Schedule Optimisation of Large Complex Mining Operations Monday, 27 November 2000 10:24 C

Schedule Optimisation of Large Complex Mining Operations

Brett King

Abstract

Mine planners must often develop strategies to deal with multi-element ores, feeds to
multiple processes, stockpiles, and specific ore blends. These strategies must
maximise the business value, ensuring that realistic environmental, mining,
processing, marketing and financial constraints are imposed. As more of these
strategies and constraints are incorporated into the optimisation process, the solution
time can quickly limit the level of 'optimisation' a study achieves. This paper reviews
an efficient mine schedule optimisation technique which expands the range of
scheduling strategies that can be simultaneously optimised. The interaction between
cut-off grade, production rate, reserve sequencing, stockpiling, ore properties and mill
operating parameters are considered in the optimisation. Principles are discussed in
this paper which have been successfully extended to scheduling large, complex
mining operations. Several examples are then presented to show how multi-policy
optimisation can be applied to a wide range of situations.

Background

Benefits obtained on capital and operating costs from large scale mining may also
introduce greater complexity in operations planning. Large mining operations must
maximise the long term value to the shareholders from multi-element reserves with
continuous pressure to improve operation value. Complex mining and processing
issues combine with large geological models to challenge financial analysts and
planners to squeeze higher NPV's out of their reserves. In order to apply an
optimising tool to these problems, more efficient algorithms need to be applied.

The highest value mine plan would, in theory, consider the interaction between
ultimate mining limits, interim mining sequences, environmental and operating
strategies during the optimisation. The complexity and size of large mining
operations often result in unacceptable processing time to achieve this globally
optimal solution.

To derive some benefit from computer modelling techniques, the problems must be
simplified or segmented into manageable pieces. Planning engineers must then
reassemble these partially 'optimal' solutions, and check that the assumptions they are
based on have not blurred the results. Caution must be exercised when interpreting
these partially optimised results in the light of their assumption base.

Lane (1988) and Whittle et al (1995) describe the separate optimisation of cut-off
grade with a predetermined mining sequence. This paper discusses how sequencing,
cut-off grade, mining and processing production strategies can be evaluated
simultaneously once the reserves have been separated into a series of sequentially
mined phases.

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Scope of the Optimisation

For this paper, scheduling starts after phases (eg. surface pushbacks and underground
stopes) are designed. If mined with surface methods, the reserve would be divided
into a number of pushbacks. These pushbacks would be scheduled over a number of
periods. Because phase information is used as input to the optimisation algorithm,
better phase designs would lead to higher value schedules. Figure 1 shows a
hypothetical resource, divided into a series of surface pushbacks and underground
mining areas.

Figure 1 Hypothetical Resource showing Input Phase Designs

Although discussion of detailed assumptions is beyond the scope of this paper, the
principles of using an iterative approach to optimise mining schedules are discussed.

Theory

Optimisation Algorithm

The general form of an equation suitable for optimisation using dynamic

programming is given below (based on Lane, 1988):

Max  V (R − r , T + t ) 
V ( R, T ) = 0 ≤ r ≤ R c (t , r , ω ) + 
all ω  (1 + δ )t 
Equation I

The maximum NPV (V) of the entire reserve (R), at a time (T), can be calculated by
considering all feasible strategies (ù) and picking the maximum sum of: the cash flow

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(c) of a portion of the reserve (r); and the maximum value of the remaining reserve. A
discount rate (ä) is used to adjust the remaining value by the time (t) taken to mine an
increment of the reserve.

By taking advantage of the sequential properties of mine scheduling, it is possible to

use a dynamic programming technique to efficiently find the optimal solution. A
dynamic programming approach would start at the last increment of the reserve,
where the value of the remaining reserve is the known terminal value. Determining
the optimal policies using Equation I for this last reserve increment is reduced to the
problem of maximising the cash flow.

The optimal operating strategy for the penultimate reserve increment could then be
evaluated using Equation I since the maximum remaining value was calculated in the
previous step. By following this backward sequence through the reserve, an optimum
operating strategy for the entire reserve can be determined, maximising the NPV.

Although this dynamic programming approach is powerful and very efficient in some
mining situations, there are two major limitations. Firstly, the value and optimum
operating strategy for the last reserve increment may be a function of the time when it
is mined. Without knowing this, or alternatively testing all possible times, the optimal
operating strategy cannot be guaranteed. The second limitation arises when the last
reserve increment in the mining sequence is unknown. This situation arises if
stockpiles, multiple pushbacks or alternate stopes exist.

In order to schedule operations with time-dependent properties and alternate reserve

sources, an iterative approach to the problem has been employed using the following
formula:

Max  V ′(R − r , T + t ) 
V ′( R, T ) = 0≤ r ≤ R c(t , r , ω ) + 
all ω  (1 + δ )t 
Equation II

In Equation II, the maximum value (V) of the entire reserve and remaining reserve is
replaced by estimates of their maximum value (V'). Before Equation II can be
applied, an initial 'seed' schedule is required to provide an estimate of the value of
each increment of reserve. This seed schedule may simply mine the pushbacks and
stopes sequentially using a break-even cut-off policy as a first estimate of the reserve
value (though it must be of sufficient value to give a positive remaining value
estimate!).

In this second approach, the operating policy is calculated from the first period, until
the reserve is completely mined. This approach has advantages including knowing
both the time when the first reserve increment is to be mined, and knowing the state
of stockpiles and alternate sequences of material.

In cases where there are no variations of properties with time and no alternate mining
sequences exist, this approach should converge on the optimum operating strategy. A
trade off between solution time, realistic assumptions and the quality of the results is
evident when time-varying properties and alternate sequences exist. Lane (1988)

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successfully applied this iterative technique for optimising cut-off grade and
production rate with time-varying properties.

Cash Flow

An accurate cash flow calculation underpins the success of the schedule optimisation
process for two reasons. Firstly, the cash flow must be maximised across all the
feasible strategies (ù) for each reserve increment mined. Secondly, the remaining
value estimate is built up from discounted cash flows derived from the subsequently
mined reserve increments. The role of cash flow in both terms of the optimisation
equation has an interesting result. The difficulty in maximising the cash flow will
equate to the difficulty in solving the scheduling problem. It is clear that the care
must taken to realistically and accurately model the cash flow as the reserve is mined.

The components of the cash flow can be broken into costs, revenues and constraints.
Constraints are discussed in more detail in the next section. In order to model costs
and revenues accurately, an appropriate model of the cost and revenue drivers must be
used. At a conceptual stage, costs for a copper deposit may be simply driven using
the mass of rock moved, ore processed, copper produced and time elapsed. Operating
mines will typically separate additional cost and revenue drivers including other base
and precious metal products, haulage time, copper concentrate, matte, anode and
cathode mass.

Schedules from mine planning models are inevitably used as input to more detailed
financial analysis. Although the absolute value of the schedules may vary (due to
assumptions such as taxation and depreciation calculations), appropriate modelling of
cash flows during the schedule optimisation leads to the same relative ranking of
cases.

Multiple metal reserves with many cost and revenue drivers are accumulated to build
up the cash flow. Flexible cost and revenue inputs are essential to an accurate cash
flow model. Although much effort could be devoted to creating very flexible input to
cash flow, some functions will be so complex that they will require special
programming to implement. In these cases it is useful to have sufficient control over
the optimisation source code to implement a custom function.

Custom functions may be used to model dump haulage costs, grade-recovery

functions and throughput-recovery-cost relationships. These custom functions are
used to accurately model complex contributions to the cash flow and associated
constraints.

Constraints

Constraints are used to limit the value of increments of reserve to those that can be
achieved practically. Clearly, by definition, a strategy that is not achievable can not
be optimal. For this reason, constraints have a crucial role in limiting operating
policies to realistic boundaries.

In Lane's work, three capacities constrain the optimum cut-off grade strategy (total
rock movement, ore processed and metal product). Wooller (1997) showed how other

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constraints such as truck hours and mill processing time could also be used to
constrain the optimal policy.

There are many more constraints that exist in multi-sequence operations. Two of the
main geometry constraints are undercutting and access. Although undercutting in
surface mines is an obvious constraint, access constraints are more subtle but equally
important. For example, it may not be possible to start mining one pushback until
access is established from another pushback; an underground caving operation may
not be able to start production until surface mining above is complete.

Phase sinking rates are another form of constraint that can limit the mine production.
A surface phase sinking rate is typically expressed in units of mined benches or mass
per year from a pushback, varying according to the geometry. A specific
underground stope area would have a limited capacity, regardless of the total
underground hoisting capacity.

In many cases, individual constraints are themselves subject to higher-level

restrictions. For example, total mine production from all phases cannot exceed the
capacity of the mining fleet. All constraints must be continually checked to ensure
only achievable cash flows are used in the optimisation.

Speed of solutions

The iterative solution described in this paper involves calculation of a cash flow and
remaining value estimate to determine the operating strategy as the reserve is mined.
Due to the sequential nature of the algorithm, the objective function (Equation II) is
calculated to determine if an increment of reserve should be mined in a period. For
this reason the solution time of each iteration is approximately proportional to the
product of the number of operating strategies and the number of reserve increments.
Without taking into account the sequential nature of this problem, the complexity
increases the solution time exponentially (see Figure 2).

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10,000,000,000

1,000,000,000 N = P^L
Alternate Combinations (Exponential)
100,000,000

10,000,000
Number of Calculations, N
( ~ Solution Time )

1,000,000

100,000
Note:
P = Period Policy Options
10,000 N = Number of calculations
L = Life

1,000

100

N=PxL N=2xPxL N=3xPxL N=4xPxL N=5xPxL

10
1 Iteration or 2 Iterations 3 Iterations 4 Iterations 5 Iterations
Dynamic Programming Solution
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Life, L (Years)

Figure 2 Growth in Problem Complexity and Calculations

Figure 2 shows the relatively small increase in complexity with additional policy
decisions, known as a polynomial-time algorithm, making it an efficient optimisation
algorithm.

Normally, 5 to 20 iterations are sufficient to converge on a maximum value schedule

with cut-off grade, production rate and all other policies evaluated in every period.
This is achieved in 2 to 200 minutes, depending on the complexity of the problem.

Multiple Policy Optimisation

Cash flow and remaining value are maximised by calculating every policy
combination, then picking the highest value option that honours all the constraints.
Simultaneous optimisation of several different policies requires all the combinations
of policies be evaluated (exhaustive search) unless the boundary points can be
identified. If processing time is short or cash flow functions do not allow boundary
points to be calculated, then all combinations of policies must be evaluated.
Evaluation of all policy combinations for each period allows greatest flexibility to
modelling cost and revenue drivers in the cash flow.

For example, consider a sequentially mined reserve that has only one policy to be
optimised, a single element cut-off grade. If there were 10 discrete cut-off grades,
assume this would take 10 seconds to process all the reserve increments.

If a second element cut-off grade was also to be evaluated, with, say, 5 different cut-
off grade options, then the solution would take approximately 50 seconds (10x5). If
on top of these there were 2 different mill configurations, the solution would take
approximately 100 seconds (10x5x2). The solution time estimates are approximate
because of the different overhead associated with evaluating the different options.

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Sequencing

A single-sequence schedule optimisation would typically enforce three constraints:

mining capacity, processing capacity and market capacity. Waste stripping and ore
phases would typically be combined before evaluating the cut-off grade policy. Cut-
off grade and production policies generated from a fixed sequence have limited
information on practical constraints such as undercutting, access or sinking limits,
hence impossible strategies can be recommended. By adding multiple sequences to
this problem (eg multiple pushbacks), an order of magnitude more realistic constraints
may be applied (typically 10 to 50 sinking rate and elevation constraints). By
incorporating the sequencing of reserves with the other operating policies (including
cut-off grade), a much more realistic schedule can be generated.

Large mining operations will typically have many alternate sequences of rock that can
be scheduled. Examples where multi-sequence reserves must be mined include:

§ Multiple pit or pushback surface mines

§ Multiple stope underground mines

§ Combined surface and underground operations

§ Mining policies that produce stockpiles

As with single-sequence optimisation, an accurate estimate of the remaining value of

a reserve is required to achieve the highest value schedule. Figure 3 illustrates how
multiple sequences of material may be modelled to calculate both the cash flow and
remaining value.

A ) No Mining tA1

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Period Length
Pl

B ) Mining A 1

A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
A1

C ) Mining A1,A2 & B1

B1 A3 A4 A5 B2 B3 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
A2
A1

Figure 3 Multi Sequence Scheduling

The sets of reserve increments (A1-5, B1-7 & C1-6) in Figure 3 represent three fixed
segments that must be mined. In the first 'seed' schedule, all the increments are mined
sequentially with the time and value of each increment known. To determine if the
next increment should be mined (A1), the total value of the cash flow from A1 and
the remaining value of the sequence must be greater than the case where nothing is

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mined. The same calculation would then be applied to evaluate if it was worth mining
the next increment, A2.

Mining of the first reserve segment continues until either it is uneconomic, or exceeds
a constraint (for example, a phase sinking limit). Undercutting, access and sinking
rate limits often stop a phase before the total mining capacity is reached. At some
point, perhaps when the mill is full of high grade material, it will no longer be
economic to keep mining the next increment from the first phase.

At this time, with sufficient mining capacity, the first increment from the next phase
(B1) is evaluated. The value must be calculated differently since not all the remaining
reserve value is moved forward. The economics of the entire reserve value will
determine how much prestripping should be done, and from where. Since every
combination of phase mining does not require evaluation in a period, this is an
efficient algorithm. Schedules for blending problems where the remaining value is
substantially impacted by the combination of blocks mined may require a more
rigorous analysis. The decision of which period to mine each reserve increment is
revisited in every iteration.

Phase Design (Surface Pushbacks & Underground Stopes)

The starting point for the scheduling was chosen to lie after a prioritised set of phases
were designed (surface pushbacks and underground stopes). Where the priority of
each reserve sequence is not clear, a number of alternate sequences may need to be
evaluated. Clearly, if the phases have not been well designed, the resulting schedule
values will never approach optimum. Figure 4 is a cross-section showing a valuable
mineral, mined by two different pushback designs.

Figure 4 Staged Pushback Designs

The first (left) design shows that the deeper, main high grade orebody is mined first,
followed by three pushbacks. While this may lead to a profitable mining operation, a
more profitable design may mine the top half of Pushback 2 before the ore in the
bottom of Pushback 1 is exposed (right). Pushback design based on the Lerch-
Grossman pit shells may guide the design engineer to the best strategy (even though
this algorithm does not consider time varying properties or production constraints).
Phase design is assumed to have the highest value blocks that can be practically
mined, grouped in the highest priority phase.

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Examples

A number of examples are discussed to illustrate the application of the theory

presented in this paper. Specific operation details have been excluded so as not to
distract from the principles presented.

Why Mine Waste?

This first example is used to show how the optimisation formula (Equation II) would
choose to mine a bench of waste in order to bring forward the value of the reserve
below.

Consider a bench of waste which, at a cost of $100, takes 3 months to mine. Using a
discount rate of 10%, the discounted value of the reserve after the waste is removed is
$1000. One strategy would not mine the waste until the second year, deferring the
waste stripping costs. If the waste is mined in the second year then the discounted
cost of waste mining drops by $9 (from $100 to $91). The value of this option would
be calculated as the sum of the waste value, delayed until the start of following
period, and the remaining reserve value. The remaining reserve would be mined at
the end of the waste blocks, 3 months after the start of the second year. The
discounted value of the reserve is calculated (assuming no fixed costs) as:

 − $100 $1000 
VNo Mining = $0 +  + 1.25 
= $797
 (1 + 0.1) (1 + 0.1) 
1

A second strategy would mine the entire waste block in the first year to allow mining
of the remaining reserve at the start of the second year. The discounted value of this
option would be calculated by:

 $1000 
VWaste Mining = −$100 +  1
= $809
 (1 + 0.1) 

In spite of the increase in waste mining costs of $9, the above example shows a $12
increase in value if the waste is mined in the first year. Early waste mining allows the
revenue from the remaining reserve to be recovered 3 months (0.25 years) earlier.
Other mining policies may provide an even higher value of the total reserve, the
policy that gives the highest value for the entire reserve is adopted in each period.

Cut-off Grade & Production

The cut-off grade policy is closely related to the production policy in a constrained
operation. As more of the reserve is mined in a period, the period cut-off grade must
increase until the processing and market limits are met. With low production rates
relative to mill and market capacities, the cut-off grade would stay on the economic
break even grade, referred to as 'mine constrained'.

The following example demonstrates how the optimisation function (Equation II) is
used to determine how the cut-off grade policy is evaluated. Consider an initial
schedule mining a deposit in all periods at the economic break even cut-off grade.

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Filling the first year's processing capacity with material above the breakeven cut-off
grade results in a cash flow of $200. The next increment scheduled for processing
contributes $50 to the second year's cash flow. Assuming that the block uses 10% of
the second year's capacity and that the remaining value is $1000, the reserve value
would be calculated as:

 $50 $1000 
VBreak Even Cut − off Grade = $200 +  + 1.1 
= $1146
 (1 + 0.1) (1 + 0.1) 
1

If the next increment is mined in the first period with a higher cut-off grade adding
$40 to the cash flow, the reserve value would now be:

 $1000 
VHigh Cut −off Grade = $240 +  1
= $1149
 (1 + 0.1) 

In this case, there is an economic advantage to loosing some value from the next
increment, to bring a higher overall value to the reserve. Consider the same situation
except that more of the reserve has been mined, leaving only $300 remaining value.

 $50 $300 
VBreak Even Cut − off Grade = $200 +  + 1.1 
= $516
 (1 + 0.1) (1 + 0.1) 
1

If the next increment is mined in the earlier period, the reserve value would now be:

 $300 
VHigh Cut −off Grade = $240 +  1
= $513
 (1 + 0 . 1) 

This second case shows higher reserve value if the break even cut-off grade policy is
adopted. In practice, a cut-off grade between the two options calculated may provide
an even higher value. This example shows how the cut-off grade will change
depending on the grade/mass distribution, economic environment of each period and
the discount rate.

A homogeneous deposit in constant economic environment would yield declining cut-

off grade and mine production policies. More realistic sequences of grade
distributions and economic scenarios result in variable cut-off grade and production
rate policies. The following graph shows the variable production rate and cut-off
grade strategies for a hypothetical deposit with fixed mining and processing
capacities.

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Cut-off Grade & Production Strategy
80 10.0
Total Mass
70 Ore - Mass 9.0
Cut-off Grade 8.0
60
7.0
50 6.0
40 5.0

30 4.0
3.0
20
2.0
10 1.0
- -
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024
Time Period

Figure 5 Strategies for Fixed Mining and Processing Capacities

Figure 5 shows a variable cut-off grade and production strategy throughout the life of
the operation. At the start of mining, cut-off grades are low since the proportion of
high grade material is low during the initial stripping. Other low cut-off grade periods
correspond to periods when the available reserve grades are low, typically stripping
additional pushbacks. The last half of the schedule shows the more classic declining
cut-off grade policy.

Process Operating Configurations

Process operating configurations refer to different ways of operating a processing

plant without the addition of any major capital. An example of this may be running a
mill at maximum recovery and low throughput, or reduced recovery with higher
throughput. This has been discussed by King (1997, 1999) and Wooller (1999). The
following example (Figure 6) shows how the optimum cut-off grade and production
policies would alter from the previous section if the processing capacity could be
changed. For this example, an increase in throughput from 25Mt up to 40Mt has an
associated one percent drop in recovery for every extra 1Mt processed.

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Cut-off Grade, Production & Throughput Strategies
80 10.0
Total Mass
70
Ore - Mass 9.0
Cut-off Grade
8.0
60
7.0
50 6.0
40 5.0

30 4.0
3.0
20
2.0
10 1.0
- -
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022
Time Period

Figure 6 Strategies for Flexible Processing Capacity

There is a significant relationship on Figure 6, between cut-off grade and mill

throughput (Ore Mass). During low cut-off grade periods, the mill is also run at lower
throughput to increase the recovery. In this variable mill throughput case, 30%
additional reserve was processed while reducing the mine life by 2 years. An
economic balance is found to determine if it is better to change the cut-off grade, mill
throughput, mined production, mining sequence, or a combination of all.

Terminal Value and Rehabilitation

Mine closure has been of increasing importance over the last few decades of planning
mining operations. Lane's work assumed that the value after the entire reserve had
been consumed was zero (V*(0) = 0). King (1998) discussed the impact of closure
and rehabilitation costs on the mining strategies employed, assuming the terminal
value was assumed to be a constant (V*(0) = k).

King (1998) showed how by ignoring or inappropriately modelling mine closure and
rehabilitation costs, changes in production rate, cut-off grade and mine life ended in
lower value schedules. Many mining companies now provide closure plans before the
operation is started. As the magnitude of these costs increase, there is greater value in
making sure these costs are appropriately modelled in the mine plans.

Conclusions

The optimisation algorithm discussed in this paper can be used to determine a large
number of strategies simultaneously. These strategies may combine mining,
processing, marketing and environmental issues to maximise the operation value. As
with all optimisation tools, care must be taken to ensure they are used appropriately in
light of their assumption base.

Policies that were simultaneously optimised included cut-off grade, production rate,
phase sequencing and processing configurations. Multi-element deposits with many

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geometric and production constraints were modelled to ensure only realistic schedules
were considered. The application of this technique has generated realistic, high NPV
schedules, normally requiring only minutes of computing time. The speed of this
approach appears suitable for extension to shorter term decision-making within the
framework on an optimum long-term plan.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the many professional engineers at Rio Tinto Technical Services who have
willingly gave encouragement and ideas to help create a tool that would be relevant to
operations planning engineers. To Nigel Forward, Chris Willows, Jon Gliddon,
Terry-Friese Green, John Rickus and Keith Erlam who had the vision to advance this
field of research. Mike Whateley for his enthusiastic support and endless proof
reading. To Chris Carter and those at Bingham Canyon and Lihir who helped test the
early systems and pushed the scheduling scope to several challenging new areas.
Thanks also to the management at Rio Tinto Technical Services for permission to
publish this paper.

References

Lane K F, 1964. “Choosing the optimum cut-off grade”, Quarterly of the Colorado
School of Mines Vol 59 No4 and . Group Planning Dept RTZ London 59 pp 811-829

Lane, KF, 1988. “The Economic Definition of Ore - Cut-off Grades Theory and
Practice”. Mining Journal Books Limited, London.

King, BM, 1997. “Optimisation of Process Configurations in Practical Long Term

Mine Schedules”, M.Phil/PhD Transfer Report, Royal School of Mines, Imperial
College, London University, UK.

King B M, 1998. "The impact of rehabilitation and closure costs on production rate
and cut-off grade strategy", APCOM 98, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, London.

King B M, 1999. "Cash Flow Grades - Scheduling Rocks with Different Throughput
Characteristics", Whittle Strategic Mine Planning Conference, Perth.

Whittle J and Wharton C, 1995. "Optimising cut-off grades", Optimising with

Whittle. pp 160-169.

Wooller, R, 1997. “Who needs mine and mill constraints?”. Whittle Strategic Mine
Planning Conference, Perth, 1997.

Wooller, R, 1999. “Cut-off Grades Beyond the Mine – Optimising Mill Throughput”.
Whittle Strategic Mine Planning Conference, Perth, 1999.

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