Republic of the Philippines

President Ramon Magsaysay State University

(formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines

Course Title: Biological Science

Topic: Chapter II
Instructor: Mrs. Adelia A. Calimlim
Student’s Name: Naomi M. de la Cruz

CELL- Basic structural and functional unit of life.

First to View Cells

Robert Hooke
• In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope to
examine a thin slice of cork (dead plant cell walls)
• What he saw looked like small boxes
• Hooke is responsible for naming cells
• Hooke called them “CELLS” because they looked like the small rooms that monks
lived in called Cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch microscope maker), was first to view organism
(living things)
• Leeuwenhoek used a simple, handheld microscope to view pond water &
scrapings from his teeth.
Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1838, a German botanist named Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants
were made of cells
• Schleiden is a cofounder of the cell theory
• In 1839, a German zoologist named Theodore Schwann concluded that all animals
were made of cells
• Schwann also cofounded the cell theory
• In 1855, a German medical doctor named Rudolph Virchow observed, under the
microscope, cells dividing
• He reasoned that all cells come from other pre-existing cells

CELL THEORY
1. All living things are made of cells

2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in

an organism (basic unit of life)

3. Cells come from the reproduction of existing

cells (cell division)

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CELL ORGANELLES

a. Cell or Plasma Membrane

- Acts as a barrier and a selective permeable membrane.
- Protects the cell from outside environment.
- Heads are hydrophilic (water loving)
- Tails are hydrophobic (water fearing)
b. Cytoplasm
- Liquid portion of the cell
- Contains organelles to carry out specific jobs
- Found in ALL cells
c. Nucleus
- Usually the largest organelle
- Controls the normal activities of the cell
- Contains the DNA in chromosomes
d. Nucleolus
- Inside nucleus
e. Cytoskeleton
- Helps cell maintain cell shape
- Also help move organelles around
- Made of proteins
1. Microfilaments are threadlike & made of ACTIN
2. Microtubules are tubelike & made of TUBULIN
3. Intermediate Filaments
f. Centrioles
- Found only in animal cells
- Made of bundle of microtubules
- Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle
- Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends of the cell
g. Mitochondria
- “Powerhouse” of the cell
- Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION.
- Has its own DNA
- Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE
h. Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER
- Network of hollow membrane tubules
- Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
- Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
o Has ribosomes on its surface
b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
o lacks ribosomes on its surface
i. Ribosomes
- “Protein factories” for cell
j. Golgi apparatus
- Modify, sort, & package molecules from ER for storage OR transport out of cell
k. Lysosomes
- Contain digestive enzymes
- Acts as a suicidal organelle
- Cells take in food by phagocytosis
- Cells take in liquid by pinocytosis
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CELLULAR REPRODUCTION AND GENETICS
CHROMOSOME

- It is a combination of two words, i.e., “Chroma”-means ‘colour’ and “somes”-

means ‘body’.
- So the coloured thread like bodies present in the nucleoplasm of the living cells,
which helps in the inheritance (transmission) of characters in form of Genes from
generation to generation are known as CHROMOSOMES.
- Humans have 46 chromosomes.

Anatomy of a Chromosome

- Centromere - point where sister chromatids are joined

together
- P=short arm; upward

- Q=long arm; downward

- Telomere-tips of chromosome

Types of Chromosomes:

a. Autosomes = Body chromosomes or non sex chromosomes ( humans have 44

or 22 pairs)
b. Sex Chromosomes = XX or XY (23rd pair for humans) determines the sex of the
offspring
Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.

o Diploid (2n) : two sets of chromosomes

 Found in all the non-sex cells or autosomes of an organism's body

(with a few exceptions).
 Examples include humans (46), crayfish (200), etc.
 Haploid (n) contains one set of chromosomes.

 In the life cycle of many animals, only sperm and egg cells(sex
cells) have the haploid number.
 Examples include humans (23), crayfish (100), etc.
CELL CYCLE

- The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division

1. Interphase
• Interphase is the growth stage

• Cell Grows
• Genetic material is copied
• Prepares for division

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 a. G1 phase (“first gap”)
- The cell increases in volume

- It makes proteins needed for DNA replication and copies some of

its organelles in preparation for cell division.
- A cell typically spends most of its life in this phase.
b. Synthesis Phase (S)

- during this phase, the cell’s DNA is copied in the process of DNA replication.
-
c. G2 (Growth Phase 2)
- during this phase, the cell makes final preparations to divide. For example, it
makes additional proteins and organelles.
- This phase is sometimes referred to as Gap 2.

2. Cell Division

-A cell must divide to:

 Grow
 Reproduce
 Repair damaged tissues
Two types of cell division:
Mitosis and Meiosis

1. Mitosis is the shortest stage of the cell cycle where the nuclear contents divide, and
two daughter nuclei are formed.
It occurs in 4 stages:

1. Prophase 3. Anaphase
2. Metaphase 4. Telophase

1. PROPHASE

Prophase is characterized by four events:

- Chromosomes condense and are more visible.

- The nuclear membrane (envelope) disappears.
- Centrioles have separated and taken positions on the opposite poles
of the cell.
- Spindle fibers form and radiate toward the center of the cell.
2. METAPHASE

Metaphase (the shortest phase of mitosis) is characterized by two events:

a) Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.

b) Spindle fibers connect the centromere of each sister chromatid to the poles of the
cell.

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3. ANAPHASE
Anaphase is characterized by three events:

a) Centromeres that join the sister chromatids split.

b) Sister chromatids separate becoming individual chromosomes.
c) Separated chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.

4. TELOPHASE

Telophase (the last phase of mitosis) consists of four events:

a) Chromosomes (each consisting of a single chromatid) uncoil.

b) A nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes at each pole of the cell.
c) Spindle fibers break down and dissolve.
d) Cytokinesis begins.

Cytokinesis
- Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm into two individual cells.
- The process of cytokinesis differs somewhat in plant and animal cells.
- In animal cells the cell membrane forms a cleavage furrow that eventually
pinches the cell into two nearly equal parts, each part containing its own
nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.
- In plant cells, a cell plate forms.

Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical daughter cells.

MEIOSIS
• In sexually reproducing organisms, the special kind of cell division where the
chromosome number of the cells is reduced to half its usual number is called
MEIOSIS.
• This kind of cell division is called meiosis, from a Greek word which means “to make
smaller.”
• Meiosis is SEXUAL reproduction.
• It takes place in plants and animals whenever gametes, or sex cells, are formed
through the process called gametogenesis.
2 types of gametogenesis:
(1) Male: SPERMATOGENESIS -sperm
(2) Female: OOGENESIS - egg or ova
Gametes

- The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is produced in the male gonad the Testes.
- The Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.) and is produced in the female gonad
the Ovaries.

• Meiosis is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two rounds of cell
division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the chromosome number as the
original parent cell and with a unique set of genetic material as a result of exchange
of chromosome segments during the process of crossing over.

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Interphase I
• Similar to mitosis interphase.
• Chromosomes replicate (S phase).

• Each duplicated chromosome consist of two identical sister chromatids attached

at their centromeres.
• Centriole pairs also replicate.
MEIOSIS I
• The first round of meiotic division
4 stages:

• PROPHASE I
• METAPHASE I
• ANAPHASE I
• TELOPHASE I

 Prophase I
1. Leptotene. Each chromosome is made up of two long threads of
sister chromatids as a result of replication during the S phase of the
cell cycle.
2. Zygotene. The chromosomes begin to pair off. Pairs of chromosomes
are called homologous chromosomes, and this pairing process is
exact.
3. Pachytene. The chromosomes contract due to repeated coiling.
Crossing over takes place during this stage where a segment of a
sister chromatid of one chromosome is exchanged with the same
segment of the sister chromatid of the homologous chromosome
through the formation of a cross-linkage of the segments called a
chiasma. After crossing over, the sister chromatids of each
chromosome may no longer be identical with each other based on
the genetic material they contain.
4. Diplotene. The chromosomes begin to uncoil.
5. Diakinesis. The paired chromosomes disperse in the nucleus.
 Metaphase I. The paired chromosomes arrange themselves along the equatorial
plate.
 Anaphase I. Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of the
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes separate from each other
completely and start their movement toward the poles of the cells as they are
pulled by the spindle fibers. As the centromere of each chromosome does not
divide, the sister chromatids remain together.
 Telophase I. This is the stage when the chromosomes reach their respective poles.
Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed. Each cell now has only half
the chromosome number because only one chromosome from each pair goes to
the daughter cell. This is called the haploid condition, in contrast to the diploid
condition at the beginning of meiosis I where each chromosome pair is intact.
Telophase I is followed by interphase II.

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  Note that each chromosome still has two sister chromatids; it is therefore necessary
for the cells to undergo another round of division.

MEIOSIS II
o The second meiotic division, also known as meiosis II, is mitotic in nature and
consists of the following stages: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and
telophase II; these stages are identical with the mitotic stages. The results are four
cells, two from each daughter cell from meiosis I, with one half the diploid
chromosome number and with only one sister chromatid for each chromosome.

ROLE OF MEIOSIS IN GAMETOGENESIS

o Gametes such as eggs and sperms unite during fertilization, forming a diploid
zygote.
o The zygote has one set of chromosomes from the male parent and another set
from the female parent.
o In humans, both father and mother contribute 23 chromosomes each through
their gametes.
o Thus, the zygote has 46 chromosomes. The zygote divides many times. This
produces a new diploid multicellular organism.

LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

1. Atom
It is the most basic and fundamental unit of matter.
2. Molecule
The formation of chemical bonds between two or more atoms leads to the
formation of a molecule.
3. Organelle
It is the subunit of a cell, and consists of a group of functioning biomolecules.
4. Cell
It is considered as the basic unit and building block of life.
5. Tissue
This level is a combination of different types of cells which perform specialized functions.
Different types are the nervous, muscle, connective, and epithelial tissues.
6. Organ
It performs certain functions with the help of different tissues. Organs can be classified on
the basis of the functions they perform.
7. Organ System
Organs working together
to perform certain functions form organ systems.
8. Organism
An organism could either be unicellular or multicellular.
9. Population
It is the term used in reference to a group of organisms which belong to the same species.
10. Community
Two or more populations together constitute a community. It is characterized by
interactions that take place between constituent populations of different species.
11. Ecosystem

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The term ecosystem is defined as an area or environment, where one or more
communities can thrive and flourish.
12. Biosphere
It is simply defined as the place, area, and zone where the entire life on Earth exists.

ANIMAL TISSUE

FOUR TYPES OF TISSUE

1. MUSCLE TISSUE - Contract for Movement and support
A. Skeletal Muscle –voluntary(works when you want it to)
B. Cardiac Muscle -only found in the heart
-involuntary (works all the time)
C. Smooth Muscle-involuntary (works all the time)
2. NERVE TISSUE
-gives signals to muscles, informs us of environmental conditions (hot, cold)
-found in brain, spinal cord, nerves
A. Unipolar neuron
-are typically sensory neurons with receptors located within the skin, joints, muscles, and
internal organs. The axons of such neurons are usually long, terminating in the spinal cord
B. Bipolar neurons
-are relatively rare
-are sensory neurons found in olfactory epithelium, the retina of the eye, and ganglia of
the vestibulocochlear nerve
C. Multipolar neuron
-the most common type of neuron
-located in the central nervous system(brain and spinal cord) and in autonomic ganglia.
3.EPITHELIAL TISSUE -lines our organs

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4. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-connects, supports and protecst other tissue
-ligaments, tendons, bones, blood, fibers (organ walls)
Types of Connective Tissue

PLANT TISSUE