Chapter 3: Generator Model

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 One-Line Diagrams
 Synchronous Generators
 Synchronous Generator Model
 Real and Reactive Power Generation and
Control

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 The main function of a one-line diagram /
single-line diagram is to portray the most
information in the simplest manner possible.
 A three-phase power system drawing
showing generators, transformers,
transmission lines, capacitors, reactors and
loads are normally drawn with a single line
joining such devices.

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 Large-scale power is generated by three-phase
synchronous generators
◦ driven either by steam
turbines, hydroturbines, or
gas turbines.
◦ Armature windings are placed
on the stationary parts called
stator
◦ Armature windings are designed for
generation of balanced three-phase
voltages and are arranged to develop the
same number of magnetic field winding that
is on the rotor.
◦ The rotating part called the rotor :
- driven by a prime mover at constant speed
- field circuit is excited by DC.
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 ◦ Modern excitation systems usually use ac generators
with rotating rectifiers, and are known as brushless
excitation.
◦ The rotor of the synchronous machine may be of
cylindrical (round rotor ) or salient construction.

The red arrows indicate the

direction of the flux produced
by the field windings.

◦ The two-pole rotor rotates at 3600 rpm to generate 60 Hz.

◦ Cylindrical rotor synchronous generators (large axial length
& small diameter) mostly range between 150 ~ 1500 MVA.
◦ Salient type are used in hydroelectric power stations.

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◦ Figure below illustrate an elementary two-pole three-
phase generator. The stator contains three coils, aa’ ,
bb’ , and cc’ , and displaced from each other by 120˚.
◦ The concentrated full-pitch coils
represent distributed windings
producing sinusoidal mmf
waves concentrated on the
magnetic axes of the respective
phases.
◦ When the rotor is excited to
produce an air gap flux φ per
pole and revolving with
constant angular velocity ω,
the flux linkage of the coil
varies with the position of the
rotor mmf axis ωt. 6
◦ The flux linkage for an N-turn concentrated coil aa’
will be maximum at ωt = 0, and zero at ωt = π /2.
The flux linkage with coil a is
λa = N φ cos ωt
◦ the voltage induced in coil aa’ is
obtained from faraday’s law as
dλ
ea = − = ω N φ sin ω t
dt
= E max sin ω t
π
= E max cos(ω t − )
where, 2
N is number of turns in phase a
E max = ω N φ = 2π f N φ

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◦ The rms value of the generated voltage is

2π f N φ
E= = 4.44 f N φ
2
◦ In actual ac machine windings, armature coil is
distributed in a number of slots. Since the emfs
induced in different slots are not in phase, their
phasor sum is less than their numerical sum.

◦ A reduction factor called the winding factor Kw , must

be applied. Therefore, for a distributed phase winding,
the rms value of the generated voltage is

E = 4.44 K w f N φ
Kw factor is about 0.85 ~ 0.95 8
◦ The magnetic field of the rotor revolving at constant
speed induces three-phase sinusoidal voltages in the
armature, displaced by 2π/3 radians. The frequency of
the induced armature voltages depends on the rotor
speed n (in rpm an referred as synchronous speed ),
and number of poles P, is given by
P n
f =
2 60
◦ During normal conditions, the generator operates
synchronously with the power grid. Assuming the
current in phase a is lagging the generated emf ea by an
angle ψ , the instantaneous armature currents are
ia = I max sin (ω t − ψ )
2π
ib = I max sin (ω t − ψ − )
3 4π
ic = I max sin (ω t − ψ − )
3 9
 Figure shows a typical synchronous
machine field alignment for operation
as a generator using space vectors to
represent the various fields.
• When rotor is revolving at
synchronous speed and the
armature current, Ia = 0, the field
mmf, Fr produces the no-load
generated emf E in each phase.

◦ emfs are time phasors • The no-load generated voltage is

◦ mmfs are space vectors proportional to the field current is
known as the excitation voltage.
(E ∝ If)

◦ The phasor voltage for phase a, Ea lags Fr by 90˚.

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 • When the armature is carrying
balanced three-phase currents, Fs
is produced perpendicular to line
mn.
• The interaction of armature mmf Fs
and the field mmf Fr , known as
armature reaction, gives rise to the
resultant air gap mmf Fsr .
• the resultant mmf is responsible
for the resultant air gap flux φsr
that induces the generated emf
on-load Esr .
◦ The armature mmf Fs induces the emf Ear , called armature
reaction voltage, which is perpendicular to Fs . The voltage
Ear leads Ia by 90˚and can be represented by a voltage
drop across a reactance Xar due to the current Ia
. (Xar reactance of the armature reaction).
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• The phasor sum of E and Ear is
shown by Esr represents the on-
load generated emf.
E = Esr + j Xar Ia
◦ The terminal voltage V is less
than Esr by the amount of
resistive voltage RaIa and
leakage reactance voltage Xl Ia
E = V + [Ra + j( Xl + Xar )] Ia
E = V + [Ra + j Xs ] Ia
◦ where Xs =( Xl + Xar ) is the
synchronous reactance.
◦ angle between I and V, cos Θ
represents the power factor
at the generator terminals
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 • The power developed by the machine
is proportional to the product of field
mmf Fr , air gap mmf Fsr and sin δr
and dictates the action of the
synchronous machine.
◦ when Fr is ahead of Fsr by an angle δr
⇒ operating as a generator
◦ when Fr falls behind Fsr by an angle δr
⇒ operating as a motor
◦ Since E and Esr are proportional to Fr and Fsr , power
developed by machine is proportional to products of E ,
Esr and sin δr ⇒ angle δr known as the power angle
◦ usually the developed power is expressed in terms of
◦ Excitation voltage E
◦ Terminal voltage V and sin δ
* δ ≅ δr leakage impedance is very small
compared to the magnetization reactance. 13
• Due to nonlinearity of the machine magnetization curve, the
synchronous reactance is not constant.
• For operation at or near terminal voltage, it is usually assumed
that the machine is equivalent to an unsaturated one;
magnetization curve is a straight line through origin and the
rated voltage point on the open-circuit characteristic.
◦ For steady-state analysis, the saturated value of the
synchronous reactance corresponding to the rated voltage
is used E = V + [Ra + j Xs ]Ia
◦ the armature resistance is much
smaller than the synchronous
reactance and often neglected.
◦ Equivalent circuit connected to an
infinite bus reduces to
E = V + j Xs Ia
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E = V + [Ra + j Xs ] Ia

E = V + j Xs Ia

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• The phasor diagram of the generator with terminal voltage as
reference for excitations corresponding to lagging, unity, and
leading power factors is shown below.

E = V + [Ra + j Xs ] Ia

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 ◦ the voltage regulation of an alternator is used for
comparison with other machines – defined as the
percentage change in terminal voltage from no-load
to rated load. Gives an indication of the change in
field current required to maintain system voltage at
some specific power factor.
|Vnl | − |Vrated | | E | − |Vrated |
VR = × 100 = × 100
|Vrated | |Vrated |

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P3.1: A three-phase, 318.75 kVA, 2300 V alternator (generator) has an
armature resistance of 0.35 Ω /phase, and a synchronous reactance of
1.2 Ω /phase. Determine the no-load line-to-line generated voltage and
the voltage regulation at:
a) Full-load kVA, 0.8 power factor lagging, and rated voltage.

cos -1 0.8 = 36.87˚,

Phase voltage

E = V + [Ra + j Xs ] Ia
Eφ = 1327.9 + (0. 35 + j1.2)(80∠ − 36.87° ) = 1409. 2∠2.44°
E LL = 3 Eφ = 3 × 1409. 2 = 2440.8 V
|Vnl | − |Vrated | | E | − |Vrated |
the voltage regulation VR = × 100 = × 100
|Vrated | |Vrated |
|2440.8 | − |2300|
= × 100 = 6. 12%
|2300| 19
Most synchronous machines are connected to large
interconnected electrical networks.
◦ These networks have the important characteristics that
the system voltage at the point of connection is
constant in ◦ Magnitude
◦ Phase angle
◦ Frequency
◦ Such a point in the power system is referred to as an
infinite bus, where the voltage at the generator bus will
not be altered by changes in the generator's operating
condition.
◦ The ability to vary the rotor excitation is an important
feature of the synchronous machine; where we will next
consider the effect when operated as a generator with
constant mechanical input power.
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 From Figure 3.4, neglecting the armature
resistance, the output power is equal to the power
developed.

P3φ = ℜ [ 3 V Ia* ] = 3 V Ia cos Θ

◦ where V is the phase-to-neutral terminal voltage
assumed to remain constant.
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◦ for constant developed power at a fixed terminal
voltage V, Ia cos Θ must be a constant.
 the tip of the armature current phasor must fall on
a vertical line as the power factor is varied by
varying the field current

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From Figure 3.6, | E ||V |
P3φ = 3 sin δ
cd = E1 sin δ1 = Xs Ia1 cos Θ1 Xs

 E1 sin δ1 is a constant, and the locus of E1 is on the line ef.

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◦ From the previous equation: E = V + j Xs Ia
For a lagging power factor armature current Ia1
results in E1

If Θ is zero, the generator operates at unity

power factor and armature current has a
minimum value, Ia2 results in E2
For a leading power factor, E3 is obtained
corresponding to Ia3
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E = V + [Ra + j Xs ] Ia

E = V + j Xs Ia

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The generation of reactive power can be controlled by
means of the rotor excitation while maintaining a
constant real power output.
The variation in the magnitude of armature current as the
excitation voltage is varied is best shown by the V curve
of synchronous machines.
 There is a limit which the
excitation cannot be
reduced. This limit is
reached when δ = 90˚.
 Reduction in excitation
below the stability limit for
a particular load will cause
the rotor to pull out of
synchronism.

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From the per-phase equivalent circuit
Fig 3.4, the three-phase complex
power at the generator terminal is
S3φ = 3 V Ia*
Expressing the phasor voltages in polar form, the
armature current is | E | ∠δ − |V | ∠0°
Ia =
| Z s | ∠γ
Substituting for Ia*
| E ||V | |V |2
S 3φ = [3 ∠γ − δ ] − [3 ∠γ ]
|Zs | |Zs |
 Thus the real power and reactive power.
| E ||V | |V |2
P3φ = [3 cos(γ − δ ) ] − [3 cos γ ]
|Zs | |Zs |
| E ||V | |V |2
Q3φ = [3 sin(γ − δ ) ] − [3 sin γ ]
|Zs | |Zs | 29
If Ra is neglected, then Zs = jXs and δ=
90˚, the equation reduces to
| E ||V |
P3φ = 3 sin δ
Xs
|V |
Q3φ = 3 (| E |cos δ −|V |)
Xs
The real power equation shows that if E and V are held
fixed and the power angle δ is changed by varying the
mechanical driving torque, the power transfer varies
sinusoidally with the angle. The theoretical maximum
power occurs when δ= 90˚
| E ||V |
Pmax 3φ =3
Xs
The Pmax is called the steady-state stability
limit or static stability limit.
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Stability considerations dictate that a synchronous
machine achieve steady-state operation for a power angle
at considerably less than 90˚.
The control of real power flow is maintained by the
generator governor through the frequency power control
channel.
The reactive power equation shows that
for small δ, cos δ is nearly unity and |V |
Q3φ ≈ 3 (| E |−|V |)
reactive power can be approximated to: Xs
When |E| > |V| the generator delivers reactive power to
the bus. the generator is said to be overexcited.
When |E| < |V| the reactive power to the bus is negative,
or the bus is supplying positive reactive power to the
generator. the generator is said to be underexcited.
Flow of reactive power governed by the difference in
excitation voltage E and busbar voltage V. The
control of reactive power is achieve by the
generator excitation system. 31
 Load representation – impedance or power
 Voltage across the load / source
 Load power – not necessarily the full rated
power of the generator
 Any line impedances?
 Difference between line impedance and
generator reactance, Xs

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33
A 50 MVA, 30 kV, three-phase, 60 Hz
synchronous generator has a
synchronous reactance of 9 Ω per phase
and a negligible resistance.

The generator is delivering rated power

at a 0.8 power factor lagging at the
rated terminal voltage to an infinite bus.

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a) Determine the excitation voltage per phase E and
the power angle δ.
The 3-phase apparent power is:
𝑆𝑆3∅ = 50∠𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 0.8 = 50 ∠36.87° 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
= 40 MW + j30 Mvar
The rated voltage per phase is:
30
𝑉𝑉 = = 17.32∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
√3
The rated current is:
∗
𝑆𝑆3∅ (50 ∠36.87°)103
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = = = 962.25 ∠ − 36.87° 𝐴𝐴
3𝑉𝑉 ∗ 3(17.32 ∠0°)
The excitation voltage per phase is:
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎
𝐸𝐸 = 17320.5 + (𝑗𝑗9)(962.25 ∠ − 36.87°) = 23558∠17.1°𝑉𝑉
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 b) With the excitation held constant at the value
found in (a), the driving torque is reduced until
the generator is delivering 25 MW. Determine the
armature current and power factor.

When the generator is delivering 25MW, the power angle is:

|𝐸𝐸 ||𝑉𝑉 |
𝑃𝑃3∅ =3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
−1
(25)(9)
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � = 10.591°
(3)(23.56)(17.32)
The armature current is:
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 (23558∠10.591° − 17320.5∠0° )
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = = = 807.485∠ − 53.43°
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 𝑗𝑗9

The power factor is cos (53.43) = 0.596 lagging

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37
 c) If the generator is operating at the excitation
voltage of part (a), what is the steady-state
maximum power the machine can deliver before
losing synchronism? Also, find the armature
current corresponding to this maximum power.
The maximum power occurs at δ=90º, thus
|𝐸𝐸 ||𝑉𝑉| (23.56)(17.32)
𝑃𝑃max (3∅) =3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿 = 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 90° = 136𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 9
The armature current is:
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 (23558∠90° − 17320∠0° )
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = = = 3248.85∠36.82°
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 𝑗𝑗9

The power factor is cos (36.32) = 0.8057 leading

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39
The generator from Ex 3.1 is delivering 40MW at a
terminal voltage of 30kV.
Compute the power angle, armature current, and
power factor when the field current is adjusted for the
following excitation:
a) The excitation voltage is decreased to 79.2% of the
value found in Ex 3.1
The new excitation voltage is:
𝐸𝐸 = 0.792 × 23558 = 18657 𝑉𝑉
The power angle is:
|𝐸𝐸 ||𝑉𝑉 |
𝑃𝑃3∅ =3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
−1
(40𝑀𝑀 )(9)
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � = 21.8°
(3)(18.657𝑘𝑘 )(17.32)
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The armature current is:

𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 (18657∠21.8° − 17320∠0° )
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = = = 769.8∠0°
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 𝑗𝑗9

The power factor is cos (0) = 1 (unity)

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42
The generator from Ex 3.1 is delivering 40MW at a
terminal voltage of 30kV.
Compute the power angle, armature current, and
power factor when the field current is adjusted for the
following excitation:
b) The excitation voltage is decreased to 59.27% of the
value found in Ex 3.1
The new excitation voltage is:
𝐸𝐸 = 0.5927 × 23558 = 13963 𝑉𝑉
The power angle is:
|𝐸𝐸 ||𝑉𝑉 |
𝑃𝑃3∅ =3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
−1
(40𝑀𝑀)(9)
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � = 29.748°
(3)(13.963𝑘𝑘 )(17.32) 43
The armature current is:

𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 (13963∠29.748° − 17320∠0° )
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = = = 962.3∠36.87°
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 𝑗𝑗9

The power factor is cos (36.87) = 0.8 leading. The

generator is underexcited and is actually receiving
reactive power

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The generator from Ex 3.1 is delivering 40MW at a
terminal voltage of 30kV.

c) Find the minimum excitation below which the

generator will lose synchronism.

The minimum excitation corresponding to δ=90º is:

|𝐸𝐸 ||𝑉𝑉 |
𝑃𝑃3∅ =3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
(40)(9)
𝐸𝐸 = = 6.928 kV
(3)(17.32)(1)

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The armature current is:

𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 (6928∠90° − 17320∠0° )
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = = = 2073∠68.2° 𝐴𝐴
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 𝑗𝑗9

The power factor is cos (68.2) = 0.37 leading. The

generator is underexcited and is receiving reactive
power.

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Generator

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50
51
MVA

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58
E = V + [Ra + j Xs ] Ia

E = V + j Xs Ia

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