direction is to increase the
usage of wood-based solutions in new build projects. Using wood is environmentally favourable since
it absorbs carbon dioxide throughout its lifetime up until felling when absorption of carbon dioxide in
the material stops (Romero et al. 1998). It is not necessarily the best material seen from its
constructional properties but equivalent to concrete in many respects if used properly. However, it
supports sustainable development in the construction sector, which is in focus for an improved
environmental building solution (Stehn 2010). By constructing more using a wood-based solution will
consequently force the development forward, which will benefit wood construction purely in terms of
development and providing improved possibilities for economies of scale. The construction industry is
responsible for building good and sustainable housing in new housing production, it is, therefore,
important to consider the housing quality already during the design phase. Well-planned homes make
people feel good. (Nylander & Forshed 2011) and the home should also be a place for people to feel
safe and maintain their health (Lee, Cho & Kim 2011).
Further, by investigating the quality of life associated with the resident’s perception of their
home is important as people in the Nordic countries spend 90% of their time indoors and the majority
of this time is in their own home (Holmstedt 2017). The dwellings should be designed with care and
reflection to provide a high quality of life (Boverket 2018). With increased construction rate in Sweden,
studies are needed to see if different material types (concrete and wood) are equal to each other from
the resident’s perspective and their perception of actual living quality. This is increasingly more
important to understand, in relation to more apartment buildings are being built with wooden frames,
since cost and new building solution might be a barrier for wood-building solutions to overcome
(Brege, Nord & Stehn 2017). Also, Statistics Sweden [SCB] (2016) presents statistics that the housing
cost for rental properties constitutes approximately 28% of the Swedish households' disposable
income, while the equivalent percentage for private housing cooperative was on average 21%. The
purpose of this study is to see how the residents perceived quality and if there are any differences
between residents living in multi-family houses with wooden frames versus concrete frames.
577
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Nylander and Forshed (2011) describe architectural quality as the relationship between three
properties: comfort, durability and beauty. Together, they reinforce the overall experience, meaning
that all parts of the building are well planned and executed into the end product. According to Keall et
al. (2010), housing quality has a great impact on health, safety and sustainability. Hence, it is
important that it is assessed correctly in order to improve public health through building improvements
and developing an effective housing policy, which should be based on housing quality and a well-
informed housing market combined with a financially viable solution.
Sustainability relates to both a way of using natural materials in proven solutions, as well as
using an economical perspective behind the construction of new housing projects. An example of an
economic perspective is that natural materials, with high quality, are better over time reducing
maintenance activities significantly compared to the cheaper and quicker to produce building materials
(Nylander & Forshed 2011). Since the housing situation today is very different compared to earlier
periods, having to incorporate requirements based on new family constellations such as the single
household, single parents or large families, where the previously functional rooms do not fit to the
same extent into this situation. It has been shown that housing with several general rooms has greater
flexibility and is, therefore, more sustainable over time (Nylander & Forshed 2011).
The design and choice of architectural details and materials have a significant role in how
people experience building quality and are influenced by the authenticity of the building materials,
which is considered as a sign of care during the design and construction process (Nylander & Forshed
2011). Rönn (1998) describes similarly that originality in details does not necessarily correlate to the
buildings unique design language, but can feel original thanks to it being made with craftsmanship.
When constructing multi-family buildings are the choice of materials and details usually made to
facilitate production, both economically and in time, whereas in these cases it is better to look at the
life cycle cost as it provides a more transparent picture of the building project. Natural materials are
more expensive to purchase, but are better over time and maintenance is reduced, while cheaper
materials are worn faster and need to be restored and maintained more often. Materials that residents
consider and experience as beautiful are usually those with the best sustainability and are the
materials that are easiest to maintain (Nylander & Forshed 2011) and Nordwall and Olofsson (2012)
add that sustainable materials create safety because the residents know what they get providing a
financially secure situation.
The soundscape is increasingly becoming an important factor for residents and is defined as
vibrations in the air that cause pressure changes that propagate as sound waves. People walking in
apartments give rise to oscillations in the floor that spread like sound in the air, which is observed in
the apartment below (Hassan 2009). The individual’s attitude to specific sounds affects how it is being
perceived, as well as the time and place for when the sounds are being observed. For some people, a
passing motorcycle can be experienced as something positive while others think it is noise. Noise is
normally seen as undesirable and the design of the building structure determines how much noise is
released into apartments (Lowry 1989). According to Naish et al. (2012) noise has proved to be a
major problem for human health, as it has been shown, among other things, that it affects human
sleep and physical well-being. A report from Berglund et al. (2000) tells about side effects from noise
and some of these are noise-induced hearing loss, disturbance of sleep rhythm, mental illness and
impaired performance. Further, the study by Park, Lee and Lee (2017) shows that the most disturbing
sound perceived by residents is the sound of people walking, dropping items on the floor and the
sound of moving furniture.
MATERIAL CHOICES
Concrete has existed for thousands of years and is the world's most widely used building
material. Concrete can be used in a vast area of construction solutions, such as high-rise buildings,
bridges, roads and sculptures. Below is presented general advantages and disadvantages of concrete
(Burström 2007; Hilding & Skoogh 2009; Energihandbook 2018).
Pros:
• High durability • Energy-efficient buildings
• Fireproof • Good sound insulation
• High flexibility in design and design
Cons:
• Longer time to dry the building on • Difficult to change something
moisture afterwards on the building
578
• High U-value unlike wood • Great environmental impact when

manufacturing cement
As the development of buildings using a wood frame solution has progressed and gained
momentum in Sweden, and in Europe, it has now led to the construction of more high-rise buildings
with wooden frames (Swedish Wood 2018a). Furthermore, the Träguiden (2018) states that an
advantage of wood is that it is a renewable building material, which is good from an environmental
perspective. Also, Swedish Wood (2018b) mentioned that the manufacture of wooden houses does
not require much energy in itself compared to more traditional building materials, also resulting in
reduced carbon dioxide emissions. Below are presented advantages and disadvantages for
constructions of buildings using a wood frame (Burström 2007; Hilding & Skoogh 2009;
Energihandbook 2018).
Pros:
• Light in relation to its strength • Flexible, easy to make retrospective
• Renewable changes on the construction site
• Easy to process • Low U-value unlike concrete
Cons:
• Not as fireproof as concrete • Low knowledge and experience
• Risk of mold and rot among professionals using the
• Inferior lifespan to concrete material in the construction of multi-
• Inferior sound insulation in relation to family buildings
concrete
RESEARCH PROCESS
Housing quality is a subjective issue and requires a large sample of respondents to be
answered in order to provide ample reliability and validity. Further, a quantitative method was selected
to provide a suitable result and by using a survey consisted of multiple-choice questions that were
sent out to 450 selected respondents was deemed to provide a satisfactory sample and provide the
best solution for the conducted study. The response rate to the survey was 43%, which was evaluated
to be satisfactory for this study. The selected respondents had to live in a multi-family house that was
between two and ten years old in order to capture up to date building technology and legislation, and
the buildings were at least three floors high. The majority of respondents was 65 or older and the
minority is young adults (18-25 years of age) since the minority group are in a phase of life where they
normally are not capital-strong to acquire an apartment in newer residential buildings. The
questionnaires were marked in a way that made it possible to identify differences between buildings
using wood or concrete frames and the survey was anonymous to give the report further reliability.
The survey was conducted between 2018-04-20 and 2018-05-02. The answers have only been
processed quantitatively since the respondents have not been given the opportunity to reply in free
text. The compilation of the questionnaire responses was done using a dedicated program and the
answers were analysed to provide a comparison between buildings using a wood or concrete building
frame.
Description of the buildings included in the study

• Vallen is a newly built area and will eventually consist of about 200 apartments. The selected
apartments were built in 2015 and include 60 rental apartments, varying from one to three
bedrooms in sizes.
• The private housing cooperative Limnologen consists of 4 eight-storey houses that were built in
2009. Including 134 tenant-owned apartments with one to four bedrooms.
• Passet consists of 5 six-storey houses that were built in 2015 including 80 rental apartments with
one to 3 bedrooms.
• The buildings included in Portvakten was built in 2016 and consists of three house bodies with six
to eight floors and a total of 60 rental apartments. The size of the apartments varies between one
to 4 bedrooms.
• The building project Minnet was built in 2015 and is built in four floors with a concrete frame and
brick facade using details in wood. In total there are 70 rental apartments with one to 3 bedrooms.
• The neighbourhood Förstäven is 16 floors high made of concrete and consists of 59 tenant-owned
apartments with one to 4 bedrooms.
579
• The Mesanseglet consists of six floors and a total of 53 rental apartment in varying size with one
to 2 bedrooms.
RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Respondent’s awareness of the house structure, i.e. concrete or wood
Of those who live in wooden frames, 82% respond that they knew that they live in a house
using wooden frames, whereas 7% answered concrete and 11% replied that they did not know. Of
those who live in concrete frames, 75% answered that they knew that they were living in a house
using a concrete frame, 13% answered wood and 11% replied that they did not know. In total, 79% of
the residents living in concrete or wooden frames were aware of the building material used for their
buildings, 10% did not know and 12% answered that they did not know.
What building material is preferred by the respondents

61% of the respondents living in houses with wood frames prefer houses with wooden frames,
while 33% answered that it does not matter. 38% of the residents in houses with concrete frames
prefer houses with concrete frames, while 42% answered that it did not matter and 13% preferred to
live in houses with wooden frames. Also, 29% of the responded in wood frame buildings feel that there
is better living quality in buildings using a wood frame and 28% felt that it is better for the environment,
whereas 9% responded that they think it would be better from a sound perspective and 33% replied
that it did not matter. 25% of the responded living in buildings using a concrete frame feel that there is
better building quality living in a building using a wood frame and 12% believe that it equates to lower
building quality. Further, 19% of the respondents in wooden houses answered that they perceive it as
better with respect to the environment.
Important parameters for choosing an apartment

17% of the respondents living in wood frame buildings believe that the location in the city is
the most important parameter and 16% respond that the size of the apartment is important, closely
followed by a bright apartment (15%) and 15% believe that good sound insulation is the most
important (Fig. 1). The equivalent response from respondents living in a building with a concert frame
is 19% believe that the location in the city is the most important parameter, 16% answer a light
apartment, followed by the size of the apartment (15%) and 14% believe that good sound insulation is
the most important (Fig. 1). Four specific parameters show a stronger impact on what the residents
consider to be most important, i.e. the location in the city, light, size of the apartment and good sound
insulation are parameters that get 14% or more, whereas parameters displaying a value between 5–
7% is the appliances, open floor plan and a suitable amount of bedrooms.
Fig. 1.
Selected parameters related to living quality.
580
1: Building frame 7: Open plan 13: Public staircase

2: Light 8: Nr. of bedrooms 14: Separate bedrooms
3: Good sound insulation 9: Size 15: Accessible apartment
4: Ceiling height 10: Location in the city 16. Visually open apartment
5: Natural materials 11: Furnitureable
6: Appliances 12: Large common areas
Importance of sound insulation

59% of the residents in wooden frame houses consider that sound insulation between
apartments is the most important, while 67% of those in concrete frame consider this important. Also,
40% of residents in wooden frame houses and 31% of those in the concrete frame have a positive
feeling of sound from the outside environment (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Importance of sound insulation.
The perceived importance of the facade material when choosing an apartment

The average perceived importance displayed for residents in houses with wooden frames was
5.7 and for residents in concrete frames 5.3 on a ten-graded scale, where 1–3 have limited
importance, 4–7 average importance and 8–10 great importance. Fig. 3 display the results of all the
respondents.
Fig. 3.
Importance of the material in the façade when choosing an apartment.
581
Resident’s willingness to pay more for an apartment using a wood frame vs. concrete frame
Close to 64% of the residents living in houses with wooden frames were not willing to pay
extra, while 36% would consider paying extra. Similarly, 90% of the residents living in houses with a
concrete frame where not willing to pay extra for an apartment in a building using a wood frame and
only 10% would agree to an extra cost for this option (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4.
Resident’s willingness to pay more to live in an apartment in a wood frame building than
concrete.
The majority (79%) of the respondents are aware of the building material in their buildings.
Respondents in multi-family buildings using a wooden frame (will henceforth be referred to as W)
prefers wood as building frame material in relation to concrete. Further, residents in multi-family
buildings with concrete frames (will henceforth be termed with large C) prefer concrete as building
frame material. A majority (61%) of the residents in W have answered that they prefer houses with
wooden frames, which is opposed to those in C where 42% responded perceive it does not matter
what material the building frame has. The difference in attitude can be a result of those in W, to a
greater extent, have made a conscious choice, and are more aware than those living in C. The
respondents in both W and C (wood 29% and concrete 25%) chose their respective material because
they felt it provided better living quality, where 28% of W choose wood because they consider it better
with regard to the environment while the residents in C choose concrete believing it to be a lower cost.
Those living in C can be assumed to a lesser extent have chosen accommodation based on the
building frame.
All the respondents answered that the location in the city was the most crucial parameter
(18% on average) when choosing an apartment. The impact placed on the location in the city is
mentioned by Liliedahl (2010) as the most important factor when choosing an apartment. Thus, being
close to service, entertainment, public transport and suitable schools where deemed to be drivers for
choosing an attractive location in the city. The respondents agreed that the light and size of the
apartment were second in priority (15.5% on each) after the location in the city. Hence, personal
preferences about the layout and size of the apartment derived from the respondent’s specific living
situation contribute, placing the apartment size among the top three factors of importance when
choosing an apartment. Not far behind the second and third factor is the importance of having good
sound insulation, placing it in fourth place (14.5%) by the residents, which also was discussed by
Naish et al. (2012) have a significant impact for residents living quality. The residents mostly prioritized
sound insulation between the apartments (63%), were people talking was considered one of the most
annoying sounds. Also, the residents want to prioritize sound insulation from the outdoor environment,
which is confirmed by Lowry (1989) discussing the importance of adjusting the sound insulation to the
environmental pre-conditions.
All residents considered the facade's visual appearance and the material choice to be of
average importance, i.e. 5.5 on a scale from 1 to 10, which indicates that it does not have such great
significance or impact when choosing an apartment. Residents in C rate this 5.3 while those in W rate
582
it 5.7, indicating that those in W value this slightly higher and might be more aware of the materials
used in their buildings. The residents, equally between W and C, are prepared to pay more for certain
factors in the apartment, e.g. appliances and specific material used in the apartments. Also, 15% of
the respondents was prepared to pay extra for additional sound insulation and 11% of the respondents
said that they were content with the current living quality, which could be derived from their current
apartments having a fairly high standard and using high-quality materials, as discussed by Nylander
and Forshed (2011). In addition, a large majority (75%) of both residents in W and C, where not willing
to pay more for an apartment in a multi-family house using a wooden frame instead of concrete,
however, the respondents who live in a building using a wooden frame are about 26% more likely to
pay more for an apartment in a building with wooden frames than those who live in concrete frames.
CONCLUSIONS
What residents really consider as the main factors related to the quality of living is, according
to the survey, the location in the city, light and open apartment, the size of the apartment and finally
good sound insulation towards neighbouring apartments. Out of these criteria’s, only the size of the
apartment is something that residents can influence based on their own finances and personal
preferences. Improved sound insulation between apartments, on the other hand, is something that the
residents want to be developed further, which also is out of the resident’s control. Architects and
builders can by using these initial findings as support when contributing to future building projects as it
verifies what the residents consider to be living quality or what they choose to prioritize when selecting
an apartment. The result derived from the survey confirms the theoretical discussions related to living
quality.
Also, the survey showed that there is no major difference between perceived quality of living
between apartments in buildings using a concrete or a wooden frame. In some cases, some variations
could be seen between the material used in the building frame, but they are considered so small that it
cannot be determined whether there is any significant value in addressing the resident’s choices
based on the material used in the building frames. The biggest difference that could be seen between
the frames was that the residents in wood frames are more aware of the environmental aspects of
sustainable construction. This may be because most respondents live in Växjö and are aware of
Växjö's sustainability program that is usually spoken of in Växjö. In addition, it was concluded that the
majority of all the respondents were not willing to pay more for the privilege of living in an apartment
using a wood frame. The focus was to find an affordable living situation since the cost of living
consumes a larger part of the disposable income than ever before.
When building homes that people like, and according to their needs, is to the advantage of all
the actors on the current housing markets, such as managers, builders and, above all, the residents.
By increasing the awareness and understanding what the residents expect from their apartment helps,
both the market to sell and rent out apartments. The results found in this study could be used to
design and build quality housing that meets the requirements that residents place on their homes, and
serve as a basis for architects and builders during their work. This study could be enhanced if being
replicated in a few years when a larger amount of wooden multi-family buildings are built, thereby
investigate if the resident’s perception has changed based on a larger market presence of buildings
using wood frame solutions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With special thanks to the contribution provided by Daniel Beijbom and Fredrik Hög.
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584
SURFACE SOUNDNESS OF BASALT FIBRE REINFORCED POLYVINYL

ACETATE PLYWOOD COATING
Samuel KRAMÁR
E-mail: samuel.kramar@mendelu.cz
Martin BRABEC
E-mail: martin.brabec@mendelu.cz
Pavel KRÁL
E-mail: pavel.kral@mendelu.cz
Peter RADEMACHER
E-mail: peter.rademacher@mendelu.cz
Abstract
Basalt fibres have become popular reinforcement of polymers due to their environmentally
friendly properties. These properties constitute the basis for the enhancement of materials such as
wood or WBP (wood-based panels). Other polymers than those commonly used for FRP (fibre
reinforced polymers) may be applied. PVAC (Polyvinyl acetate) adhesive seem to be a promising
choice as it safer substance. However basalt fibres do not create sufficient bond with many adhesives.
In this study; bond strength of one polymeric emulsion adhesive, two PVAC adhesives, and one layer
of basalt fabric and birch plywood were evaluated. Finally, the surface soundness of the best Ponal
Super 3 with different amounts and one or two layers of basalt fabric were investigated. Surface layer
was well bonded and failures were always located in the wood. Statistically evaluated data were not
significantly different, proving that several layers of basalt fabrics can be bonded together, while
variable amounts of adhesive do not affect the surface soundness of this reinforcing layer.
Key words: surface soundness; plywood; PVAC; basalt fibres; reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is often utilized for WBP (wood-based panels) which are engineered materials produced
with the aim either to obtain better and more homogenous material than solid wood or just to process
the secondary products of sawmills or harvest residues. High quality veneers are used for the
production of plywood, showing the best mechanical properties compared to other WBP-types. Since
plywood is a layered wood-composite, it is still strongly influenced by the properties of its originated
raw-material. Hence the perpendicular direction of surface veneer will always have detrimental effects
on its mechanical properties (Varis 2018).
Better homogeneity could be achieved by reinforcing fabrics, mounted on the surface of the
plywood. This potential is based on the structure of the fabric, which has warp and weft yarns knitted
together in structure, which is much more homogenous than plywood itself (Hu 2004). One of the
attractive materials is basalt. Fibres made of this rock have tensile strength superior to wood in its
parallel direction. Moreover this material is interesting due to its costs and environmentally friendly
properties (Fiore et al. 2011).
The most popular polymers for FRP are epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins, which can be
also used for wood. However plywood with basalt fibres would have a better index in nature
conservation if degradable polymers are used as well. Wood industry uses adhesives that fulfil this
requirement and are much cheaper. However, basalt fibres may not be compatible with many
polymers (Chen and Huang 2016) and thus several variants were tested to find satisfactory results in
adhesion.
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OBJECTIVES
Proper reinforcement of WBP can be achieved only with a good adhesion between materials.
This study is based on materials which are sustainable, abundant in nature or their processing does
not have negative impact on the environment. Combinations of wood, basalt fibres and PVAC
adhesive (Kim 2009) meet these requirements. In this study we tried two PVAC and one polymeric
emulsion adhesives from different manufacturers. The objective was to find the best adhesion with
basalt fabric and birch plywood.
MATERIALS, METHOD, EQUIPMENT

Three-layered birch plywood obtained from AZ wood a.s. (Brno, Czech Republic) was used as
core of the tested composite. Its thickness was 4 mm. Basalt fabric had twilled weave and areal weight
-2
of 340 g·m . Silane sizing, thin film that improves bond with polymers was applied by manufacturer.
Fabric was obtained from Basaltex a.s. (Šumperk, Czech Republic). Three different adhesives were
tested. The first one was Lignu Pro Free polymeric emulsion adhesive. This adhesive was mixed with
Lignu Pro Free hardener. Manufacturer (Akzo Nobel BV, Arnhem, Netherlands) does not state the
content of this emulsion. However it is similar in application, colour, viscosity, density and cleaning
with other PVAC adhesives. The final solidified adhesive film meets the requirements of C4 class (EN
12765 (2002)) according to manufacturer’s datasheet. This classification is used for thermosetting
adhesives and is an equivalent to D4 class of thermoplastic adhesives according to EN 204 (2002)
(Antonio and Mittal 2011). Second adhesive was PVAC Vinalep 840 D4 obtained from Stachema s.r.o.
(Kolín, Czech Republic). The last adhesive was Ponal super 3 D3 PVAC. It was obtained from Henkel
s.r.o. (Prague, Czech Republic). Both Vinalep 840 and Ponal Super 3 are one-component adhesives.
The first test was based on qualitative evaluation of bond strength. Two panels were coated
-2
with one layer of fabric on one surface only. Amount of the adhesive was 291 g·m . The ready
composition was placed in the hot-press. Pressing cycle was 20 min at 100 °C and 1.5 MPa. Surface
was covered by waxed separating paper. 10 specimens were prepared for testing. After conditioning,
the edges of coating were peeled off from the plywood, so it could be gripped between fingers. The
quality of adhesion was tested by hand.
Based on the results, Ponal super 3 was used for the production of additional panels. Six
-2
variants were produced. Different amounts of adhesive at 238, 291 and 356 g·m were used. These
adhesive spreads were used for production of panels with 1 and 2 layers of fabric (Fig. 1). The amount
of adhesive for two layers was doubled. These layers we symmetrical applied on both surfaces of
plywood. Panels were further covered by PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) separator film and a layer of
silicone rubber. Pressing parameters for one layer were the same as before. Pressing time was
increased to 30 minutes for 2 layers of fabric.
Fig. 1.
Sample of raw plywood (marked as 0), and plywood with 1 and 2 layers of basalt fabric.
586
Test of surface soundness was performed according to the method certified by Mendel
University in Brno. This method is a modification of EN 311 (2003). The difference is only in the size of
tested area. Circle with diameter of 20mm is grooved around the bonded metal disk of the same
diameter. Specimens were tested with Comtest OP1-P testing machine (Ostrava, Czech Republic).
Twenty specimens were prepared from two panels per variant. All specimens were air conditioned
before testing.
MANOVA (Multivariate analysis of variance) was used for statistical evaluation of data. At first,
normality of data was evaluated by Shapiro-Wilk test. Levene and Brown-Forsythe test was used to
prove homogeneity of variances. All data met the requirement of homoscedasticity, thus MANOVA
could be used. Scheffe test was used for determination of significant differences between variants.
Data were compared at 0.05 significance level alpha.

Both Lignu Pro Free and Vinalep 840 exhibited poor bond during qualitative test. Basalt fabric
could be removed by hand from plywood without damage to any of these materials. On the other hand
Ponal Super 3 had very good adhesion and it was impossible to remove it without damage.
Satisfactory results were obtained during the test of surface soundness. All 120 specimens
failed in the wood, but not in the adhesive layer (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Sample of failure, which was always located in the wood.
All variants had non-different mean values according to MANOVA analyses and no trend was
observed either with increasing adhesive spread or amount of basalt fabric layers. Therefore none of
these variables had a significant effect on adhesion and neither there are significant interactions
among them (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Graphical results of surface soundness evaluated via MANOVA analyses.
587
The average surface soundness among all tested specimens was 1.82 MPa. This value
represents the tensile strength of birch veneer in radial direction (Ross 2010). Radial orientation is
normal to surface of plywood, because its veneers are made by concentric peeling (Varis 2018).
These results confirm flawless adhesion between basalt fibres reinforced PVAC coating and plywood.
Possibly this type of reinforcement could be used for other WBP too.
CONCLUSIONS
Ponal super 3 PVAC was the only adhesive with good bond to birch plywood when compared
to another PVAC and polymeric emulsion adhesive. These adhesives were filled with basalt fabric for
reinforcement purposes. Results proved that PVAC can be suitable for basalt fibres which have
problematic adhesion with many polymers.
It was also confirmed that more than one layer of basalt fabric can be bonded together and
that the amount of used Ponal super 3 does not have any significant effect on the surface soundness.
Failure of specimens always occurred completely in the wood. Therefore the combination of proper
PVAC adhesive and basalt fibres can have a permanent - yet cost attractive - reinforcing effect on
wood and WBP.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to acknowledge the funding agency: Internal Grant Agency (IGA) of the
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno under the Grant number
LDF_TP_2019015.
REFERENCES
Antonio P, Mittal KL (2011) Wood Adhesives. CRC Press, Abingdon.
Chen Z, Huang Y (2016) Mechanical and interfacial properties of bare basalt fiber. Journal of
Adhesion Science and Technology 30(20: 2175–2187. DOI: 10.1080/01694243.2016.1174510
EN 12765 (2002) Classification of thermosetting wood adhesives for non-structural applications.
European Committee for standardization, Brussels.
EN 204 (2002) Classification of thermoplastic wood adhesives for non-structural applications.
European Committee for standardization, Brussels.
EN 311 (2003) Wood-based panels. Surface soundness. Test method. European Committee for
standardization, Brussels.
Fiore V, Di Bella G, Valenza A. (2011) Glass-basalt/epoxy hybrid composites for marine applications.
Materials and Design 32(4): 2091–2099. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2010.11.043
Hu J (2004) Structure and Mechanics of Woven Fabrics. Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles,
Amsterdam.
Kim S (2009) Environment-friendly adhesives for surface bonding of wood-based flooring using natural
tannin to reduce formaldehyde and TVOC emission. Bioresource Technology 100(2):744–748.
DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.06.062
Ross RJ (2010) Wood handbook: wood as an engineering material. Forest product laboratory,
Madison. DOI: 10.2737/FPL-GTR-190
Varis R (2018) Wood-Based Panels industry. Suomen Sahateollisuusmiesten Yhdistys, Helsinki.
588
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A NEW SYSTEM FOR

GENERATING ECOLOGICAL THERMAL ENERGY IN BUILDINGS LOCATED IN
THE HILL AND MOUNTAIN AREAS
Virgil GRECU
Tel: +40 0729924092, E-mail: vgrecu@unitbv.ro
Abstract
The paper presents the studies and researches carried out and the obtained results regarding
the installing of a new system for generating ecological thermal energy and its introduction into an
integrated circuit of production and energy supply of a building located in the sub mountain area.
The research results can be applied in any hilly and mountaneous area, and favourable
conditions are found in those places with dense hydrographic networks where water can be captured
directly from springs or streams in a gravimetric system (without pumping it).
It is highlighted: the block diagram of generating ecological thermal energy; installations; the
integrated system of using it; represented by heat sources and cogeneration and heat supply
installations.
Key words: thermal ecological energy; thermal installations; integrated system.
INTRODUCTION
The researches presented in this paper is part of a wider program of studies aimed at
developing new solutions for generating electrical and thermal energy in the context of
recommendations offered by the sustainable development programs, promoted at national and
international level (Grecu 2015).
The first studies were materialized and highlighted in the article entitled “Research on the
creation of a system for the conversion of the water kinetic energy of hill and mountain rivers into
green energy using recycling materials" (Grecu 2017). Complementary studies are currently
developing an integrated system for cogenerating photovoltaic, wind and geothermal energy.
The achievements presented in the paper are part of this program for the development of an
integrated system, which being used, will lead to a total energy independence of the buildings located
on the hills and mountains (and not only), and to the valorisation of some recycled resources and
fuels of lower quality. In this context, the promotion of solid fuels resulting from the pre-industrialisation
of wood material from forestry exploitations as well as from forestry or gardening cuttings of orchards
and gorges cuttings, fences, etc. is being promoted to produce the current heating.
OBJECTIVE
1. Elaboration of the water supply scheme of the thermal system - Gravimetric version (V1) and with
well or fountain (V2).
2. Design and implementation of the system which generates thermal ecological energy.
3. Design and implementation of the integrated heat supply system of a building located in the sub-
mountain area.

The materials used for the installations are both traditional and commercial. The fuels used
are those that are not currently marketed for use in their primary form.
1. Elaboration of the water supply scheme in the gravimetric system from the spring or the
mountain streams (V1)
This water supply system aims at the use of water from dense hydrographic areas or springs (ex. the
northern slope of the Făgăraş Mountains) with possibilities of gravimetric captures. The
implementation of such a system whose principle scheme is presented in (Fig. 1) implies the existence
of a difference of level between the capture area and the building it serves so that the free play of the
water pressure in the system could ensure its function. In the case of this study it is about 10 m. The
589
capture area of the spring or stream water involves making and using a coarse protective device
(sieve) (meshes 5 - 10 mm) to prevent the various bodies from entering the supply pipe. This pipe is
made of PVC and it is necessary to be buried under the freezing depth of the area (about 1.0 – 1,1
meters).
Fig. 1.
Water supply in gravimetric system, from spring or mountain river
V1-water supply from its own fountain or deep well, with hydrophore or submersible pump –V2
1 - spring capture; 2 – decantation tank; 3 decantation-treatment-filtration tank 4- supply pipe
in gravimetric system; 5-overflow pipe; 6-exhaust pipe; 7-building ; 8 -land , 9- fountain;
10-deep well.
The system involves the construction or installation of two alluvial decantation tanks with
overflow pipes and exahust pipes for cleaning them.
The first tank performs a primary (coarse) decantation and the second one a fine decantation,
and it can be used to treat water when it is appropriate.
Water supply from fountain or deep well (V2)

It is a variant in which water is pumped into the system with a hydrophore or pump from its
own fountain or deep well (Fig.1). This option involves to dig a fountain or a deep well, in the vicinity or
even under the building it serves (example the variant).
In V2 variant the water pumping and recirculation systems are powered by electrical current
produced from ecological energy (Grecu 2017). Both versions can be used in parallel, (Fig.1). This
gives safety to exploitation, in the case of natural calamities or regional conflicts, etc.).
2. Design and implementation of the ecological thermal energy generation system (SGETE)
This system was designed to operate by capturing solar energy (direct solar radiation) on a
panel made of metal elements especially of aluminium (Al) or copper (Cu), both of them being very
good heat conductors (Fig. 2). A pipe of the same material is fastened on the back of each element
(metal plates).
Fig. 2.
Solar collectors system
1- solar collector; 2- connection pipe ; 3-solar collector-section A-A, a-connector, b-aluminium
pipes, c- aluminium radiant elements; 4- cold water supply pipe; 5- hot water exhaust pipe.
590
The plates with metal pipes are connected to a panel for capturing and generating ecological
thermal energy integrated in the system of generating total thermal energy of the building. In this case
the collector panel (pipes and metal elements) are made of aluminium and the PVC supply pipes. The
dimensions of a panel are (800X2000) mm, and the diameter of the metal and PVC pipes is 20mm.
The connections between the panels and the water supply and exhaust pipes are removable. The
capacity of a collector is about 28 litres (Fig. 3)
Fig. 3.
Solar collectors made of aluminium panels installed on a closed terrace with transparent
elements.
Functioning
The collector panels are supplied with cold water in a gravimetric system or with a pump (Fig.
4). They heat the water up to the temperature (25-80)°C depending on the area and the way they are
installed, the intensity of the solar radiation and the exposure time.
Fig. 4
Thermal system and cold water supply
1-fireplace; 2- multifunctional stove with solid fuel; 3-serpentine;
4 - thermic system for bathroom; 4.1 - boiler heating resistance with electric current; 4.2-
solid fuel heater; 4.3- chimney connection; 4.4-chimney; 5-stove serpentine –general supply
with cold water; 6-tap; 7-one way valve; 8-expansion vessel; 9 taps; 10-pump for recirculating
water; 11 - pressure gauge; 12- collectors for water recirculation; 13 cold water circuit for
bathroom; 14 cold water circuit for kitchen; 15-other cold water circuit.
591
Hot water is discharged directly to the installations of the bathroom, kitchen, or related
installations (outside) or can be recirculated through the boiler tank (Fig. 4) by means of a pump in
order to heat the water inside it. If the water is recirculated through the tank, the command to start the
pump is given by a temperature sensor installed on the final end collector if several collectors are
installed in series. The cycle is repeated as many times as the sensor records a predetermined
temperature on the surface of the exhaust pipe of the hot water. A complete cycle of water heating in
the collectors at about 50°C lasts 30 minutes, on a sunny day ( in July, two pm - in the sub-mountain
area).
The two collectors used in the experiment were installed on a terrace closed with transparent,
mono-block polycarbonate, with thickness of 4mm, related to the building which is the object of this
study. (Fig. 3).
3. Design and implementation of the integrated thermal system

This system consists in 3 subsystems (a; b; c).
a - generation of ecological thermal energy with solar collectors (Fig.3).
b - generation of thermal energy in a multifunctional stove and fireplace with solid fuels, installed in a
kitchen and dining room (Fig.4).
c - generation of thermal energy in a boiler fuelled with solid fuels or electric energy installed in the
bathroom (Fig.5).
The design of the systems took into consideration the following conditions:
- the served building may also be one that is seasonally exploited (with discontinuous activities),
- the ecological heating system operates predominantly during the hot season,
- multifunctional stove provides heating and domestic hot water for kitchen and bathroom during cold
days,
- the fireplace is mainly used in the cold season,
- the boiler installed in the bathroom is used for generating hot water in those situations when the
system is maximally exploited (repeated cycles in short time) and for the permanent storage of hot
water in its tank.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS

The cold water supply mode of the integrated system is presented in Fig. 4. Cold water is
introduced through the general supply installation (5) into the system gravimetrically, or with a
hydrophore. The cold water reaches directly the tank of the boiler (4), to the serpentine of the stove
(5), to the serpentine of the fireplace, to the solar collectors (depending on the heating variant), to the
solar collectors (13) and to the other consumers (bathroom -14, kitchen-15 etc.).
In the figure there are also represented: the fireplace (1), the stove (2) installed in a separate
multifunctional space; the boiler (4) with the water tank, the combustion furnace and the electrical
equipment (electrical resistance, temperature control block etc.) are installed in the bathroom.
The implementation of the integrated thermal system, the last objective of the studies and
researches carried out is highlighted by the principle scheme in (Fig. 5).
There are the connections between the three thermal energy cogeneration subsystems and
the hot water ( h.w.) recirculation mode.
V1 – h.w. produced in the fireplace and stove circulates to the tank and then directly to the users.
V2 – h.w. produced in the multifunctional stove, circulates to the tank of the boiler and then directly to
the consumers.
V3 - V4 – h.w produced in a boiler with electric current or solid fuel circulates directly to the
consumers.
V5 – h.w. produced in solar collectors (9), circulates directly to consumers.
V6 – h.w. it is recirculated with the pump (12) through the solar collectors (9) and introduced into the
tank of the boiler (4) from where it is redistributed to the consumers.
592
Fig. 5.
Thermal system and hot water supply
Variant V1 - thermal heating with fireplace - solid fuel; Variant V2 - heating with multifunctional
stove - solid fuel; Variant V3 - heating with electrical current; Variant V4 - heating through a
boiler furnace - solid fuel. Variant V5 – heating with solar collectors.
1-fireplace; 2-multifunctional stove; 3 hot water pipes; 4-boiler with electric resistance and
solid fuel furnace; 5-overpressure valve; 6-taps; 7 – exhaust pipe for overheating water; 8-
bathroom-kitchen hot water distribution; 9-hot water from solar collectors; 10- hot water
distribution to other consumers; 11 - general cold water supply; 12-pomp for recirculating cold-
hot water; 13 - temperature sensor on solar collectors; 14- solar collectors.
When the building is not permanently exploited (occasionally in the cold season), the heating
circuit will be modified by introducing an additional serpentine into the fireplace, and the water will be
replaced with an antifreeze substance with a freezing temperature below minus 30°C Domestic water
will be introduced into the thermal system when the system starts working.
The fireplace (1) and stove (2) are made of hand-made brick, being resistant to high
temperatures and reused from an old building. Their design is rustic, with elements of Romanian
traditional architecture, specific to the area (Fig. 6)
Fig. 6.
Fireplace and multifunctional stove.
593
The multifunctional stove and the fireplace were placed in a room of the building designed for
food preparation, dining and even relaxation; again a specific approach to the traditional custom in
which a space is designed to multiple functions in order to reduce the fuel and electricity consumption.
Serpentines (3) and (5) were made of stainless steel and the connecting pipes of copper. The
integrated system is equipped with single-way valves and overpressure control devices and exhaust
system for directing steams outdoors in case of overheating (Fig. 5; Fig. 7)
Fig. 7.
The boiler and thermal system equipment.
The amount of wood used is the result of cuttings of tree branches and stems of different
species, with different thicknesses, from the area where building is located.
According to the size of the heated surfaces of the building and the required amount of
domestic hot water, additional quantities of wood can be obtained from pre-industrial wood operations
in the local area, where large amounts of branches, pieces of stems are found everywhere and the
price is very low. This also implies a sanitation of the exploitation areas.
Obtained Parameters
The first experiments highlighted the functionality of the integrated system and its efficiency.
The capturers provided water with a temperature between (25-80°C) for about 7 months per
year.
The capturers heat up the water in the boiler tank (110 litres), in (2-3 hours), depending on the
daily solar radiation.
The multifunctional stove raises the temperature in the room with dimensions (5x4, 5x2,3) m,
where it is installed, from 10 degrees to 20 degrees, in about an hour (when the house was
uninhabited).
The stove simultaneously heats the domestic water in the boiler tank at about 50 degrees.
The stove is operating together with the fireplace and heats the room from 2 degrees to 20
degrees in about 2 hours.
The heat stored in the stove and the fireplace is stored for at least 24 hours; the temperature
drops from 24 degrees to 18 degrees, while the outside (outside) temperature drops from 18 degrees
to 6 degrees. The experiments are at the beginning, all this to be continue.
594
CONCLUSIONS
The installation of solar collectors in a closed terrace with transparent materials, amplifies,
through the greenhouse phenomenon, radiation and temperature at their surface, while maintaining
the stored heat. The solar collectors provide domestic hot water during sunny days in the warm
seasons.
Maintenance costs (periodical cleaning with water under pressure, painting at about 10 years)
are very low. The estimated reliability of the installed collectors in the protected area lasts at least 50
years.
Reusable materials, bricks, were used to build the stove and the fireplace. Putting them into
practice in a way that highlights their craftsmanship creates a special look and enriches the place
where they are located.
The use of fuels resulting from the silvicultural cuttings of the orchard trees and the clearing of
the surroundings where the building is located has eliminated the costs of shredding, evacuating,
transporting or destroying them. The burning of fuel in the stained-glass stove or the fireplace in a
multi-functional room (kitchen-dining room) is a real show appreciated both by owners and guests. In
this way, we can discover, or even create, a connection between the traditional and the modern
techniques, a way of living in communion with nature.
The integrated thermal system offers safe exploitation, ensures rapid heating of the rooms and
domestic water. It is reliable and easy to use.
A final conclusion; the achieved results correspond to the proposed objectives; the use of the
thermal , electrical, ecological energy sources, the reusable materials and the revaluation of the fuels
resulting from forestry processes provide 100% of the heat and domestic water for the experimental
building.
The studies will emphasize the other ecological systems of energy (photovoltaic, wind and
geothermal) in order to complete the energy resources needed for a building under the most
unfavourable conditions (when some of the installations may become inoperable).
REFERENCES
Grecu V (2015) Studies upon valorisation of nonconventional green energy generated from integrated
th
system in the historical context of Fagaras mountains. Proc. of the 10 International Conference
ICWSE ‘’Wood science and engineering in the third millennium’’, Brasov (Romania), pp. 778-784.
Grecu V (2017) Research upon creating a system for conversion the water kinetic energy of hill and
th
Mountain Rivers in green energy, using recycling materials. Proc. of the 10 International Conference
ICWSE ‘’Wood science and engineering in the third millennium’’, Brasov (Romania), pp. 778-784.
Manolescu N (1998) Aspects of Mechanisms and Machines theory, Diadactica and Pedagogica
Publishing House, Bucharest.
https://www.proligno.ro/ro/articles/2017/4/GRECU.pdf
https://www.bizoo.ro/firma/ecovolt/vanzare/1823297/hidrogeneratoare-curent-continuu-sau-
alternativhttps://ro.grundfos.com
595
596
POSTER
SECTION
UNDERUTILISED SPECIES RESOURCES IN ITALY FOR PARTICLEBOARDS

MANUFACTURE
Valentina LO GIUDICE
Scuola di ScienzeAgrarie, ForestaliAlimentari e Ambientali (SAFE), University of Basilicata
Vialedell’AteneoLucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
Tel: 0039 329 0699956, E-mail: valentina.logiudice@unibas.it
Luigi TODARO
Scuola di ScienzeAgrarie, ForestaliAlimentari e Ambientali (SAFE), University of Basilicata
Vialedell’AteneoLucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
Tel: 0039 0971 205676, 0039 347 8782534, E-mail: luigi.todaro@unibas.it
Octavia ZELENIUC
E-mail: zoctavia@unitbv.ro
Abstract
In Italy the total forest area is about 40% and it increased by 0.2% in the period 2005-2015.
The sustainable forest management and the continuing rise of the raw materials prices impose new
solutions for wood-based composites. In the Mediterranean area, in particular in Basilicata region,
natural oak (Quercus spp.) species forests and orchards cultivations (orange trees of Citrus sinensis
L.) are widespread and need to be managed and valorised. The forest management and the pruning
produce residues that are nowadays mainly used for energy purpose. However due to the presence of
extractives inside the oak wood, residues are considered difficult to be used at least for particleboards.
In this case appropriate pre-treatment (i.e. steaming) may improve the bonding performances.
Moreover, the new strategy related to formaldehyde emission imposes a synthetic adhesives
reduction.
In addition, residues from cultivations show problems by considering the low value of biomass
related to the cost of logging.
The expected outcomes of this work are various: realization of an eco-friendly and lower cost
particleboard made from oak and orange residues, obtaining the right synergy between bio-adhesive
and wood residues, optimization of the ratio between oak and orange particles in order to obtain good
mechanical and physical properties of boards. The support of this research will help to gain the best
advantages from the available local resources.
Key words: steaming; particleboard; orange residues; oak residues; bio-based wood adhesives.
INTRODUCTION
Particleboard was created to optimize the wood utilization. The board is made from a
combination of lignocellulosic waste materials, such as planer shavings, offcuts or sawdust and
mechanically produced wood chips. The chips are converted into particles and bonded together by
adding a synthetic adhesive and then pressing them into a large board shape under high pressures
and temperatures. It is then cooled and cut into various sizes and prepared for delivery. Wood species
employed for particleboards manufacturing are either softwoods as red fir or pine, or hardwoods as
beech, poplar and birch.
In recent years, have been several investigations into the potential advantages of using
annual plants as well as agricultural residues in the particleboards production. Research has been
carried out on hemp residues (Sam Brew and Smith 2017), rice husk (Ciannamea et al. 2010), almond
shell (Gürüet et al. 2006, Pirayesh and Khazaeian 2012), eggplant stalks (Guntekin and Karakus
2008), bamboo chips (Papadopoulos et al. 2004), sugar cane bagasse-bamboo (Lee et al. 2006),
Castor stalks (Athanasios et al. 2001) and on their performances as a raw materials for particleboards.
Three-layered composite materials were successfully produced from plum and apple tree branches,
waste biomass produced after orchard pruning (Kowaluk et al. 2019). Single-layer boards were made
using Giant reed culms (Arundo donax L.). After analyzing chemical and anatomical characteristics of
this perennial and herbaceous species, the purposes of this investigation was to evaluate the effects
of the different particle sizes on the physical and mechanical particleboards properties. According to
599
the results, giant reed could be considered as an alternative lignocellulosic raw material for either
high-quality or at least valid panels for general use as well as in furniture manufacturing (Ortuño et al.
2011). Panel industry is constantly looking for new raw materials with a low economic competition.
Consequently, it became necessary to consider not only agricultural residues, but also fast-growing
species such as poplar (Populus spp), alder (Alnus spp), willow (Salix spp), lime tree (Tilia spp), all
suitable for particleboards production. In a study, particleboards were produced with a mixture of
sunflower stalks (Helianthus annuus L.) and poplar wood (Populus alba L.) bonded with urea-
formaldehyde resin. Panels with highest percentage of poplar particles have shown an improvement in
physical and mechanical properties (Bektas et al. 2005). Alder (Alnus glutinosa subsp. Barbata) wood
was used for particleboard manufacturing. This study showed that particleboards produced from Alder
(Alnus glutinosa subsp. Barbata) has met the required levels of static bending, modulus of elasticity
and internal bond strength. Thus strong particleboard can be produced from this fast-growing raw
material (Nemli 2003). Hegazy and Aref (2010) made some research on another fast-growing trees
species, namely Acacia saligna, Conocarpus erectus and Meliaazedarach, and date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera) midribs, as alternative to the basic raw materials, for particleboard manufacturing. They
evaluated the mechanical and dimensional performances of boards, concluding that all species can be
3
used in panel industry if they are pressed at a density level of 750kg/m or higher.
Natural oak spp forest is widespread in the Mediterranean area and its wastes are nowadays
used especially for energy purpose. Therefore, few studies have focused on the possibility to use oak
or orange wood as raw material for particleboards and Medium Density Fiberboards (MDF).
Five Mediterranean evergreen hardwood species (Quercus coccifera, Quercus ilex, Arbutus
unedo, Phillyrealatifolia, Erica arborea) were investigated showing that all properties were affected by
wood species and board density. All boards had higher internal bond than the value required by EN
3
319/1993 and acceptable bending strength at density of 700Kg/m was reached in boards made with
Quercus ilex and Arbutus unedo. The processing of this material into particleboard furnish did not
meet serious difficulties (Barboutis and Philippou 2007). Oak wood represents the most resistant and
durable wood material suitable for furniture, windows, indoor and outdoor applications and a not
inconsiderable part of it is destined to the parquet industry.
Agkül et al. (2010) have analyzed corn stalks (Zea mays indurata Sturt.) in the form of fibres
mixed with oak wood fibers (Quercus robur L.) as raw materials in the boards production. He observed
that the presence of corn stalks fiber decreased both hygroscopic and mechanical properties. Physical
and mechanical properties decreased with addition of corn stalks fiber.
Despite the fact that large information in literature is available related to the underutilized wood
species and lignocellulosic wastes suitable for panel manufacture, however, there is little knowledge
coming from orange wood. This is occasionally used in mosaics, tool handles, and marquetry.
Reixach (2015) used orange tree pruning fibres as reinforcement in polypropylene-based
composite materials with the need to investigate the thermal properties of the resultant composite
material and, in particular, the effects on the thermal properties of the polymeric matrix. He observed
that the addition of the reinforcement increased the product crystallinity.
Another recent research aimed to evaluate the possibility of using orange wood from
agricultural conversions and orchard cultivations renewals to make high-value products. Drying
behaviour, physical and mechanical properties of orange wood were assessed. According to the
results, orange wood dries easly, but rather slowly. Regarding the physical and mechanical properties,
it was found to be an excellent material for use as wood flooring (Berti et al. 2017).
In relation to the above, in general oak wood is the most durable material with an excellent
dimensional stability, with the exception of a particular wood species, the Turkey oak (Quercus cerris
L.). The great potential of its wood is jointed with a need of previous treatments (Cetera et al. 2016).
The less dimensional stability, elevate internal tensions, low durability, strong swelling and
shrinkage for the the Turkey oak (Giordano 1994) as well as the presence of a large amount of
extractives inside its wood, could be avoided through an adequate steaming process (Cetera et al.
2016).
The majority of panels are manufactured using urea-formaldehyde (UF) especially for its low
cost. The advantage of UF is linked to the high production experience with this resin system
(Thoemen 2010).
According to recent sources (Kutnar and Burnard 2014, Grunwald 2017), it was estimated that
the adhesive use in the European particleboard industry was split between UF (90–92%), MUF (6–
7%) and PMDI (1–2%) adhesives.
The big issue with this adhesives the formaldehyde emission, which is considered a
dangerous substance leading to serious problems to human health (Salem et al. 2011). The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 2004) conducted an evaluation of formaldehyde
600
and concluded that there is sufficient evidence that formaldehyde causes nasopharyngeal cancer in
humans (i.e., in the region of the throat behind the nose). Free formaldehyde, including bonded
formaldehyde, can be released under different analytical conditions (Salem et al. 2011).
The legislation and the attention in more environmentally friendly products, have lead to
considerable interest in the use of bio-adhesives. There has been an interest mainly in soy-based
adhesives (Vnučec et al. 2017), in lignin- and in tannin-based adhesives (Nakos et al. 2016, Hemmilä
et al. 2017, Papadopoulou 2017). The interest of the industry is strong in North America and China,
but much lower in Europe (Mantanis 2017).
Among bio-based adhesives, modified starch (MS) could be considered a sustainable
alternative for producing particleboards. MS is bio based adhesive with perspective in the wood
composite industry due to its environmentally friendly approach (Chotikhun and Hiziroglu 2017).
OBJECTIVE
The main goal of the research is to replace wood species normally used as raw material for
particleboard, with wastes from underutilised species such as Citrus sinensis L. from orchards
cultivations and Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.), both wide spread in Basilicata region. Physical and
mechanical properties of boards will be investigatedby replacing the classic urea-formaldehyde resin
(UF) with modified starch bio-adhesive (MS). The influence of bio-adhesive on the formaldehyde
emission will be also evaluated. Additionally, it will be analysed the changes in the oak properties by
steaming process employed to improve the adhesive bonding performances between particles.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The raw material consists of oak and orange tree wastes coming from Meridiana Legnami
company and Bernalda (MT), respectively. The utilized agricultural area in Basilicata region is
equivalent to 833.847 hectares, of those 50.281 hectares are destined to tree cultivations. About 12%
of those tree cultivations is represented by orange plantations (ISTAT 2010). These cultivations
require one pruning per year producing a significant amount of lignocellulosic material. The area
covered by oak forests is about 51.8% on a total forest area of 355.409 hectares. The waste coming
3
from oak forests could be estimated about 119 118m .
The wood wastes will be milled into particles. The chemical composition of particles will be
analysed with Gas-Chromatograph and Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS), this giving the possibility to
evaluate the bonding behaviour which is related to the quality of the final panels.
Due to the presence of extractives, chips coming from oak wastes are considered difficult to
be used directly for particleboards manufacturing. As a result, the oak particles will be subjected to
steaming in an autoclave in saturated-steam conditions in order to remove the extractives that can
affect the bonding performances.
Two adhesives types will be used: UF applied at amount of 10% and MS combined with UF at
amount of 15% and 2%, respectively. Emulsion of paraffin will be added to improve the moisture
resistance of boards.
PANEL MANUFACTURE
The raw material will be clean from dirty and impurities, then chipped and oven dried at 70 ±
3°C for 5 days to achieve the target moisture content between 3-7%.
Consequently, particleboards will be made following a typical sequence of technological
operations: particles sieving, mixing with adhesives, mat forming, hot-pressing and conditioning.
3
There will be made two types of particleboards with a target density of 600kg/m . The boards
have the dimensions of: 350mm × 350mm × 12mm (length × width × thickness).
601
Steamed and unsteamed

oak particles
Fig. 1.
Experimental particleboards.
Basically the pressing schedule is designed based on the data from literature, with a
0 2 2
temperature greater than 110 C, pressure 2.5N/mm and 3.5N/mm respectively and 10 minutes the
pressing time.
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
Research will include the following tests:
- physical and mechanical properties according to appropriate EN standards: moisture
content (MC) (EN 322:1993), density (EN 323:1993), water absorption (WA) and thickness
swelling (TS) (EN 317:1993), modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR) (EN
310:1993) and internal bond strength (IB) (EN 319:1993).
- evaluation of formaldehyde emission and content of samples.
Three different methods will be applied for evaluation: flask method and gas analysis
according to EN ISO 12460-3:2016 and EN 717-3:1996 respectively. The formaldehyde content is
assessed by perforator method according to EN ISO 12460-5:2016.
A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis to evaluate the morphological details of the
boards and a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis will be also carried out.
EXPECTED RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The use of the autoclave in saturated-steam conditions in the extractives removing, represent
a possible approach to improve the quality of oak particles and their bond properties with adhesive.
Physical and mechanical properties of the boards, as well as the formaldehyde release will be
influenced by the type of adhesive and raw material used depending on the adhesive dosage and
pressing schedule.
Recovery and enhancement of underutilised wood species will be a promising result, in
context of efficient and sustainable use of forest resources and low-cost products as well as to think
about the possibility of recycling of the panels after use. The research will offer an opportunity to open
a niche to bio-based adhesive for particleboards producers. The collaboration with the Italian company
will provide a valid support to obtain new wood products “Made in Basilicata”.
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STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN CHEMICALLY MODIFIED WOOD EVIDENCED BY

FTIR SPECTROSCOPY AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS
Carmen-Alice TEACĂ
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry
Advanced Research Centre for Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers
41A Grigore Ghica-Voda Alley, Iasi, Romania
Tel: 0040 232 217454, Fax: 0040 232 211299, E-mail: cateaca@icmpp.ro
Liliana ROŞU
E-mail: lrosu@icmpp.ro
Teodora RUSU
E-mail: rusu_teodora@yahoo.com
Dan ROŞU
E-mail: drosu@icmpp.ro
Cristian-Dragoş VARGANICI
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry,
E-mail: varganici.cristian@icmpp.ro
Elena MARLICĂ
Physics of Polymers and Polymer Materials Department
E-mail: emarlica@icmpp.ro
Abstract
The chemical modification of lignocellulosic substrate (such as wood) can be directed to

improve the dimensional stability properties, hardness properties and/or durability properties against
weathering. The chemical modification of Abies alba L. softwood samples 80mm x 10mm x 2mm
(length x width x thickness) was achieved using acid anhydrides – namely maleic (coded as MA), and
succinic (coded as SA) - 60, 80 and 120% (w/v) in the presence of xylene as solvent (reaction time 1h
and 90°C). Changes in cellulose crystalline structure of wood fibers during acid anhydride treatment
were evidenced by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and wide-angle X-ray diffraction
(WAXD) methods. Maleic anhydride exhibited lower reactivity towards wood substrate than succinic
anhydride presumably due to their different chemical structure.
Key words: wood; acid anhydride; crystalline structure; FTIR spectroscopy; X-ray diffraction.
INTRODUCTION
Bio-based fibers have hydroxyl groups in the structure of their polymer constituents, namely
lignin and cellulose, thus being susceptible for efficient modification treatments (Adekunle 2015; Kalia
et al. 2009). Reaction of hydroxyl groups improves their interfacial interactions with non-polar polymer
matrix in composite formulations through modifying the surface energy and polarity of wood surfaces.
Wood modification strategies include both physical, such as electric discharges - corona, cold plasma
605
treatments, thermal treatment (Pelaez-Samaniego et al. 2013) and mercerization (Borysiak 2012), and
chemical methods, e.g. pre-treatment of wood fibers surface, grafting, use of coupling agents and
functionalized polyolefin-coupling agents (Lu et al. 2000).
Chemical methods usually applied to wood substrates include isocyanate treatment (Maldas
and Kokta 1991), acrylation (Li and Matuana 2003), benzoylation (Farsi 2010; Xie et al. 2009), acid
anhydride treatment - acetylation (Rowell 2012; Hill 2006), and succinylation (Bodîrlău and Teacă
2009; Doczekalska et al. 2007), and silane treatment (Ichazo et al. 2001). Reaction of wood subjected
to acid anhydride treatment (e.g. acetic anhydride, maleic anhydride, succinic anhydride) can be
exemplified as presented in Fig. 1. Through such chemical treatment, wood properties can be
modified (e.g. hydrophilicity) by changing the structure of wood polymer constituents. Cyclic
anhydrides may react partially with wood when results a single ester function and a free carboxylic
group.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1
A schematic representation of reactions between wood and acid anhydrides –
acetic (a), maleic (b), and succinic (c) - with formation of corresponding wood monoester.
Acetylation of wood results in the substitution of hydrophilic hydroxyl groups with hydrophobic
acetyl groups (Rowell 2012). Thus, such a chemical reaction also results in an increase in dimensions
of the reacted wood substrates, because of swelling of the wood cell wall. In most cases, chemically
modified wood has a lower capacity for water absorption, with lower equilibrium moisture content at a
specified atmospheric relative humidity, comparatively with non-modified wood. By replacing some of
the hydroxyl groups on the wood polymers with acid anhydride, the hygroscopic properties of the
wood are reduced with positive effects on the resulted properties when combined with other polymer
matrices in composite formulations.
Chemical modification confers wood dimensional stability by deposition of the chemical in the
wood cell wall (bulking effect), and/or by cross-linking the wood cell wall polymers (Chang and Chang
606
2006; Hill et al. 2000). Acetylation of wood was shown to improve the weathering and coating
performance (Evans et al. 2000). When cyclic anhydrides are used for wood chemical treatment, e.g.
succinic anhydride, or maleic anhydride, the carboxylic acid formed through esterification reaction is
attached to the wood, as presented in Fig. 1. Nevertheless, an extra cross-linking process can
stabilize wood materials even better, besides improving the hydrophobic properties. Thus, wood may
exhibit a good water resistance alongside an improved dimensional stability and decay resistance
(Rowell 2006).
Changes in crystallinity of cellulose component from wood samples after chemical treatment
can be determined through FTIR spectroscopy analysis, as well as by wide-angle X-ray diffraction
(WAXD) measurements, when a linear relationship between the results of these two techniques can
be established (Marson and El Seoud 1999).
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present research was to evaluate the structural crystalline changes
in lignocellulosic substrate after chemical treatment of a softwood species with acid anhydrides using
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with ATR accessory (FTIR-ATR) and wide-angle X-ray
diffraction analysis (WAXD) methods. This evaluation was performed by comparison with initial wood
samples, without chemical modification treatment.

Materials
Softwood (Abies alba L.) samples having dimensions 80mm x 10mm x 2mm (length x width x
thickness) were obtained from a local source softwood log. Resulted wood samples were washed with
distilled water for 1h under constant stirring at 80°C, and dried in oven at 100°C until constant weight
was achieved. Xylene, as analytical grade reagent, was supplied by Chemical Company, Iasi,
being used as received. Maleic anhydride (MA) and succinic anhydride (SA) with purity > 98%
were supplied by Fluka, Germany.
Chemical Modification of Wood Samples

Prior to the chemical modification, the softwood sawdust samples were extracted with xylene
for 8h. The extracted wood samples were further dried 24h in an oven under vacuum, at 70°C to
obtain a constant weight. For chemical treatment, the dried softwood samples were dipped in acid
anhydride (MA, and SA), dissolved previously in xylene and heated for one hour at 100°C, under
continuous stirring. The concentration level of acid anhydride in the xylene solution was designed to
be 60%, 80%, and 120% (w/w), respectively. After chemical treatment, the resulted wood samples
(coded as: W-MA60, W-MA80, W-MA120, and W-SA60, W-SA80, W-SA120, respectively) were
removed from the xylene solutions and cooled to room temperature. A new extraction with xylene for
8h was performed in order to remove the non-reacted acid anhydride and finally the wood samples
were vacuum oven-dried for 24h at 70°C to reach a constant weight. A total of 40 samples were
designated for this study (10 samples for each concentration value and 10 non-treated samples -W).
FTIR Spectroscopy Investigation

FTIR-ATR spectra were recorded using a spectrophotometer Vertex 70 model (Bruker-
-1 -1
Germany) in the range of 4000-400 cm with 4 cm resolution and scan rate 32. The
TM
spectrophotometer is equipped with MIRacle ATR accessory designed for single or multi-reflection
attenuated total reflectance (ATR). The ATR crystal plate is made from diamond (1.8 mm diameter),
and solid materials can be put into intimate physical contact with the sampling area through high-
pressure clamping, yielding high-quality, reproducible spectra.
WAXD Analysis
X-ray diffraction patterns were recorded in reflection mode in the angular range 3–30° (2θ) at
-1
a speed of 2°min , and at ambient temperature, by means of Bruker AD8 Advance X-ray
diffractometer equipment with Cu Kα radiation operating at 40 kV and 35 mA.
607

FTIR Spectroscopy Investigation
The crystallinity index of cellulose is a parameter commonly used to quantify the amount of
crystalline cellulose present in cellulosic materials and has been widely used to interpret its structural
changes after physical-chemical and biological treatments. FTIR spectroscopy is the simplest method
for crystallinity index determination with relative values, because the resulted spectra always contain
contributions from both crystalline and amorphous regions. In this study, FTIR spectroscopy was used
for the determination of changes in crystallinity of cellulose component in softwood samples after
chemical treatment with acid anhydrides in comparison with those non-treated (O'Connor et al 1958;
Nelson and O'Connor 1964; Hatakeyama et al 1976). Spectra recorded for wood samples under study
are represented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
FTIR spectra recorded for wood samples: without treatment (W), and
after chemical treatment (W-SA 60-120, and W-MA 60-120).
Some indexes for evidence of structural changes occured in wood samples after chemical
treatment were calculated from the FTIR spectra as presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Some structural indexes calculated from FTIR spectra for wood samples under study
Wood TCI LOI CI MI HI
sample (total (lateral order (carbonyl (moisture (hydroxyl
crystallinity index) index) index) index) index)
A1370/A2900 A1420/A900 A1716/A2900 A1630/A2900 A3400/A2916
W 1.4429 0.7556 0.7705 0.8892 1.2055
W-SA60 2.3588 0.7783 4.2512 1.3010 1.0171
W-SA80 1.9117 0.7907 3.1048 1.3487 0.8791
W-SA120 2.0552 0.7801 3.4825 1.3856 0.8544
W-MA60 1.3932 0.8202 1.2970 1.0566 1.3859
W-MA80 1.7799 0.9311 1.8275 1.2582 1.4015
W-MA120 1.6840 0.6430 1.6642 1.2734 1.4412
The total crystallinity index (TCI) is defined as A1370/A2900 absorbance ratio, where the band at
-1 -1
1370 cm is attributed to C-H deformation (bending) and the band at 2900 cm is attributed to C-H
-1
and CH2 stretching. The lateral order index (LOI), defined as A1420/A900, where the band at 1420 cm is
608
-1
attributed to the CH2 scissoring or symmetric bend in cellulose and the band at 900 cm is attributed
to the C1 group (Hurtubise and Krassig 1960; Nelson and O’Connor 1964). Additionally, it has been
shown that the LOI is a better indicator of changes in crystallinity than the TCI for lignocellulose
samples (Nelson and O’Connor 1964).
-1
The absorbance values at 1420 and 900 cm are sensitive to the amount of crystalline part
versus amorphous part in the wood material, broadening of these bands reflecting a more disordered
structure (Nelson and O'Connor 1964). Crystallinity index increased through chemical modification of
wood, indicating an ordered structure for treated wood samples comparative with the non-treated
ones. The results also evidence that carbonyl index (CI) values significantly increased after chemical
treatment comparatively with the hydroxyl index (HI - attributed to the OH groups stretching) by using
acid anhydrides for wood modification, mainly for succinic anhydride comparatively with maleic one.
WAXD analysis
Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) method is most frequently used to measure the
crystallinity of cellulose component in cellulosic materials. Due to its simplicity, the Segal method
(Segal et al 1962) has been used widely to measure the relative crystalline (or amorphous) fraction in
cellulosic materials. In Fig. 3 are represented the curves from WAXD data recorded for wood samples
under study.
Fig. 3.
WAXD curves recorded for wood samples: without treatment (W), and
after chemical treatment (W-SA 60-120, and W-MA 60-120).
Crystallinity index (CI) for cellulose component was calculated from the WAXD data for wood
samples under study as presented in Table 2, using two methods in accordance with literature
references. The first one method, based on the ratio of the height of the (200) peak (I200), representing
both crystalline and amorphous parts, and the height of the minimum (Iam) between the (200) and
609
(110) peaks, which is for amorphous part only, is the simplest and most frequently used technique
(Park et al. 2010).
Table 2
Crystallinity index (CI) calculated from WAXD data

recorded for wood samples under study
Wood sample CI CI
(I200-Iam) / I200 (%)
(Park et al 2010) (Segal et al 1962)
W 0.6062 39.0
W-SA60 0.7391 35.4
W-SA80 0.7564 38.1
W-SA120 0.7400 27.4
W-MA60 0.7272 48.7
W-MA80 0.7606 52.3
W-MA120 0.7165 49.0
As one can observe from Table 2, there are noticed some inherent differences between the
methods used for CI determination. Nevertheless, these differences are also related to the type of acid
anhydride used and its concentration level, CI being increased in wood samples after their chemical
treatment.
CONCLUSIONS
The chemical treatment with acid anhydrides induced structural changes in wood samples.
The spectral changes evidenced through FTIR spectroscopy and wide-angle X-ray diffraction WAXD
methods confirmed the chemical modification of wood by reaction with acid anhydrides. A stronger
-1
carbonyl band at 1716 cm is observed for chemically modified wood with increasing acid anhydride
concentration. This enhanced carbonyl absorption peak (C=O ester), as well as the C–H absorption
-1 -1
band at 1370 cm (–/C–/CH3), and –C–/O–/ stretching band at ~1260 cm confirmed the formation of
ester bonds. Changes in crystallinity of cellulose component in softwood samples after chemical
treatment with acid anhydrides in comparison with those non-treated were evaluated by calculating
some indexes, including crystallinity index. The effect of succinic anhydride on the wood structural
changes is more significant when comparing with the maleic anhydride treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is supported by the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and
Innovation CCCDI-UEFISCDI, project number ERANET-ERA IB-16-040- ProWood, within PNCDI III.
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611
LIGNIN-BASED ADHESIVE FOR PARTICLEBOARD MANUFACTURING AND

FORMALDEHYDE EMISSION
Gabriela Mariana BALEA (PAUL)

Str. Universității nr.1, 500068 Brașov, Romania
E-mail: gabriela.balea@unitbv.ro
Camelia COȘEREANU
Str. Universității nr. 1, 500068 Brașov, Romania
E-mail: cboieriu@unitbv.ro
Kambiz POURTAHMASI
P.O.Box 31585-1356, Karaj, Iran
Email: pourtahmasi@ut.ac.ir
Abstract
The paper presents the results of the experimental work regarding the use of treated lignin as
adhesives for particleboard manufacturing. Alkalated lignin in NaOH mixed with phenol and
formaldehyde (37%) was used as adhesive for the particleboard manufacturing in the laboratory
conditions. Magnesium lignosulfonate, 95% lignin content, was used for the experiment.
Formaldehyde emission of the investigated particleboards was measured applying desiccator method
according to ISO 12460-4:2008 standard. The values show that the formaldehyde emission level is
lower than 0.3 mg/l, complying with regulations both for E0 and F**** limits.
Key words: lignin; particleboard; formaldehyde; desiccator method; wood; rape straw.
INTRODUCTION
Currently, the worldwide demand of particleboard with ultralow formaldehyde emission has
been growing, due to the fact that formaldehyde is considered to be a carcinogenic product.
Research on binderless boards has been conducted, in order to remove the synthetic resins
from the particleboard composition (Sun et al. 2014, Wang et al. 2017). Binderless boards are defined
as wood-based composites consisting of particles of lignocellulosic material bonded together under
heat and pressure, by activating the chemical components of lignocellulosics, which has to be rich in
hemicelluloses (Sun et al. 2014). In order to eliminate the drawback of formaldehyde emission,
adhesives from natural resources, incuding lignin, have been investigated (Shen et al. 2007, Malutan
et al. 2008, Kuokkanen et al. 2011, Hemmilä et al. 2013, Theng et al. 2017).
Lignin is a by-product of paper industry and it results during the pulping of lignocellulosic
materials such as wood or agro-waste products. It is usually burned to generate energy, or to recover
chemicals used in the pulping process. Just a small share of the produced lignin is used as binding
agent (Theng et al. 2017). Several studies show that a small part of phenol can be replaced by lignin
in phenolic resins (Hemmilä et al. 2013, Ghorbani et al. 2016, Tachon et al. 2016).
Unmodified lignin has a low reactivity and several modifications were investigated in the
literature (Hemmilä et al. 2013). One of them is the hydroxymethylation of the lignin in alkaline
medium, the other one is oxidizing with hydrogen peroxide under acidic conditions or in the alkaline
pH range. Melting characteristics of the alkaline treated lignin were obtained at a treatment
temperature of 160˚C (Yoon et al. 2015). Particleboard manufactured with 10% adhesive rate
3
(modified lignin adhesives), and a density of 620kg/m , hot pressed at 210˚C and 20s/mm press factor
proved to have low mechanical performance.
The treatment of lignocellulosic particles is also investigated as method to increase the
surface roughness of the natural fibres and to improve their adhesion, creating better mechanical
properties of the lignocellulosic composite materials. Alkaline treatment (Jayamani et al. 2014) of
wood fibres, boiling in water or soaking in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution of rape straw particles
(Částková et al. 2018) are treatments used in some investigations in order to improve the strength of
the glued joints. Another advantage of boiling the wood chips/fibres in water is that the extractives
612
dissolving in hot water help in reducing formaldehyde emission, and increased content of
hemicellulose has been proved to have the same effect (Sari et al. 2012).
Previous research (Balea and Cosereanu 2019) investigated three lignin-based adhesives, as
follows: Receipt A, containing alkalated lignin in NaOH mixed with phenol and formaldehyde (37%) is
added in a stepwise manner; Receipt B is the modification of lignin through the hydroxylmethylation
reaction performed with formaldehyde 37% solution, in alkaline medium, using NaOH solution at 3%
(w/w) concentration; in Receipt C the lignin is oxidised with 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the
final H2O2 content is 5.7% of the resin weight. NaOH is used to increase the pH to 9.Receips A and C
recorded the best results as adhesive for particleboard manufacturing, with an adhesive rate of 10%.
The present paper investigates the utilization of modified lignin according to Receipt C in the
production of three layer particleboard. The experiment was conducted in the laboratory conditions,
using wood (70% spruce wood and 30% beech wood) chips and rape straws particles in the ratios of
rape-to-wood 0:100, 10:90, 30:70, 50:50, 70:30. Formaldehyde emission was determined by
desiccator method, according to ISO 12460-4 and compared to the current formaldehyde emission
limits for wood-based-panels. The lowest amount of formaldehyde emission, according to current
regulations, has to be ≤ 0.5 mg/l for E0 particleboard (PB) in Australia & New Zeeland and ≤ 0.3mg/l in
Japan (emission close to emission of solid untreated wood) (Salem and Böhm 2013). The experiment
and tests were performed in the frame of University of Tehran, Faculty of Natural Resources, Iran.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present paper is to apply the desiccator method according to ISO
12460-4 for determining the formaldehyde concentration of three layer particleboard made from wood
chips and rape straws particles in the ratios of rape-to-wood 0:100, 10:90, 30:70, 50:50, 70:30 and
glued with modified alkalated lignin mixed with phenol and formaldehyde. The results of formaldehyde
concentration are afterwards compared to the limits imposed by regulations for E0 particleboard.

Rape straws from Iran with chemical content of 13% lignin, 49% cellulose and 27%
hemicellulose were used to manufacture particleboard in the laboratory conditions. Rape straws were
chopped using a hammer milling equipment from the endowment of Faculty of Natural Resources
laboratory. Coarse particles (65%) were used for the core and fine wood chips (35%) were used for
the faces of three layer particleboard, as seen in Table 1. Wood coarse sizes were between 5mm and
20mm in length, 2mm and 6mm in width, and 0.5mm to 2mm in thickness. Wood fine particles had
1mm to 5mm in length, 0.5mm to 2mm in width and 0.5mm to 1mm in thickness. Rape straw particles,
only coarse ones, had sizes between 10mm and 13.5mm for the length, 0.8mm and 2.4mm for the
width, 0.7mm and 1.3mm for the thickness. Coarse particles were collected in sieves with meshes of
2 2 2 2 2
3mm x 3mm and 4mm x 4mm . Fine particles were collected in sieves with meshes of 1mm x
2 2 2
1mm and 0.5mm x 0.5mm (Fig. 1). The moisture content of both wood chips and rape particles was
lowered to 6%, by keeping them in an oven at 105˚C. The moisture content was determined using the
Ohaus MB 45 device. The humidity-sensing device Ohaus MB 45 uses an infrared halogen technology
that begins to dry the sample within seconds. The unique gold reflective housing serves to create a
more even distribution of heat, improving the analyzer's accuracy. The display shows humidity, weight,
humidity determination time, temperature, drying curve (Fig. 2 a).
Table 1
Lignocellulosics used for manufacturing the investigated particleboards
Coarse and medium wood particles Rape straw particles for the core, Fine
for the core, in g in g wood
Board particles
No for faces
code 100 90
70% 50% 30% 0% 10% 30% 50% 70% 35% ,
% %
in g
1 TA0 x - - - - - - - - - x
2 TA1 - x - - - - x - - - x
3 TA2 - - x - - - - x - - x
4 TA3 - - - x - - - - x - x
5 TA4 - - - - x - - - - x x
613
4 mm2 x 4 mm2
Fig. 1.
Selection of coarse and fine particles in sieves with various meshes mesh sizes, starting with
2 2 2 2
4mm x 4mm (left) and ending with 0.5mm x 0,5mm (right).
The lignin-based adhesive (Fig. 2 b) was prepared using Lignex Mg F provided by Sappi
Biotech GmbH (Düsseldorf, Germany). Delivered as dust, this lignin had the following content: dry
substance 92.7%, Magnesium 5.7%, insoluble substances 0.3%, and pHvalue of 5.4%. Lignin was
modified, as follows: water and NaOH were first mixed and started to be heated, whilst the lignin was
dispersed slowly into the mixture of alkali and water with agitation and simultaneously the temperature
was increased up to 60°C. When all of the lignin had been dispersed, the dispersion was heated at a
temperature of about 75°C for 1,5 hours. As a result, the lignin became alkalated and it was used to
produce the adhesive composition: 38 g phenol (90%) was mixed with 105 g of alkalated lignin, after
which 79 g of formaldehyde (37%) was added in a stepwise manner. NaOH was used as catalyst. The
temperature was kept under 75°C. Thereafter the cooking was continued at 85-90°C until the viscosity
of the formed composition was about 17s measured with a STAS cup of 6mm diameter (Fig. 2 c).
a. b. C.
Fig. 2.
a. Ohaus MB 45 device for measuring the moisture content of the wood/ rape straw particles; b.
lignin-based adhesive; c. determination of viscosity using STAS cup of 6 mm diameter.
The phases of preparing the lignin-based adhesive are presented in Fig. 3. The vacuum oven
Wisd (WITEG Labortechnik GmbH, Wertheim, Germany) was used for cooking the mixture at 75°C
and at 85-90°C.
a. b. c.
Fig. 3.
Phases of preparing the lignin-based adhesive: a. reactive substances and mixture of alkali
and water; b. Vacuum oven Wisd used for cooking the mixture.
614
The five types of particleboards (Table 1) were manufactured in the laboratory conditions. The
share rate of lignin-based adhesive was 10% of the weight of the lignocellulosic particles, both for the
3
core and faces. The target density of the particleboards was 640kg/m , similar to the density of the 16-
mm particleboard manufactured in industrial conditions.
In the first stage, the adhesive was sprayed on the particles by a spray gun and a machine
provided with a rotary drum was used to mix the particles and adhesive (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4.
Rotary drum (1) used to mix the particles and adhesive and spray gun (2).
The panels with sizes of 450mm x 450mm were formed in wooden frames with height of
60mm. They were afterwards pressed in a Burkle (Robert Bürkle GmbH, Freudenstadt, Germany) hot
2 2
press at a temperature of 180ºC, pressure of 2.5N/mm – 3.5N/mm for 16min (1 min/mm).The initial
thickness of the mat was in the range 50mm - 60mm (depending on the rape straw share part) and the
final thickness was of 16mm. After pressing, the specimens for testing the formaldehyde emission
were cut from each board. The process of manufacturing the particleboard is shown in the images
from Fig. 5.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 5.
Process of manufacturing the particleboard; a. wood frame; b. forming the mat ; c. mat
prepared to be pressed; d. mat introduced in the hot press; e.-f. hot pressing process.
615
The test pieces, of thickness, 16mm, were cut to length (150 ± 1,0) mm and of width (50 ± 1,0)
mm. Two duplicates were used for each panel for testing the formaldehyde emission. The
measurement was conducted according to ISO 12460-4:2008. Test pieces were conditioned for 7
days in an atmosphere with a mean relative humidity of (65 ± 5) % and a temperature of (20 ± 2) °C.
The duration of the test was 24h.
The formaldehyde concentration, G , in milligrams per litre, in the glass crystallizing dish in the
desiccator due to the test pieces (ISO 12460-4:2008) is calculated using Equation (1):
G = f × (αd −αb ) × 1800/ A (1)
where:
αb is the absorbance of the background formaldehyde solution;
αd is the absorbance of the solution from the desiccator containing the test pieces;
A is the combined area, in square centimetres, of the test pieces;
f is the slope, in milligrams per litre, of the formaldehyde calibration curve.
The current formaldehyde emission limit values (Salem and Böhm 2013) for testing with
desiccator method are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Current regulations for formaldehyde emission limit values,measured by desiccator method
(Salem and Böhm 2013)
Country Board class Limit value
E0-PB, MDF ≤ 0.5 mg/l
E1-PB ≤ 1.5 mg/l
Australia & New Zeeland
E1-MDF ≤ 1.0 mg/l
E2-PB, MDF ≤ 4.5 mg/l
F** ≤ 1.5 mg/l
Japan F***/“E0” ≤ 0.5 mg/l
F****/“SE0” ≤ 0.3 mg/l
F** class in Japan is more or less eqivalent to European E1 class.
F*** and F**** are of much lower emission than the E1.
F**** emission is close to the emission of solid untreated wood.

The formaldehyde calibration curve is shown in Fig. 6a and the final results are presented in
Fig. 6b.
Absorption amount, in mg/l
Concentration, in %
a b
Fig. 6.
The formaldehyde calibration curve (a) and values of formaldehyde concentration G, measured
by desiccator method according to ISO 12460-4:2008.
As resulted from the measurements, three layer particleboard manufactured with various rates
of wood: rape straw particles and using lignin-based adhesive 10%, recorded formaldehyde
616
concentration values lower than E0-PB limits (≤ 0.5mg/l), and also lower than Japanese standard limit
for F**** (≤ 0.3mg/l).
As found in the literature (Sundman et al. 2005), the value of solid wood formaldehyde
concentration (G) measured with desiccator method is smaller than 0.1mg/l (0.00….). This indicates
that the results obtained for the investigated particleboards are close to those of solid wood.
The obtained results haven’t shown an influence of the rape straw participation to the
formaldehyde emission, as other researchers proved (Sari et al. 2012). The explanation is related to
the hemicellulose content of the rape straw from Iran, which is similar to that of wood (25%-35 (Hayes
2010).
Further research will investigates the formaldehyde emission of particleboards manufactured
with lignin-based adhesives using gas analysis method, in order to compare the results with other
results from the literature. Mechanical properties of these types of particleboards are also the object of
other further investigations.
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Different Modifications of Rape Straw (Brassica napus L.), BioResources 13(1):104-114. DOI:
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Ghorbani M, Liebner F, Liebner van Herwijnen HWG, Pfungen L, Krahofer M, Budjav E, Konnerth J
(2016) Lignin Phenol Formaldehyde Resoles: The Impact of Lignin Type on Adhesive Properties,
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Hemmilä V, Trischler J, Sandberg D (2013) Lignin - an adhesive raw material of the future or waste of
research energy?. In: Brischke, Christian & Meyer, Linda (ed.), Northern European Network for Wood
Science and Engineering (WSE): Proceedings of the 9th meeting, September 11-12, 2013, Hannover,
Germany, pp. 98-103. Hannover: Leibniz Universität.
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Dessicator method.
Jayamani E, Hamdan S, Rahman MR, Heng SK, Bin Bakri MK (2014) Processing and
Characterization of Epoxy/Luffa Composites: Investigation on Chemical Treatment of Fibers on
Mechanical and Acoustical Properties, BioResources 9(3):5542-5556. DOI: 10.15376/biores.9.3.5542-
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– a Pilot-scale Study of Binding Agent Usage, BioResources 6(4):4331-4355. DOI:
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Composition of Wood and Resin Type on Properties of Particleboard, Lignocellulose 1(3):174-184.
Shen Q, Zhang T, Zhu MF (2007) Comparison of the surface properties of lignin and sulfonated lignins
by FTIR spectroscopy and wicking technique, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects.
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Changes of Raw Materials and Manufactured Binderless Boards during Hot Pressing: Lignin Isolation
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Tachon N, Benjelloun-Mlayah B, Delmas M (2016) Organosolv Wheat Straw Lignin as a Phenol

Substitute for Green Phenolic Resins, BioResources 11(3):5797-5815. DOI:
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618
PHOTOSTABILITY EVALUATION OF SOFTWOOD

MODIFIED WITH EPOXIDIZED OILS
Liliana ROSU
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: lrosu@icmpp.ro
Fănică MUSTAŢĂ
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: fmustata@icmpp.ro
Dan ROSU
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: drosu@icmpp.ro
Teodora RUSU
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: teia@icmpp.ro
Carmen-Alice TEACĂ
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: cateaca@icmpp.ro
Cristian-Dragos VARGANICI
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: varganici.cristian@icmpp.ro
Elena MARLICĂ
Tel: 0040 232217454, Fax: 0040 211299, E-mail: emarlica@icmpp.ro
Abstract
The photostability of chemically modified softwood by succinic anhydride and epoxidized

soybean oil during exposure to UV radiation with λ > 280 nm was monitored. The wood and coated
wood photo–oxidation was studied in terms of colour modifications. Chromatic coordinates values
increased during UV exposure for the coated wood. Surface reddening and yellowing occurred by
chromofores generated during lignin photodegradation and cellulose photo–oxidation.
Key words: wood; coating; photodegradation; colour analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is the most abundant biomaterial applied in a huge variety of applications (Patachia et
al. 2012). Wood is widely applied as an industrial raw material for construction production, however it
is deteriorated on continued exposure to sunlight or outdoor conditions. In recent years, the growth of
the wood products industry has been accompanied by a significant expansion in outdoor applications
of these materials. Therefore, to a large extent, the working life span of exterior wood panels is
619
dictated by the ability of the material to resist degradation from heat, humidity, chemicals and UV light.
The durability of these material is dictated by numerous factors, including coatings and additives.
Climatic resistance for wooden sheets has been typically obtained by thermosetting resins and
thermoplastic coatings in such products. Coating formulations consist of various components enabling
the technological process and are mandatory to achieve the expected protective and decorative
properties and durability (De la Caba et al. 2005).
Wood-based materials are vulnerable to harmful physical and chemical effects of the
environment (Mahmoud et al. 2001). The relevant processes are classified as aging and are initiated
by temperature, mechanical forces, chemical catalysis and solar radiation triggered processes
(Pospisil and Nespurek 2000). Various physical and mechanical properties are affected by weathering,
such as loss of gloss, yellowing, colour change, adhesion of layers, peeling, chalking, etc. Correlation
of changes in selected properties under accelerated tests serves for predicting the service durability.
The surface durability of any material can be defined as its resistance to undesirable changes caused
by the natural environment to which it is exposed during its service life. The main constituents of the
environment which cause the weathering or degradation are sunlight, in particular UV radiation,
temperature, oxygen, water and pollutants. Among the above factors, photodegradation, caused by
UV radiation, is the most damaging, although the synergistic contribution from the others plays a
significant part (Johnson and McIntyre 1996). Wood contains a fibrous structure of cellulose,
hemicellulose and a three-dimensional network of lignin, as well as other components in small
quantities. Wood is a material capable of absorbing sunlight, initiating photochemical reactions. Free
radicals are involved as active intermediates for degradative chain reactions, which cause the change
of colour in wood when exposed to light. Lignin has been found to be responsible for the absorption of
light and the formation of free radicals, which subsequently lead to the formation of quinones that
contribute to the discoloration reaction (Obataya et al. 1998).
Recent advances have shown that one of the most efficient wood protective coating methods
against UV light and humidity is the esterification with fatty acids, different anhydrides and acid
chlorides.
OBJECTIVE
The objective is the colour modification study during UV exposure of wood surface modified
with succinic anhydride and epoxidized soybean oil in accelerated conditions with λ > 280 nm.

The wood samples, cut as discs with 7 mm diameter and 0.5 mm thickness, were pretreated
o
with succinic anhydride in xilen solution at 90 C in the first stage. After drying, the samples which
resulted from the previous step, were immersed in epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) containing
o
triethylamine (TEA), as a catalyst for epoxy ring opening, and were heated 7 hours at 100 C.
Subsequently the samples were subjected to extraction procedure with dimethylformamide in a
Soxhlet apparatus for 24 hours to remove unreacted chemicals, rinsed with distilled water and further
o
dried in a vacuum oven at 105 C for 24 hours. Triethylamine and dimethylformamide were purchased
from Sigma-Aldrich as analytical grade purity reagents.
UV exposure was undertaken in air using a rotating hexagonal device as sample carrier,
having the light source on the device central axis and with a 100 W lamp OSRAM HQE-40 Hg
(Germany) (240 – 570 nm). A quartz/borosilicate filter of 30µm thickness having a maximum
transparency at 365 nm was used to eliminate higher energy radiations (λ ≤ 280 nm). The average
-2 -2
sample surface irradiance value was 95 W m and the average hourly exposure dose was 350 kJ m ,
both measured with a PMA 2100 radiometer having a PMA 2110 type UVA detector (Solar Light Co.).
Surface colour modifications were monitored according to DIN 6174 (Farbmetrische
Bestimmung von Farbabständen bei Körperfarben nach der CIELAB–Formel, 1979), with a
* * *
PocketSpec device having a 6 mm sensor head (Color QA, SUA) and in the CIEL a b colour system,
* * * *
in which L is lightness factor and a , b colour parameters. L parameter varies from 0 (absolute black)
* * * *
to 100 (full white). The a parameter ranges from +a (red) to –a (green). The b parameter ranges
* *
from +b (yellow) to –b (blue). Colour modifications (∆E) during irradiation were determined with
equation (1), where indices 1 and 2 are the values measured before and after irradiation (Muller et al.
2003).
620
(1)

Wood surface modification was undertaken in two steps. Firstly, wood was reacted with
succinic anhydride, yielding monoester structures containing carboxyl end groups. Secondly, the
adition of ESO to the wood monoester occured. The succes of the coating process was demonstrated
by FTIR spectroscopy.
Identification of signals in FTIR spectrum

Identification of signals in FTIR spectrum of softwood was made according to literature data
(Pandey and Pitman 2005, Moore and Owen 2001, Mitsui and Tsuchikawa 2005). It can be observed
-1
a significant decrease in intesity and a broadening of OH vibration band from 3423cm compared with
the FTIR spectrum of softwood sample. Also, a broad and intense signal appeared in the range 1800-
-1 -1
1600cm with a peak at 1736cm , in the region characteristic to stretching vibration of carbonyl
-1
groups. This signal correlated with the three signals from 1210, 1155 and 1053cm are indications of
wood esterifications with succinic anhydride. The second derivative applied on the signal between
-1
1800 and 1700cm has identified the presence of three types of carbonyl groups with peaks at 1707,
-1
1739 and 1781cm .
-1
The signal from 1707cm is specific to the new carbonyls from COOH groups, while the
-1
signals in the range 1739cm characterize the aliphatic ester structures resulted during cellulose and
-1
hemicellulose reactions with succinic anhydride. The last signal located at 1781cm was assigned to
aromatic esters formation between succinic anhydride and phenolic structural units from lignin
(Williams 2005).
1739
2922
1155
1053
2853
Relative absorbance
3400 1238
1725 (3)
1155
1053
1210
(2)
3376
3859
2889
(1)
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber [cm-1]
Fig. 1.
FTIR spectra of wood sample (1), wood treated with succinic anhydride (2) and
wood treated with succinic anhydride and ESO (3).
Colour changes
Colour differences (∆E) exhibited values higher than 10 units for non–coated wood samples
and 3 units for the wood samples coated with succinic monoester, while for the ESO coated wood they
were slightly above 2 units. The human eye perceives colour changes only if overall colour differences
exceed 2. It may be said that succinic anhydride and ESO offered superior protection of wood sufaces
-2
compared to non–coated wood up to an irradiation dose value of 700 kJ m . After irradiation dose
value was exceeded, the curve ∆E – irradiation time (dose) gradually flattened.
The succinic anhydride followed by ESO treatment significantly reduced total ∆E changes
4 -2
even at higher doses of irradiation. It was found that after 200 hours of UV exposure (7·10 kJ m
irradiation dose), ∆E values decreased from 16.15 (non–coated samples) to 7.81 (samples coated
with succinic anhydride) and to 6.65 (ESO treatment). The wood samples exhibited a darkening
tendency during UV exposure. The sample coated with succinic anhydride showed a slight tendency
621
of colour fading up to 50 hours. After this time samples darkened, however much lesser than
unprotected wood. Samples coated with succinic anhydride and ESO exhibited no darkening
*
tendency. Moreover, the increasing tendency of the lightness factor L indicated enhanced wood
surface protection against darkening. Since only the ∆L > 3 values are discernable to the human eye,
it could be noticed that both wood samples coated only with succinic anhydride (∆L = –0.915) and
ESO (∆L = 3.013) were better protected against UV irradiation than non–coated samples (∆L = –4.13)
up to 200 hours.
* *
Chromatic coordinates a and b values increased during irradiation, hence sample reddening
and yellowing occured. Photodegradation resulted in surface chromophores accumulation during UV
exposure. The quinoid entities formed during lignin photodegradation generated red chromofores and
the newly formed carbonyl groups during cellulose photo–oxidation generated yellow chromophores
(Rosu et al. 2010). The most significant modifications of chromatic coordinates during UV exposure
were registered for the non–coated wood after 200 hours of exposure (7·10 kJ m ) (∆a = 11.372; ∆b
4 -2 * *
= 10.408).
Table 1
Variation of chromatic coefficients a*, b* and ΔL
Irradiation Wood Wood treated succinic Wood treated Wood treated succinic
time [h] monoester with ESO monoester and ESO
a* b* ΔL a* b* ΔL a* b* ΔL a* b* ΔL
0 4.461 19.210 0 5.498 21.806 0 7.822 13.642 0 3.691 4.522 0
40 7.465 22.493 -0.92 7.161 25.511 0.861 8.229 14.346 0.286 5.132 4.526 0.778
80 11.133 24.050 -1.80 8.603 26.316 0.601 8.207 15.883 1.511 4.162 7.049 1.392
120 12.272 24.259 -2.28 8.803 28.863 0.007 10.639 17.903 2.029 3.566 7.069 1.421
160 13.202 25.756 -3.07 10.216 31.373 0.008 11.414 17.476 2.156 3.529 7.280 1.541
200 15.833 29.618 -4.13 10.227 30.913 -0.91 11.100 18.539 3.013 3.362 5.426 1.631
The wood succinic monoester and ESO modified wood succinic monoester showed lower
chromatic variation of colour parameters after 200 hours of UV exposure. Thus, it was concluded that
the ESO chemically linked to the wood surface by succinic anhydride enhanced surface UV protection,
especially in terms of colour preservation.
CONCLUSIONS
The wood chemical modifications significantly reduced the total colour changes. Colour
changes increased during UV irradiaton. The succinic anhydride and ESO coatings protected the
-2
wood sufaces up to 700 kJ m UV irradiation dose. The succinic anhydride coating led to a slight
colour fading in the first 50 hours, followed by surface darkening, however no darker than non–coated
wood. Chromatic coordinates values exhibited an increasing tendency during UV exposure, due to
surface reddening and yellowing. Red chromofores were generated by quinoid moieties from lignin
photodegradation. Yellow chromophores were generated by carbonyl groups formed during cellulose
photo–oxidation. The coating materials protected the wood from photo-oxidation by a screening effect,
without protecting the lignin component from photo-decomposition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research
and Innovation, CCCDI-UEFISCDI project number ERANET-ERA IB 2 – ProWood, within PNCDI III.
REFERENCES
De la Caba K, Guerrero P, del Rio M, Mondragon I (2007) Weathering behaviour of wood–faced
materials. Construction and Building Materials 21:1288–1294.
Johnson B, McIntyre R (1996) Analysis of test methods for UV durability predictions of polymer
coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings 27(1–4):95–106.
622
Mahmoud AA, Eissa AMF, Omar MS, El–Sawy AA, Shaaban AF (2001) Improvements of white pine
wood properties by impregnation with unsaturated polyesters in admixture with styrene. Journal
Applied Polymer Science 82(6):1410–1416.
Mitsui K, Tsuchikawa S (2005) Low atmospheric temperature dependence on photodegradation of
wood, Journal of Photochemical Photobiology B. Biology 81:84-88.
Moore AK, Owen NL (2001) Infrared spectroscopic studies of solid wood, Applied Spectroscopy
Reviews 36(1):65-86.
Muller U, Ratzsch M, Schwanninger M, Steiner M, Zobl H (2003) Yellowing and IR changes of spruce
wood as a result of UV–irradiation. Journal of Photochemical Photobiology B. Biology 69:97–105.
Obataya E, Norimoto M, Gril J (1998) The effects of adsorbed water on dynamic mechanical
properties of wood. Polymer 39(14):3059–3064.
Patachia S, Croitoru C, Friederich C (2012) Effect of UV exposure on the surface chemistry of wood
veneers treated with ionic liquids. Applied Surface Science 258:6723–6729.
Pandey KK, Pitman AJ (2003) FTIR studies of the changes in wood chemistry following decay by
brown-rot and white-rot fungi. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 52(3):151-160.
Pospisil J, Nespurek S (2000). Photostabilization of coatings. Mechanisms and performance. Progress
in Polymer Science 25(9):1261–1335.
Rosu D, Teaca CA, Bodirlau R, Rosu L (2010) FTIR and color change of the modified wood as a result
of artificial light irradiation. Journal of Photochemical Photobiology B. Biology 99:144–149.
Williams RS (2005) Weathering of wood. In: Rowell RM (Ed.), Handbook of Wood Chemistry and
Wood Composites. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, 139-185.
623
624
COLOUR CHANGES OF HINOKI CYPRESS VENEER UNDER HEAT TREATMENT
Emilia-Adela SALCA
E-mail: emilia.salca@unitbv.ro
Hikaru KOBORI
Shizuoka University, Faculty of Agriculture
836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8529, Japan
E-mail: kobori.hikaru@shizuoka.ac.jp
Shigehiko SUZUKI
E-mail: suzuki.shigehiko@shizuoka.ac.jp
Sahriyanti SAAD
Hasanuddin University, Faculty of Forestry
Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan KM.10, 90245, Makassar, Indonesia
E-mail: ahriyanti_saad@unhas.ac.id
Yoichi KOJIMA
E-mail: kojima.yoichi@shizuoka.ac.jp
Abstract
Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) is a representative tree species native to Central

Japan used since ancient times for many purposes as a high-grade material. Valuable research
studies have been made on aged hinoki wood to elucidate and simulate the mechanism of wood aging
by heat treatment. But there is no information regarding the colour behaviour of hinoki cypress
veneers exposed to heat treatment. This is the reason why the present study aims to evaluate the
colour changes of hinoki veneers when exposed to a temperature of 190°C for four different time
spans gradually increased. As expected, the heat treatment applied to hinoki cypress veneers affected
the veneer colour. It appeared that 40 minutes exposure to heat can produce enough colour change to
get a darker colour of hinoki. Results of the study can be briefly applied in industry to obtain a high-
value product or in various restoration works where thin wood is required.
Key words: colour changes; heat treatment; hinoki; veneer.
INTRODUCTION
Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) is a representative tree species native to Central
Japan. It is considered one of the most elegant types of wood in Japan used since ancient times for
palaces, temples and shrines (MAFF 2017). The best example is Horyuji temple in Nara, from the
latter half of the seventh century, the oldest wooden structure in the world.
Along with its high durability and workability, Hinoki wood presents such cleanliness and
pleasant appearance and it is used for many purposes, from buildings to furniture, flooring, walls,
bathtubs, Buddhist wooden statues, table tennis blades, sake cups, just to name a few (MAFF 2017).
Valuable research studies have been made on aged hinoki wood to elucidate and simulate the
mechanism of wood aging (Yokoyama et al. 2006; Yokoyama et al. 2009; Matsuo et al. 2010; Matsuo
et al. 2011; Yokoyama 2016). To analyze the properties of wood from the cultural heritage and to
evaluate the quality of aged wood non-destructive methods are required. Colour measurement is a
proper method for such an investigation that gives important information to the restorators and
curators of old wooden buildings, art objects and furniture.
A direct relationship between the colour properties of wood and its aging was found: the
lightness decreases while the hue is shifted to red (Kohara 1958). The same change in colour of wood
625
is induced by the thermal treatment as well (Bekhta and Niemz 2003; Gonzales-Pena and Hale 2009a,
b; Matsuo et al. 2014).
Such an approach on the kinetics of colour change of hinoki wood under aging and dry heat
treatment was performed by Matsuo et al. (2011). The results showed that the naturally aged wood
and the heat treated wood changed their colour to dark with increasing aging and heating time.
Heat treatment is usually applied to wood to obtain enhanced properties towards a higher
functionalization of the final product and it is also a simple and efficient method to obtain different
levels of accelerated aging for wooden samples (Yokoyama et al. 2006).
When compared to solid wood, veneers need reduced exposure to heat treatment to get a
darker colour (Denes and Lang 2013; Feher et al. 2014). Based on such an attractive veneer
appearance, some finishing steps in furniture manufacturing may be optimized (Salca et al. 2016).
There is no information regarding the colour behaviour of hinoki cypress veneer under heat
treatment. Therefore such study can complete the database of colour measurements for heat treated
veneers used for restoration works, furniture manufacturing and various decorations.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the colour changes that appeared
during the heat treatment applied to hinoki cypress veneers.

In this study defect free veneer samples with 0.5mm thickness made of Hinoki cypress wood
(Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.) were used. The veneer sheets were cut into squared shape samples of
about 70 mm x 70mm. Five groups of four specimens each were prepared. One group was kept as a
reference. A regular oven was used to apply the heating process at the temperature of 190°C for 5,
10, 20 and 40 minutes exposure time. Before the heat treatment, all samples were conditioned at
20°C and 60%RH. The moisture content of veneer samples was 7.5%.
A Chroma Meter Konika Minolta CR-400 was employed to perform the colour measurements (Fig. 1).
The colour was evaluated based on the CIELab System and using the ISO 7724-2 standard.
Fig. 1.
Chroma Meter Konika Minolta CR 400.

The 3D scatterplot of the colour coordinates recorded for hinoki veneers before and after heat
treatment and the partial and total colour changes are presented in Fig. 2 and Fig.3, respectively. The
lightness (L*) systematically and gradually decreased with increasing of exposure time while the
redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) presented little variations. These results are in accordance with the
specialty literature (Matsuo et al. 2010; Matsuo et al. 2011). Similarities with other wood species under
heat treatment were found (Bekhta and Niemz 2003, Gonzales-Pena and Hale 2009a; Denes and
Lang 2013; Matsuo et al. 2014; Salca et al. 2016).
626
3D Scatterplot of L* vs a* vs b*
status
control
t1_5 min HT
t2_10 min HT
t3_20 min HT
t4_40 min HT
77,5
L* 7 5 ,0
7 2 ,5 6
5
70,0 a*
4
24,0
2 5 ,5 3
27,0
b* 2 8 ,5
Fig. 2.
3D Scatterplot of the colour coordinates of hinoki veneers before and after heat treatment.
Chart of ΔL*; Δa *; Δb*; ΔE*

t1_5 min HT t2_10 min HT t3_20 min HT t4_40 min HT
ΔL* Δa *
0,0
1,2
-1,5 0,9
-3,0 0,6
-4,5 0,3
Data
-6,0 0,0
Δb* ΔE*
3
6,0
2 4,5
3,0
1
1,5
0 0,0
t1_5 min HT t2_10 min HT t3_20 min HT t4_40 min HT
status
Fig. 3.
Partial and total colour changes of hinoki veneers after heat treatment.
627
CONCLUSIONS
The heat treatment applied to hinoki cypress veneers affected the veneer colour. The 40 min
exposure time at the temperature of 190°C was found ideal to get a darker colour. Results of this
study would complete the database of colour coordinates of heat treated veneers used for various
restoration works, decorations and furniture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was part of a project developed under the Asia Bridge Program at Shizuoka
University in Japan. The authors acknowledge the support received from Shizuoka University to
perform this study.
REFERENCES
Bekhta P, Niemz P (2003) Effect of High Temperature on the Change in Color, Dimensional Stability
and Mechanical Properties of Spruce Wood. Holzforschung 57(5):539–546.
Denes L, Lang E (2013) Photodegradation of heat treated hardwood veneers. Journal of
Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 118:9-15.
Feher S, Koman S, Borcsok Z, Taschner R (2014) Modification of hardwood veneers by heat
treatment for enhanced colours. BioResources 9(2):3456-3465.
González-Peña M, Hale M (2009a) Colour in thermally modified wood of beech, Norway spruce and
Scots pine. Part 1: Colour evolution and colour changes. Holzforschung 63(4):385–393.
Gonzáles-Peña M, Hale M (2009b) Colour in thermally modified wood of beech, Norway spruce and
Scots pine. Part 2: Property predictions from colour changes. Holzforschung 63(4):394-401.
ISO 7724-2 (1984) Paints and Varnishes. Colorimetry. Part 2: Colour Measurement
Kohara J (1958) Study on the old timber. Research Report Chiba University 9(15):1-55.
Matsuo M, Yokoyama M, Umemura K, Gril J, Yano K, Kawai S (2010) Color changes in wood during
heating: Kinetic analysis by applying a time-temperature superposition method. Applied Physics. A
99(1):1-6.
Matsuo M, Yokoyama M, Umemura K, Sugiyama J, Kawai S et al. (2011) Aging of wood - Analysis of
color changing during natural aging and heat treatment. Holzforschung 65(3):361-368.
Matsuo M, Umemura K, Kawai S (2014) Kinetic analysis of color changes in keyaki (Zelkova serrata)
and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) wood during heat treatment. Journal of Wood Science 60:12-20.
Salca E A, Kobori H, Inahaki T, Kojima Y, Suzuki S (2016) Effect of heat treatment on colour changes
of black alder and beech veneers. Journal of Wood Science 62(4):297-304.
Yokoyama M, Yano K, Fujiwara Y, Fujii Y, KAWAI S (2006) Cutting Resistance of the Accelerated
Aging Treated Hinoki Wood. Journal of the Society of Materials Science 55(8):772–776.
Yokoyama M, Gril J, Matsuo M, Yano H, Sugiyama J, Clair B et al. (2009) Mechanical characteristics
of aged Hinoki wood from Japanese historical buildings. Comptes Rendus Physique 10(7):601–611.
Yokoyama M (2016) Aging Effect on Hygroscopisity of Wood By Using Aged Hinoki Wood from
Japanese Historical Buildings. Journal of the Society of Materials Science 65(3):207–211.
*** 2017. Japan wood brand. Japan Wood-Products Export Association, Forestry Agency MAFF 28p.
628
IMPORTANCE OF THE YIELD ON LOG SAWING PROCESS IN TURKEY
Hızır Volkan GÖRGÜN

Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Department
Öner ÜNSAL
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Department
E-mail: onsal@istanbul.edu.tr
Abstract
The solid wood industry is depending on forestry and sawmill operations due to log as raw
material. Log sawing process is an engineering problem with processing heterogeneous and valuable
raw material. The importance can vary from country to country.
This paper presents the importance of the yield on the log sawing process in Turkey. In this
context affecting factors such as forest resource, forestry operations, log properties and
standardization, raw material and product rivalry, economic conditions etc. were investigated in
general overview and specific to Turkey.
Consequently, increasing yield even 1% is getting more important in Turkey. Because foreign
dependency by the reason of several reasons is the most important subject with general difficulties.
Therefore, sawmills should pay more attention to the sawing process and equipment to survive. Some
suggestions were presented about it.
Key words: lumber; log; sawing; Turkey; yield.
INTRODUCTION
The tree is one of the most valuable material in nature. It has a positive contribution to nature
in forest ecosystem with CO2 absorption, soil conservation etc. Not only the tree but also wood is
useful for nature. According to replacement products such as plastic, concrete etc. solid wood has
positive features. Insulation for heat and sound is good, energy consumption when producing and
processing is low, it has a positive additive to nature with absorbing carbon in use, recycling isn’t
harmful to nature and it can be used from nature with decaying. Consequently, numerous positive
properties of solid wood are obtained using by humanity.
Solid wood manufacturing is a transformation process from log to lumber in sawmills.
Fundamentally, due to the raw material cylindrical shape of a log and rectangular shape lumber output
difference and getting sawdust while processing, (quantity) yield is always under %100. Log sawing
yield generally changes between 50% - 80%. This difference seems much but there are some
affecting factors. Especially in some regions having problems with raw material as Turkey, even if the
1% difference is important.
OBJECTIVE
In this paper, the importance of the yield on the log sawing process in Turkey will be explained
with economic and technical reasons.
REASONS OF IMPORTANCE
Forest Resource
Forest area in Turkey is 21.678.135 Ha and ratio to the country area is 28% (OGM 2017a)
(Fig. 1). However, sawlogs can be obtained from only approximately 1/3 of this area due to quality
requirements.
629
Fig. 1.
Forest existence map of turkey (OGM 2017b).
As seen in Fig. 1., forest area is generally near the sea and mountainous terrain. This
geographical situation makes difficult forestry operations such as harvesting, stocking and especially
transport. On the other hand, bureaucracy can affect forestry operations as field conditions in Turkey.
As a result of that, the duration between tree harvesting and log sawing can increase 6 months to 2
years, while it should be 15 days for ideal conditions. It can cause defects as decaying, checks etc.
and finally quality loss. Previously General Directorate of Forestry (OGM) was previously fell, cut and
buck trees according to regulations and standards. These were different from sawmill requirements.
Therefore OGM began selling standing trees (OGM 2007). However, fully harmonization hasn’t been
provided. Sawmills have still lack of knowledge about forestry operations.
Even if OGM or sawmills do forestry operations, employees have education, awareness
problems about dimensioning and protecting applications. Accordingly, although the first-grade log can
become lower grade till sawing.
Competition
Solid wood competes with other materials such as concrete, steel, plastic etc. as a product. It
also competes with wood-based products on the raw material. Although wood-based products need
lower quality logs, this sector has a vast amount of demand. According to the Ministry of Development
nd th
reports (2014), Turkey is 2 for manufacturing fiberboard while 4 for manufacturing particleboard in
Europe. As a result, they sometimes use “sawlogs” for production, getting lower diameters may
obstruct tree development and evaluating as a sawlog after a while.
Properties of wood-based panels are better than solid wood at some places. The width can be
adjusted while the length is “endless”, properties can change with changing process, more
homogenous material structure etc. (Fig. 2.).
a. b.
Fig. 2.
Storage areas in a wood-based panel factory (Photos: Hızır Volkan Görgün):
a – Log “streets”; b – Wood chip “mountains”.
630
Economic Factors
Because of supply problems and rivalry with wood-based product sector on raw material,
getting higher quality log is becoming difficult. In the 1990s, dissolution of Eastern Bloc created an
opportunity buying cheaper logs from these countries. In addition to these, customers more demand
lumbers of tree species from other regions (especially tropical) due to different properties such as
aesthetic, durability, strength etc. Therefore the lumber sector is becoming foreign-dependent and it’s
a risky situation. International trade has many risks.
Countries log exporting in the past can lay an embargo. A short time ago Ukraine realized it
two years ago and only giving permission lumber export (TUID 2015). The embargos can be
depended on the relationship between two countries or other country policies. Some developing
countries can prefer it for selling/renting terrain, taking taxes, increasing employment etc. After that,
paying sawmill investment, tax, employment fees etc. are becoming more profitable for these
countries and consequently, Turkish entrepreneurs started to invest there.
The currency may be evaluated that can be the most important factor for foreign-dependent
nd
industries. Because the prices directly related to currency. Price of the commonly used 2 grade of
3 th
domestic Pine lumber (Pinus spp.) is approximately 250$/m (at 25 April 2017), while one of the
3
tropical region species prices of Teak (Tectona grandis) lumber is 10.000$/m in average. Even the
trade realized without a problem, currency can change immediately. The government carries out a
policy of floating rate of exchange in Turkey and it contains the risks. As seen in Fig. 3. and Table 1.,
US Dollar – Turkish Lira (USD-TRY) currency can change in short periods.
Fig. 3.
USD – TRY currency change (Investing.com 2019).
Table 1
USD – TRY currency change ratios
Changes
Currency
Symbol Date According According to
(USD/TRY)
to ”d” previous symbol
a 10.06.19 5,7775 %68,7 - %11,2
b 01.08.18 6,5051 %89,9 %33,1
c 02.07.18 4,8892 %42,3 %42,3
d 01.08.17 3,4252 - -
631
As seen in Table 1, app. %90 increment in a year, app. %33 increment in a month realized in
USD/TRY currency. The changes are more related to political situations in Turkey. In August 2018,
disagreement about pastor effected to the economy. According to Lowen (BBC 2018) sanctions, trade
tariffs and another factor reflected Turkish Lira. In another example, U.S.A. started tariff application
between 3% - 24% to lumbers imported Canada (NTV 2017), although there is a North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the U.S.A., Canada and Mexico. These policy changes do not
affect only sawmills (BDN MAINE 2017), it may reflect furniture manufacturers, home builders etc.
which are directly related to lumber (HW 2017). As seen in Fig. 4., the decision directly affected to
lumber prices.
* The price of 1,000 board feet of spruce-pine-fir lumber from western Canada
Fig. 4.
The cost*, in USD, of lumber from western Canada (NY Times 2018).
As indicated samples, suddenly currency changes caused an increment of log prices, sawmills
could not increase lumber prices, although currency increases because of rivalry with wood-based
industry. As a result of that, some sawmills importing logs and also sawing machines went bankrupt
due to the economic effect of log price to cost of lumber production which is summarized in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5.
Factors affecting the cost of lumber production (Sandvik 1999).
632
Production Technique
Although, as seen in Fig. 5., technology (11%) and employee (15%) effect is the similar cost of
lumber production actually, employees mainly effect the sawing operation, although a sawmill can
have best quality logs, the newest machines etc. Sawing is an unrepeatable transforming operation
therefore especially sawing operators bear a tremendous responsibility. Even the simplest stacking
operation has some rules. Sticks should have a same thickness to avoid unnecessary volume loss
and efficient air movement in kiln drying. Sticks should be on a line to avoid distortions due to the
weight of lumbers and decreasing bending strength based on moisture content in both kiln drying and
natural seasoning (Fig. 6.).
a. b.
Fig. 6.
Bended lumbers due to stacking mistakes (Photos: Hızır Volkan Görgün):
a – Misaligned sticks; b – Free ends.
In the sawing process, it should be considered that log is a natural and heterogeneous
material. It has many differences in microstructure and between tree species. Annual ring, ray and
heartwood – sapwood ratio widths, branches etc. effect physical, mechanical and aesthetic properties,
therefore lumbers taken from the same log, not even the same. Operators should consider these
3
properties and customer requirements. The decisions can reach 200 times (for 500 m sawing
capacity) in a shift. Factors such as education, attention, economic and ecologic awareness etc.
become important. Decision support systems can be used worldwide, but these systems need
automation and technology investment which are not affordable for sawmills having problems
economic and log supply as Turkey (Fig. 7.).
a. b.
Fig. 7.
Computer-aided decision support systems:
a – 2D secondary breakdown optimization (EWD 2017); b – 3D Log sawing optimization
program (Halco 2006).
633
CONCLUSIONS
The log is a valuable material for being an important member of the ecologic cycle of nature
and the economic cycle of sawmills. Sawmills in countries having problems for supplying logs with
sufficient quality and quantity should pay more attention to it. Therefore, some suggestions for
sawmills were put forward:
- Sawmills should make an effort to get the maximum yield from each log and to reach their
maximum capacity. Preferring thinner kerf (e.g. using a horizontal bandsaw, thin-cutting frame saws
etc.), more important maintenance of sawing equipment can help in this direction.
- Foreign dependency has a great risk especially due to economic reasons. Financial situation
(decreasing product demand with market stagnation, increased debt ratio etc.) can immediately
change and correspondingly sawmills should invest and decide to flexible productions for complying
with immediate changes. But the investments should be stepwise in sawmills having economic and log
supply problems.
- If the foreign dependency is an imperative situation, sawmills should increase the export
share of sales. A situation of expenses with foreign currency although incomes with domestic currency
is not sustainable.
- Qualified employee (technician or engineer) looks as if more expense due to higher fees in
family-owned companies, it would be profitable in the mid or long term.
REFERENCES
BBC (2018) “Andrew Brunson: Turkey releases US pastor after two years”, BBC News,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45841276
BDN MAINE (2017) Many Maine sawmill owners are not cheering Trump’s lumber tariff, Bangor Daily
News, http://bangordailynews.com/2017/04/29/the-point/why-many-maine-sawmill-owners-are-not-
cheering-trumps-lumber-tariff
EWD (2017) Hasslacher - Block Line, EWD - The SawLine Company,
http://www.ewd.de/en/technology-products/bandsaw-technology/band-resaw-systems
HALCO Software Systems Ltd. (2006) The SAWSIM Sawmill Simulation Program,
http://www.halcosoftware.com/software/index.html
HW (2017) Moody's: Canadian lumber tariff may take up to 6 months to impact U.S. homebuilders,
Housing Wire, http://www.housingwire.com/articles/39999-moodys-canadian-lumber-tariff-may-take-
up-to-6-month-to-impact-us-homebuilders
Investing.com (2019) USD / TRY Graph, https://tr.investing.com/currencies/usd-try-chart
Ministry of Development (2014) Specialization Commission for Transformation in Manufacturing
th
Industry Report, 10 Development Plan (2014-2018), Ankara, Republic of Turkey.
NTV (2017) Lumber Tax From Trump to Canada, NTV, http://www.ntv.com.tr/dunya/trumptan-
kanadaya-kereste-vergisi,ezdmLc9I_EyBZgpuGBYs2A
NY Times (2018) How Trump’s Lumber Tariffs May Have Helped Increase Home Prices, The New
York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/11/business/dealbook/trump-tariffs-canada-lumber.html
OGM (2007) Selling Standing Trees (Dikili Ağaç Satışı), Circular Letter No: 6521, 28 s., General
Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Republic of Turkey, Ankara, Turkey.
OGM (2017a) Forest Atlas, General Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
Republic of Turkey, https://www.ogm.gov.tr/ekutuphane/Yayinlar/Orman%20Atlasi.pdf
OGM (2017b) Forest Existence Map for Turkey, General Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry, Republic of Turkey, https://www.ogm.gov.tr/Sayfalar/Ormanlarimiz/T%C3%BCrkiye-
Orman-Varl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1-Haritas%C4%B1.aspx
SANDVIK Steel (1999) A Manual From Sandvik Steel: Production, use and maintenance of wood
bandsaw blades,
TUİD (2015) “Ukraine Stopped Timber Export”, International Turkish Ukrainian Business Businessmen
Association (TUID), http://tuid.org.ua/ukrayna-kereste-ihracatini-durdurdu
634
VARIATION OF DENSITY, FLEXURAL STRENGTH AND ANATOMICAL

FEATURES OF FINGER JOINTED WOOD PRODUCTS IN SRI LANKA
Chaminda Kumara MUTHUMALA

State Timber Corporation, Research, Development and Training Division
82, Rajamalwatta rd, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka
Tel: +94112885853, Fax: +94112866638, E-mail: ck_muthumala@yahoo.com
Sudhira DE SILVA
University of Ruhuna, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, Hapugala, Sri Lanka, E-mail: yasapriya@gmail.com
Arunakumara KKIU
University of Ruhuna, Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture
Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka E-mail: kkiuaruna@crop.ruh.ac.lk
Alwis PLAG
University of Ruhuna, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture
Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka E-mail: plagalwis@gmail.com
Abstract
Timber is considered to be an ecological friendly building material with less construction

energy requirements (Muthumala et. al, 2019). Finger jointed technique is used to eliminate wood
defects which weaken the strength of sawn wood plank. Surface properties are not considered to be
the only factors affecting bonding in wood. Bond quality is also affected by density, porosity, moisture
content and shrinking properties. Variations in flexural strength and anatomical features of six
common timber species used in furniture industry in Sri Lanka were studied. Modulus of Rupture
(MOR) and Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) were measured with and without finger joint specimens of 13
mm and 19 mm finger lengths of six timber species. The 3-point bending tests were performed by
using Universal Testing Machine (UTM 100 PC). Transverse, radial and tangential section at the
range of 10-15 micrometer thickness were taken using a sledge microtome (Model Leica SM2000 R).
Measurements were obtained using Micrometrics SE Premium 4 software available at Wood
laboratory, Research division of the State Timber Corporation, Sri Lanka. Quantitative wood
anatomical features such as mean vessel diameter, vessels per square millimeter and ray heights
were measured. The relationship between wood density, mechanical properties and anatomical
features of finger jointed and clear timber species were analyzed by regression models. There was a
positive correlation between total vessel area and flexural strength of 13 mm finger joint specimens.
Mean ray height and flexural strength are not found to be affected significantly in finger jointing works
and clear specimens.
Key words: Finger joint; density; flexural strength; total vessel area; ray height.
INTRODUCTION
Adhesive bonding of wood plays an increasing role in the forest products industry and it is the
key factor for efficiently utilizing timber resources. The main use of adhesives is in the manufacture of
the building material, engineered wood products and assembly of the furniture products. Surface
properties are not considered to be the only factors control bonding in wood. Bond quality is affected
by density, porosity, moisture content and shrinking properties also. The porosity and adhesive flow of
wood varies greatly. In hardwoods, the thin walled, relatively large longitudinal vessels have porous
end walls, so adhesive can penetrate deeply along the end grain (Charles and Christopher 2010).
Polyvinyl acetate adhesive type is mostly used in nonstructural designs. Polyvinyl Acetate
(PVA) resin emulsions are thermoplastic. In emulsified form, the PVAs are dispersed in water and
have a consistency and nonvolatile content generally comparable to thermosetting resin adhesives.
PVAs are marketed as milky-white fluids in order to use at room temperature in the form supplied by
manufacturers, normally without additives or separate hardeners. SWR, SH and Speedx are the
mostly used three bonding materials in Sri Lanka and the highest tensile strength was recorded in
PVA SWR glue type (Muthumala 2018).
635
Finger joints are described as interlocking end joints formed by machining a number of similar
tapered symmetrical fingers in the ends of timber members using a finger joint cutter and then bonded
together (BS EN 15497 2014). Finger joint is a sustainable, eco-friendly and economically valuable
concept for furniture industry. It ensures the sustainable utilization of small wood cut pieces which
removed as waste (Sandika et al. 2017). Physical and mechanical properties are very important
factors of structural and nonstructural uses of timber. The properties not only vary with species but
also with the moisture content, density, porosity and other anatomical features etc.
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the present research was assessing the relationship between density
and anatomical features (Total vessel area and Ray height) and bonding Flexural strength of Finger
Jointed hardwood timber species in Sri Lanka.

Preparation of the samples
Timber samples were cut from seasoned (Moisture content up to 10-12 %) defects free sawn
wood timber to calculate flexural strength properties. The vertical finger jointed samples were made at
finger joint factory at Boossa in the State Timber Corporation (STC) using 13 mm and 19 mm finger-
joint length cutters at assembling pressure of 6 MPa. Seasoned ten clear wood samples were cut from
the planks and used as the controls. Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) adhesive was used as bonding materials
(Glue type).
l - length = 13 mm l - length = 19 mm
p - pitch = 04 mm p - pitch = 04 mm
t - tip width= 01 mm t - tip width = 01 mm
(13mm) 19mm)
Fig. 1.
Geometric parameters of Finger joint.
Finger joint specimens’ preparation

The specimens with moisture content of 12% and size of 314 mm × 20 mm × 20 mm were
cross cut using a circular saw machine. Similar two pieces for joining with adhesive after making
13mm finger joint (measurement of one joining piece is 157 mm in their length). The size of 320 mm
× 20 mm × 20 mm were cross cut using a circular saw machine into two pieces for joining 19 mm
finger jointed samples (measurement of one joining piece is 160 mm in their length). All the samples
were made in finger joint factory in State Timber Corporation, Galle, Sri Lanka. BS 373: 1957 and BS
EN 15497:2014 were used as standards for tests. The test for mechanical properties were performed
by using Universal Testing Machine (UTM 100 PC). Following hard wood timber species were used for
this study.
Table 1
Wood species studies in the research
Common name Botanical name Timber Class (STC)
Grandis Eucalyptus grandis Class II
Jack Artocarpas heterophyllus Luxury
Kumbuk Terminalia arjuna Special
Mahogany Swietenia macrophylla Luxury
Satin Chloroxylon swietenia Luxury
Teak Techtona grandis Super Luxury
The density values were calculated using following equation (1):

0
Dry weight of the timber samples was taken by placing in 105 C oven for 48 hours (BS EN 373:1957).
Density = Weight of oven driedy wood (kg)
3
Volume of wood (m ) (1)
Calculation of the Flexural Strength

Ten replicates were made for each timber species. The samples of 20 mm x 20 mm x 300 mm
were used for flexural tests (BS EN 373:1957). Samples which were placed in normal room
636
0
temperature (27 C) conditioned showed good structural performance compared to hot and wet
conditioned (Vivek et al 2016). Fig. 2 shows the loading setup for flexural strength.
Fig. 2.
The loading setup for flexural strength.
The Modulus of Rupture (MOR) and Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) were calculated using the
formula mentioned below. Modulus of Rupture (MOR) (Ultimate flexural strength) and Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) values were calculated by using equations (2) and (3):
MOR = (2)
MOR –Modulus of Rupture

M – Maximum Bending moment
y – Maximum distance from neutral axis to edge of the section
I – Second moment of area
MOE = (3)
MOE –Modulus of Elasticity

L – Length of timber specimen
W – Load act in center of specimen
δ – Deflection of timber beam
Preparation of Wood for microscopic examination

Wood samples were boiled in water periodically for three days until air space of wood were
filled with water. Each species was shaped and sized into wood block of 2 cm x 2 cm x 3 cm.
Transverse, radial and tangential section at the range of 10-15 micrometer thickness were taken using
a sledge Microtome (Model Leica SM2000 R). The piece of wood sample and the knife were flooded
with 30 % ethanol, during the section cutting to facilitate fine sectioning.
Leica SM 2000 R
Fig. 3.
Section cutting microtome and Model of the slide.
Wood sections were rinsed in alcohol series, stained in Safranin, dehydrated and mounted
permanently using Canada balsam. Transverse, Tangential and Radial sections were placed as Fig. 3.
Anatomical observations on qualitative and quantitative parameters were made under the light
microscope at 4 x 10 magnification. Measurements were obtained using anatomical photos and
Micrometrics SE Premium 4 software available at Wood laboratory, Research division of the State
Timber Corporation. Quantitative wood anatomical features such as mean vessel diameter, vessels
637
per square millimeter and mean ray heights were measured according to IAWA (1989). Total vessel
area per square millimeter of each timber species were taken from the following method.
Total Vessel area per Square mm = πr x No. of Vessels per sq.mm
2
= 22/7 x (Mean tangential vessel diameter/2) x (Mean tangential vessel diameter/2) x No. of Vessels
per sq.mm (4)

Table 2
Statistical summary of the research study.
MOR(N/mm2) MOE(N/mm2) Mean Total Ray
Clear FJ-13mm FJ-9mm Clear FJ-13mm FJ-9mm tangentia Vessel area Height
Vessels l Vessel per sq. mm (µm)
Timber Density per Diameter (µm2)
Species Kg/m3 sq.mm (µm)
570 71.1 8203 5146.66 9 161 183298.5 294.3
Grandis 25.78 42.4 10643
645 64.5 20.33 5765 3158 2 215 72639.3 666.4
Jack 41.3 6845
756 52.9 27.3 4651 5437.01 4 257 207582.6 277.8
Kumbuk 40.6 5355
570 60.2 30.24 5775 2966.96 11 128 141604.6 344.8
Mahogany 36.8 4874
980 106.7 16.7 10819 3155.47 22 74 94656.6 258.2
Satin 54.5 10036
Teak 720 84.4 28.87 52.5 8538 6157.99 8666 10 185 268910.7 555
Grandis Jack Kumbuk
Mahogany Teak Satin

Fig. 5.
Cross section views of timber species (mag: 4x10).
Grandis Jack Kumbuk
Mahogany Teak Satin

Fig. 6.
Tangential section views of timber species (mag: 4x10).
638
Fig. 7.
Variation of density vs Anatomical and mechanical properties of clear and Finger jointed (FJ)
specimens.
As shown in Fig. 7, relationships between density and MOR, MOE, Mean Ray height and Total
Vessel Area per square millimeter of Finger jointed and unjointed six timber species could be
identified. A positive correlation was obtained between density vs MOR and MOE of unjointed timber
species. Higher density wood contains more material per unit of volume and can carry more load
639
(Charles and Christopher 2010). A similar trend has also been reported previously by several
researchers for various species (Zhang 1997).
Density and 19mm finger length timber samples showed a positive relationship. However, Ray
height and density was not affected significantly. Density vs MOE values of 13mm and 19mm finger
jointed samples were not affected significantly. MOR values of 13mm finger joint samples were shown
to have negative relationship.
Fig. 8.
Variation of Mean Ray Height vs Flexural Strength of Finger jointed and Unjointed timber
species.
As depicted in Fig. 8, no significant relationships between Mean Ray Height vs MOR and MOE
values of Finger jointed and Unjointed timber species were observed.
640
Fig. 9.
Variation of Total Vessel Area (TVA) vs Flexural Strength of clear and Finger jointed (FJ) timber
specimens.
No significant relationships between Total Vessel Area vs MOR and MOE values of Unjointed
and 19mm Finger jointed timber species were recorded (Fig.9). There were positive relationships
between TVA vs MOR and MOE of 13 mm finger jointed timber species.
Adhesives might use the network of pits to penetrate deeply, even in tangential and radial
directions. In hardwoods, the thin-walled, relatively large longitudinal vessels have porous end walls,
so adhesive can penetrate deeply along the end grain.
CONCLUSION
Bond quality of wood is affected by density, porosity, moisture content and shrinking
properties. Variations in flexural strength and anatomical features of six common timber species in Sri
Lanka were studied. It is concluded that density is an important parameter affecting the flexural
strength of unjointed samples. Density was found to be positively contribute towards the MOR and
MOE of Unjointed timber samples and MOR of 19mm finger joint samples. Mean Ray height and
flexural strength was not affected significantly in finger jointed and clear specimens. Total Vessel Area
per square millimeter was positively affect in 13mm finger jointed specimens.
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution (2014) BS EN 15497:2014. Structural finger jointed solid timber-
Performance requirements and minimum production requirements. European Committee for
Standardization. B 1000 Brussels.
641
British Standards Institution (1999) BS 373: 1957. Methods of testing small clear specimens of timber.
British Standards Institution. London.
Charles R, Christopher G (2010) Wood hand book: wood as an engineering material: chapter 10.
Centennial ed. General technical report FPL; GTR-190. Madison. WI: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Forest
Service. Forest Products Laboratory. 2010: 10.1-10.24.
IAWA (1989) List of microscopic features for Hard wood identification. International Association of
Wood Anatomists. Bui. N.s.: vol 10(3). The Netherlands.
Muthumala CK (2013) The Anatomical study of Common Local and Imported timber species in Sri
Lanka. Author Publication. Matara. Sri Lanka. ISBN: 978-955-99758-1-6
Muthumala CK, De Siva S, Alwis PLAG, Arunakumara KKIU (2018) Factors affecting the glue strength
of finger-joints in commonly used timber species in Sri Lanka. International symposium on Agriculture
and Extension. Faculty of Agriculture. University of Ruhuna. Sri Lanka. 126-128
Muthumala CK, Arunakumara KKIU, Basnayaka BMSJ (2019) Identification of timber species using
anatomical features. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing Company. Mauritius. ISBN: 978-3-659-
76711-1
Sandika AL, Pathirana GDPS, Muthumala CK (2017) Finger joint timber products for effective
utilization of natural resources: An analysis of physical properties. Economic factors and Consumers’
perception. International Symposium on Agriculture and Environment. University of Ruhuna. Sri
Lanka.
Vivek S, De Silva S, De Silva S, Muthumala CK (2016) Finger joint and their structural performance in
th
different exposure conditions. 7 International Conference on Sustainable Build Environment. Kandy.
Sri Lanka.
Zhang SY (1997) Wood specific gravity -mechanical property relationship at species level. Wood
Science and technology 31: 181-191
642
EFFECT OF FUNGICIDE COMPOUND APPLICATION ON FLAME BURNING OF

WOOD
Juraj JANCÍK
University of Žilina, Faculty of Security Engineering
Str. 1. Mája 32, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia
E-mail: juraj.jancik@fbi.uniza.sk
Stanislava GAŠPERCOVÁ
E-mail: stanislava.gaspercova@fbi.uniza.sk
Linda MAKOVICKÁ OSVALDOVÁ

E-mail: linda.makovicka@fbi.uniza.sk
Abstract
Objective of this paper is to investigate the effect of fungicidal compounds applied on wood
specimen by observing the flame spreading ability in experimental conditions. Specimens consist of
one type of softwood and one type of hardwood i.e. Scots pine (Pinus silvestris) and Sessile oak
(Quercus petrae) wood treated with fungicidal compounds that are subsequently compared to
untreated equivalents of the tested specimens. The experiment was conducted under STN EN ISO
11925-2, Reaction to fire tests - Ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of
flame - Part 2: Single-flame source test. Results of the tests show different influence of the fungicide
agent on soft and hardwood with rather positive tendency on fire protective features.
Key words: Fungicide; Flame burning; Pine; Oak; Wood protection.
INTRODUCTION
Wood in general is an essential material used in constructions however it´s also known for its
combustibility, but it is not the only negative feature of wood. Biological degradation caused by insects
or fungi is one of them among others. As long as the wood is not treated with fungicide or insecticide
the risk of infestation is growing which can degrade its qualities. Fungicide agents are fit for use in
interior as well as exterior, however it is not recommended to apply them on surfaces that come in
direct contact with food, water, feed as well as children´s furniture and toys. It is still unclear whether
fungicide affects the combustibility of the wood.
The main hypothesis in this paper is that fungicide agent will positively affect the mass loss
and flame spread of the treated wood specimens.
TESTED MATERIALS
Impregnating fungicide agent Lazurol S1033 along with wood specimens of Scots pine (Pinus
silvestris) and Sessile oak (Quercus petrae) were chosen for the experiment. Selection of both
fungicide and wood specimens were influenced by price, availability and frequency of use in
constructions.
Scots pine (Pinus silvestris)

Scots pine is one of the most common trees (applied to central Europe) and also one of the
least demanding of trees as it grows on inhospitable surfaces from wetlands to sandy subsoils,
adapted for droughts and extreme temperatures. Scots pine grows in most of the European countries.
Crown of young tree is conical and it changes to rather open in elder subjects. Lower part of the trunk
is reddish or brown-gray changing to terracotta in higher parts (Borovica lesná-sosna 2019).
Pine wood is used especially in constructions, creating both auxiliary and final structures and
also frame structures of panel wooden constructions.
643
Sessile oak (Quercus petrae)

Sessile oak is a deciduous tree with relatively slender trunk reaching up to 30 meters in
height. It usually grows in an upland areas achieving age of 400-500 years. Oak wood is very durable
and is considered a hardwood, heavy and resilient. It´s hard to pickle and impregnate (Naše stromy
2018).
Sessile oak wood is mainly used for production of furniture, parquets, beams but it has also
been used for production of railway sills thanks to its quality (Toma & Suchomel 2018).
Fungicide agent – LAZUROL

Lazurol is a synthetic fungicide impregnant. This impregnant is a dilution of alkyd resin in
impregnant that contains fungicide. Coating is used for chemical surface protection of wood from mold
infestation, wood-degradating fungi and wood-degradating insects. Lazurol is used for timber hazard
class 1 and 2 in interiors and for class 3 in exterior. It´s applied directly to wood, particleboard and
fibreboard under oily, synthetic and water-dilutable wood coatings. Purchase of this fungicide agent is
available for general public.
EXPERIMENT
All tests were conducted under STN EN ISO 11925-2, Reaction to fire tests - Ignitability of
building products subjected to direct impingement of flame - Part 2: Single-flame source test (STN-EN-
ISO11925-2).
Measurements were conducted in test chamber with gas burner as source of ignition. The
chamber is constructed out of stainless steel with fireproof glass installed on the door. This glass
serves for observation and manipulation of the tested specimen. Inside of the testing device there is a
specimen holder, stand and a burner.
First step was to choose proper specimens for the experiment. 20 specimens were required
for these measurements where half of them were scots pine and other half were sessile oak. All the
specimens were subsequently divided in half again where first half was treated with fungicide agent
Lazurol and the other half was left untreated. Dimensions of the specimen was 250 x 90 x 20 mm.
Specimens coated with Lazurol were coated twice where weight of the specimens was monitored
before and after each application and before the testing itself.
Tempering of the specimens was conducted under laboratory conditions in ambient
temperature of 20°C. Specimens were weighed in 7-day intervals until their weight became constant.
Specimens were placed vertically on the holder secured with screws to prevent it from deformation.
Distance of 40mm from the lower edge was outlined to mark the contact point of the specimen and the
source of flame. Another line was marked on the specimen in 150mm distance in vertical direction.
Distance-adjusting device was used to set proper distance of specimen and flame source which was
set in 45° angle. After the burner was lit we let the flame to stabilize and set the flame height to 20mm
± 0,1mm. Flame height was checked after each measuring.
Flame source was placed so that it was touching the centre the 40mm mark and was let to
impinge for period of 30 seconds after which we have removed it. If the specimen kept on burning
even after the flame source removal, we waited for it to stop burning before removing it from the
testing chamber and weighed it afterwards to find out its mass loss and carbonized layer thickness.
Mass loss represents amount of material or water combusted or evaporated from the specimen in
estimated period of time which was calculated with formula (1).
(1)
where: 𝛿𝑚𝑟(𝜏) – mass loss rate in time (τ) [%],

𝑚(𝜏) – weight of sample in time (τ) [g],
m(τ + 𝛥𝜏) – weight of sample in time (τ + 𝛥𝜏) [g] (Mitrenga, 2015) (Vácval, Havko &
Müllerová 2016).
Flame spread distance is one of the most important criterion for assessing reaction to fire
class of a construction material. The higher this value is the faster the fire spreads to another
construction material or construction within the same fire section (Makovická Osvaldová 2017) (Osvald
& Flachbart 2017).
644
Scots pine after the exposition to source of flame is displayed in Fig. 1 and 2. After-test sessile
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Untreated specimens of scots pine - Specimens of scots pine treated with
after the test. Lazurol - after the test.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Untreated specimens of sessile oak - Specimens of sessile oak treated
with Lazurol - after the test.
after the test.
oak specimen are displayed in Fig. 3 and 4.

The critical mark on the top of the specimens was reached by flame on 4 of untreated and 3
treated specimens as we can see in Fig. 1 and 2. In the case of untreated specimens the fire only
spread in the way of the grain however it spread also in perpendicular way in specimens treated with
fungicide agent.
We can see from Fig. 3 and 4 that there are two specimens in both groups which reached the
150mm critical mark on the top.
EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Statistical evaluation of average mass loss rates is displayed in Fig. 5 and evaluation of
average flame spread distance is displayed in Fig. 6.
1,4
Relative mass loss [%]
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
Scots pine Sessile oak
Untreated Treated
Fig. 5.
Chart of average mass loss of the specimens.
645
Average mass loss of the untreated scots pine specimens was estimated to 1.25%.
Specimens treated with fungicide agent show minor decreas reaching 1.166%. Results of sessile oak
specimens are even larger. Treated specimens show average mass loss of 0.347% while treated ones
reach 0.502%.
Comparing the results from both types of wood we can state that fungicide agent Lazurol
affects the burning process of wood resulting in the decrease of mass loss of the treated material in
fire.
140
120
Dĺžka šírenia plameňa [mm]
100
80
60
40
20
0
Scots pine Sessile oak
Untreated Treated
Fig. 6.
Chart of average mass loss of the specimens.
When comparing average flame spread distance of scots pine specimens we can see
decrease in flame spread in the treated specimens from 132 to 118mm however sessile oak shows
the opposite behavior where a slight increase in the flame spread distance can be observed, growing
from 96 to 98.6mm.
Despite the observed we can state that fungicide agent Lazurol does not have significant
effect on the flame spreading on wood surfaces since results are relatively similar.
CONCLUSIONS
Representative specimens of the soft and hardwood underwent an experiment, which was
used to observe effect of fungicide agent Lazurol on their mass loss and flame spread when exposed
to source of flame.
Evaluating the mass loss we have found out that fungicide agent does not support spreading
of the fire, on the contrary, it has a positive effect on both scots pine and sessile oak. Differences
shown in the results represent ambient conditions which can not be applied on real fires however it’s
the tendency that is important.
Dealing with the flame spread distance we can see slightly different progress. Changes were
observed however it appears that softwood has a different progress compared to hardwood. While we
can see positive effect of the fungicide agent on the scots pine (softwood), sessile oak (hardwood)
shows a minor negative that is within a 5% interval which can mean that the difference can be cause
by statistical error. More experiments with various types of soft and hardwood shall be done in order to
find out whether there is a different effect of fungicide on these two basic types of wood.
A strong odour was observed in the preparation process of the fungicide agent therefore
further investigation of possible impact on human health is necessary to prevent any injury.
REFERENCES
Borovica lesná-sosna (14. Január 2019) Dostupné na Internete: http://slnieckova.sk/bylinky/borovica-
lesna-sosna/
646
Makovická Osvaldová L (2017) Influence of fire retardant on selected thermal insulation materials on
natural basis-wooden fibreboard. M2D2017 (s. 1633-1640). INEGI/FEUP.
Mitrenga P (2015) Vyhodnotenie úbytku na hmotnosti a rýchlosti odhorievania ako parametra
testovania sadrokartónových dosiek po vystavení tepelnému namáhaniu. Krízový manažment, 22-27.
Naše stromy (16. December 2018) Dostupné na Internete: Dub zimný:
http://stromy.wz.sk/dub_zimny.htm
Osvald A., Flachbart J (2017) Požiare fasád výškových budov. Krízový manažment, 55-63.
STN-EN-ISO11925-2 (dátum neznámy). Skúšky reakcie na oheň. Zapáliteľnosť stavebných výrobkov
vystavených priamemu pôsobeniu plameňového horenia. Časť 2: Skúška jednoplameňovým zdrojom.
Technická norma.
Toma P, Suchomel J (16. December 2018) Národné lesnícke centrum. Dostupné na Internete:
Základné charakteristiky lesných drevín: http://www.nlcsk.sk/files/1708.pdf
Vácval J, Havko J, Müllerová J (2016) Sledovanie závisloti uvoľňovania tepla a rýchlosti úbytku
hmotnosti meraných na kónickom kalorimetri na základe analýzy pôvodných parametrov. Riešenie
krízových situácií v špecifickom prostredí, 669-676.
647
648
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE LOG

CONVERSION EFFICIENCY AND THE TAPER FOR RESINOUS (FIR) LOGS
Markus BRANDSTETTER
PhD Student - Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
E-mail: markus.brandstetter@gmx.at
Mihaela CAMPEAN
Professor, PhD - Transilvania University of Brasov, Faculty of Wood Engineering
E-mail: campean@unitbv.ro
Abstract
The log conversion efficiency is one of the most important business and production indicators
for wood industry. Beside inherent wood defects, such as knots, ingrown bark, cracks, resin pockets
etc., the conversion efficiency of a log also depends on its 3D shape. The taper is one of the most
common shape defects of resinous logs and it greatly affects the conversion efficiency. The present
study established that, depending on the taper value and the diameter range, the conversion efficiency
can easily drop below 60%. A correlation between the conversion efficiency of logs with top-end
diameters within two industrially common diameter groups (291-299mm and 311-322mm) and their
taper was established. The obtained results can be used in order to optimize the organization of the
sorting area in a sawmill, so as to increase the lumber yield.
Key words: conversion efficiency; resinous logs; fir; shape defects; taper; 3D laser triangulation;
sorting criteria.
INTRODUCTION
The log conversion efficiency is one of the most important business and production indicators
for wood industry. It represents the ratio between the summed-up volumes of all pieces of lumber
resulted from a log and the log volume (without bark). It is calculated according to equation
(1)(Zeleniuc 2010):
Vlumber
η= ⋅ 100 [%] (1)
Vlog
The target for sawmills is to get out the highest percentage of lumber from the log volume
input. Lumber achieves higher sales prices and the sales market of produced by-products, like chips
and sawdust is actually under high pressure.
Next to optimal tools (e.g. optimal sawblade thickness), perfectly configurated production lines
are needed. 3D-infrared scanners (www.microtec.eu) and x-ray computed tomography (Stangle et al.
2015) are used to get maximum information about the raw material and to put the optimal position for
the logs before entering the cutting line. In this way, it is possible to identify wood defects (e.g. cracks,
resin pockets, knots and shape deviations) on coniferous logs before the cutting processes and to
establish the log position to eliminate them but still reach the highest possible yield and targeted
product quality.
The log conversion efficiency is significantly depending on the shape - 3D model - of the log.
The most important shape defects of roundwood are: curvature, taper, abnormal conicity, flute, ovality,
excrescences (Porojan 2010). With resinous logs, taper and curvature are the most frequent shape
defects.
The taper affects the lumber output a lot, considering that cutting patterns are designed to the
top-end diameter, while the volume is calculated with the mid-diameter. Modern 3D measurement
equipment determines the taper according to equation (2):
MD − d
Taper = [mm/m] (2)
L/2
where: MD is the mid diameter of the log, in mm;
d – top-end (small end) diameter of the log, in mm;
L – length of the log, in m.
649
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the present study was to investigate the conversion efficiency of
resinous logs into lumber, depending on their taper. Establishing a correlation between the conversion
efficiency of a log with given diameter and the taper was also envisaged. The final outcome of this
study consisted in formulating some solutions to increase the yield in case of tapered logs.
MATERIAL, METHOD AND EQUIPMENT

The wooden material used within the experiments consisted of nine fir (Abies alba Mill.) logs
from the Romanian geographic region of Bicaz, Piatra Neamt County. The nine logs were selected
from a bigger batch of freshly harvested roundwood, so as their top-end diameter (without bark) fitted
within the range from 291mm to 322mm.
The shape and dimensions of the selected logs were measured by means of a log shape
scanner from Microtec (Italy) (Fig. 1), functioning on the principle of the 3D laser triangulation: infrared
sources are covering the shape of the log, high resolution cameras are providing the iRas XY-position
into the program and thus, the scanner provides a true shape scanned image (Fig. 2).
a. b.
Fig. 1.
DiShape scanner, manufactered by Microtec (Italy), a - complete module with 2 cameras and 1
infrared source; b - log during measurement.
Fig. 2.
Principle of a DiShape scanner: 3D laser triangulation.
650
Each single log went through the measurement unit which provided all the most important
figures, like: length, top-end diameter, mid-diameter, butt-end diameter, volume, curvature and taper.
An example is provided in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.
Visualization of the measured log, by Microtec (Italy).
Then, the logs were converted into lumber at a modern sawmill on a cutting line VM50,
manufactured by the German company Linck. The sequence of operations on this line is presented in
Fig. 4 and its main technical features are listed below:
- feed speed: 50 - 170 m/min., infinitely variable via frequency converters;
- species that can be cut: spruce, fir, pine
- log length: 2,50 - 5,20 m
- small end diameter: min. 8 cm, max. 56 cm
- large end diameter: max. 65 cm
- resulting cylinder diameter: max. 65 cm
This technological line is endowed with fixed circular sawblades and movable milling units.
Sideboards are produced wane-free by the milling units, there is no need for a separate board edger.
The chipper and the milling units are equipped with knives and cutter segments; the sawblades are
endowed with carbide teeth. The saw kerf was 2.8mm for the central boards, while the sideboards
were cut off with a saw kerf of 5.0mm and 5.4mm.
The cutting pattern used for the selected sawlogs, having top-end diameters ranging between
291mm and 322mm, is presented in Fig. 5. The dimensions of the lumber parts considered eligible
when establishing the cutting pattern followed the at-time orders of the sawmill. These were: 26 x
109mm; 31.5 x 214mm; 41.5 x 96mm and 42.5 x 149mm.
Hereinafter, the conversion efficiency (η) was calculated for each log, according to equation
(1).
3D-scanning of sawlogs Production of a two-sided 90° turning of the two- Production of a four-
cant sided cant sided cant
651
Surface scanning Profiling of sideboards, Sawing of sideboards Separation of sideboards

flexible position of milling
units
90° turning of the four- Profiling of sideboards, Resawing of centre

sided cant flexible position of milling products and sideboards
units
Fig. 4.
Production flow of the profiling line VM 50, by Linck (Germany).
Fig. 5.
Cutting pattern, as visualized by the cutting line software (Linck, Germany).

The data regarding the shape, dimensions and volume of the selected logs, as measured by
the Microtec scanner are presented in Table 1. Considering that a common diameter group in a
sawmill has the top-end diameter group within 10mm to 20mm, we opted to divide the results into two
groups (291-299cm and 311-322cm).
652
Table 1
Dimensional and quality characterization of the selected logs
(information provided by Microtec scanner)
Log N° Length Top-end Mid- Butt-end Volume Taper
3
(cm) diameter diameter diameter (m ) (mm/m)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Logs with top diameter 291-299mm
4E 317 291 320 394 0,241 25
10E 316 297 340 414 0,272 34
13B 327 299 310 393 0,226 13
13C 314 295 300 324 0,212 6
Logs with top diameter 311-322mm
3E 309 318 350 379 0,289 23
5C 313 322 330 365 0,257 12
6B 309 312 330 372 0,257 18
11C 316 315 330 394 0,257 16
12C 312 311 330 369 0,257 13
Table 2 presents the results concerning the conversion efficiency, calculated according to
equation (2) as percentual ratio between the summed-up volume of the lumber pieces which resulted
from each log and the volume of the debarked log. The results are listed in decreasing order of the
taper value.
Table 2
Log conversion efficiency related to the log taper for the selected logs
top-diameter range 291-299mm
Log 10E 4E 13B 13C
Top-end diameter, mm 297 291 299 295
Volume of debarked log, m³ 0.272 0.241 0.226 0.212
Taper, mm/m 34 25 13 6
Lumber output, m³ 0.146 0.146 0.146 0.138
Log conversion efficiency, % 53.6% 60.4% 64.8% 65.0%
top-diameter range 311-322mm
Log 3E 6B 11C 12C 5C
Top-end diameter, mm 318 312 315 311 322
Volume of debarked log, m³ 0.289 0.257 0.257 0.257 0.257
Taper, mm/m 23 18 16 13 12
Lumber output, m³ 0.154 0.151 0.153 0.155 0.154
Log conversion efficiency, % 53.3% 58.7% 59.6% 60.4% 60.0%
It was found that, the average conversion efficiency for logs with top-end diameter ranging
between 291-299mm is 60.95% and for logs with top-diameter ranging between 311-322mm it is
58.40%. For standard profiling lines using the technique shown in Fig. 4. the log conversion efficiency
should not be lower than 60%.
The correlation between the conversion efficiency and the taper in the case of the analyzed
logs is presented in Fig. 6, a for the first diameter group and in Fig. 6, b for the second diameter group.
Linear descending functions characterize the correlations in both cases. The coefficient of
determination is R²=0.87 and 0.67 respectively, which shows a good correlation.
653
a.
b.
Fig. 6.
Correlation function between the conversion efficiency and the log taper for:
a – top-end diameter group 291-299mm; b – top-end diameter group 311-322mm.
CONCLUSIONS
The performed research lead to the conclusion that the conversion efficiency of the logs
(selected within two industrially common diameter groups) is highly correlating with the taper,
depending also on the log diameter. Thus, with thinner logs (top-end diameter between 291mm and
299mm), the logs with taper above 25mm/m turned out to have a conversion efficiency below 60%.
The thicker logs (top-end diameter between 311mm and 322mm) are even more pretentious: the logs
with taper above 13mm/m already had a conversion efficiency below 60%.
Considering these results, logs with high taper should be paid more attention during log
sorting. A different way of box separation and cutting patterns adjusted with larger width and narrower
intervals of lengths can increase the output.
REFERENCES
Porojan M (2010) Anatomia lemnului (Wood Anatomy, in Romanian language). Transilvania University
of Brasov.
Stangle SM, Bruchert F, Heikkila A, Usenius T, Sauter U (2015) Potentially increased sawmill yield
from hardwoods using X-ray computed tomography for knot detection, Annals of Forest Science
(2015) 72:57-65
Zeleniuc O (2010) Cherestea (Timber, in Romanian language). Publishing House of Transilvania
University, Brasov. ISBN 978-973-598-590-5.
*** www.microtec.eu
654

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OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

“WOOD SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

“Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

Publication supported by the PRO LIGNO Foundation

Adresa: 500030 Braşov,

Toate drepturile rezervate

Editură acreditată de CNCSIS

Referenţi ştiinţifici: Comitetul ştiinţific

wish you a warm welcome to the

Honorary Chairman Prof.Dr. Ioan ABRUDAN, Transilvania University of Brasov

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (in alphabetic order)

Peter RADEMACHER (Czech Republic)

Timothy YOUNG (USA)

Thomas SCHNABEL, Marius Catalin BARBU, Hermann HUBER, Alexander

SECTION 1. WOOD STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

Amir GHAVIDELESFAHLAN, Ion SANDU, Viorica VASILACHE (Romania)

Amir GHAVIDELESFAHLAN, Ion SANDU, Viorica VASILACHE (Romania)

Vasile Gh. GLIGA, Mariana Domnica STANCIU, Silviu-Marian NASTAC,

Constantin Stefan IONESCU, Aurel LUNGULEASA, Cosmin SPIRCHEZ,

Olimpia-Minerva TURCAS, Adriana FOTIN, Camelia COSEREANU

SECTION 2. WOOD DRYING AND HEAT TREATMENTS

Bogdan BEDELEAN, Daniela SOVA (Romania)

Olena PINCHEVSKA, Oleksandra HORBACHOVA, Andriy SPIROCHKIN,

Asghar TARMIAN, Emil Engelund THYBRING (Iran, Switzerland)

CONTRIBUTION OF THERMAL DEGRADATION PRODUCTS TO THE

SECTION 3. CONSERVATION-RESTORATION OF WOODEN

Susan M. Millis (UK)

Mihaela LIU, Houyi HUNAG, Zhihui WU, Xinyou LIU (China)

Maria Cristina TIMAR, Emanuela Carmen BELDEAN , Ion Valeriu OLARU,

Mirela COMAN, Alexandru-Leonard POP, Bogdan CIORUTA (Romania)

Ioannis BARBOUTIS, Panagiotis KOUTIS, Vasiliki KAMPERIDOU, Stella

Chang ZHANG, Wencheng TANG, Na YU (China)

Erkki VERKASALO, Jarkko LEPPALA, Timo MUHONEN, Risto KORPINEN,

Victor GRUBII, Jimmy JOHANSSON (Sweden)

Andromachi MITANI, Georgios NTALOS, Dimitros KOUTSIANITIS,

Zeki CANDAN, Oner UNSAL, Hızır Volkan GORGUN, Oktay GONULTAS

A REVIEW OF METHODS TO INCREASE THE FLEXIBILITY OF WOOD

LIQUID AND GASEOUS AMMONIA

where: E = bending stiffness

MATERIALS & METHODS

Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain

Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain

AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF LESSER USED WOOD SPECIES UNDER

MATERIAL, METHOD, EQUIPMENT

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Share of Wood Species in European Pilot-Studies

Properties of selected native Wood Species

Properties distribution within the same native wood species

DATA SCIENCE REVOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOMATERIALS ACADEMIC

Data Fusion Process

SQL Stored Procedures

the “InSQLPivot.” A stored procedure “sp_Fill_From_eventsnapshot” records data from the

SQL Data Transformation Services

Dynamic Time Lagging

Algorithms for Data Quality Assessment and Improvement

Smallest value, [1]

s is the standard deviation,

where: is the maximized value of the likelihood function of the model,

(a) Without Imp

6000 8000 10000 14000 200 400 600 800

6000 8000 10000 14000 200 400 600 800

Depositary Database and Software Platform

Taguchi G, Chowdhury S, WU Y (2005) Taguchi's quality engineering handbook, Hoboken, New