A.

Sentence
Sentence is a group of word which has at least S+V and has
complete meaning.
1. Simple sentences

A simple sentence structure contains one independent

clause and no dependent clauses.
Example: I run.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which
contains one subject, I, and one verb, run.
Example: The girl ran into her bedroom.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which
contains one subject, girl, and one predicate, ran into her
bedroom. The predicate is a verb phrase that consists of
more than one word.
Example: In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at
the cat.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which
contains one subject, dog, and one predicate, barked and
howled at the cat.

2. Compound sentences

In English language, a compound sentence is composed of

at least two independent clauses. It does not require a
dependent clause. The clauses are joined by
a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a
semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a colon instead
of a semicolon between two sentences when the second
sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no
coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the
sentences, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a
semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound
sentence. Conjunctions are words such as and, but, or,
nor, so, and yet.
 Examples:
I started on time, but I arrived late.
I will accept your offer or decline it; these are the two
options.
The law was passed: from April 1, all cars would have to
be tested.
The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was
occupied.
The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses
without the addition of an appropriate conjunction is called
a comma splice and is generally considered an error (when
used in the English language). Example:

The sun was shining, everyone appeared happy.

If a sentence contains homogenous members referring to
another common member of the sentence, the sentence may
be considered either simple. or compound. If the
homogenous members are removed, then the sentence is
called contracted. In some languages, like Russian, a
comma is not always required in a sentence with
homogenous members.

Alex likes to fish, and he is going fishing on Friday —

Alex likes to fish, and is going fishing on Friday.

3. Complex Sentences

In a complex sentence, a subordinate clause functions as

part of a main clause. This type of sentence is very
flexible, allowing us to make a wide range of different links
between situations or ideas.

What kinds of meanings do you think are added by the

highlighted subordinate clauses in these examples?
Warm ocean water heated by the Sun cannot rise because it
is already at the top of the ocean.

If it’s a really nice day we could walk.

I put Emily back in her own bed after she’d fallen asleep.

The subordinate clause adds a different type of meaning in

each example: a reason (because ...), a condition (if ...), a
time (after ...).

In each of these examples, the subordinate clause functions

as an Adverbial. In terms of grammar, the Adverbials are
not essential to complete the sentences (i.e. if we leave
these clauses out we still have complete sentences), but
they add circumstantial meaning.

There are many other kinds of meanings that can be added

with different subordinating conjunctions like although,
unless and whereas.

Complex sentences are often used to report the content of

what someone says or thinks:

The Foreign Secretary said that the Gulf War had exposed
deep divisions and differences between member states on
key issues.

But afterwards she thought her experience had been worth

it.

I was only wondering how it works.

In these examples the subordinate clauses (highlighted)

function as Direct Object: they come right after the verb
phrases of the main clauses and are very important in
completing the sentence structure. They tell us what the
Foreign Secretary said; what 'she' thought, and what 'I' was
wondering.
 Note: We have focused here on complex sentences
with finite subordinate clauses (i.e clauses with tensed
verbs). In other resources we will also look
at nonfinite subordinate clauses (i.e. those without tensed
verbs), as in Coming down the stairs, she fell and twisted
her ankle.,.

4. The Compound-Complex Sentence

The compound-complex sentence combines elements of

compound and complex sentences. It is the most
sophisticated type of sentence you can use. Understanding
how to construct the compound-complex sentence will help
you take your writing to a new level of complexity.
Understanding Clauses A clause is comprised of at least
one subject and one verb. There are two types of clauses:
the independent clause and the dependent clause.
Independent Clause An independent clause makes a
statement or asks a question that can act as a complete
sentence.

Example: The dog barks.

Dependent Clause A dependent clause cannot act as a

complete sentence because it begins with a subordinating
word, such as when, because, if, whoever, etc.

Example: When the dog barks.

All grammatically correct sentences have at least one

independent clause, and, therefore, they have at least one
subject and one verb. Identifying Compound and Complex
Sentences The Compound Sentence A compound sentence
is made up of two independent clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction (for,
 and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) and a comma or by a
semicolon alone.

Example: The pirate captain lost her treasure map, but she
still found the buried treasure.

The Complex Sentence a complex sentence combines a

dependent clause with an independent clause. When the
dependent clause is placed before the independent clause,
the two clauses are divided by a comma; otherwise, no
punctuation is necessary.

Example: Because the soup was too cold, I warmed it in the

micro wave.

Constructing Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-

complex sentence is comprised of at least two independent
clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Example:

Though Mitchell prefers watching romantic films, he rented

the latest spy thriller, and he enjoyed it very much.

Laura forgot her friend's birthday, so she sent her a card

when she finally remembered.

Because compound-complex sentences are normally longer

than other sentences, it is very important to punctuate them
correctly.
B. Clause
A clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a
subject and a finite verb. A clause contains only one subject
and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or
hidden, but the verb must be apparent and distinguishable.
A clause “a group of words containing a subject and
predicate and functioning as a member of a complex or
compound sentence.

Base on the function in a sentence, there are two kinds of

clause:
1. Independent Clause
An independent clause is a clause which has complete
meaning and can stand alone without other clause.
Independent clause functions on its own to make a
meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular
sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by
the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
He is a wise man.
I like him.
Can you do it?
Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
I read the whole story.
I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money.
(Two independent clauses)
He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the
second clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an
independent clause.)
Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent
clause)
2. Dependent Clause
A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it
leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called
 subordinate clause. Dependent clauses help the independent
clauses complete the sentence. A dependent clause alone
cannot form a complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the
dependent clause to another clause to complete the
sentence. In each of the dependent clause, the first word is
a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns,
subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
I know the man who stole the watch.
He bought a car which was too expensive.
I know that he cannot do it.
He does not know where he was born.
If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
He is a very talented player though he is out of form.

Clause base on their name:

1. Noun clause

Noun Clause is a dependent clause that functions

as a noun. This noun clause can serve as a subject or object
in a clause or another phrase. The noun clause is also used
or has the same function as a noun. Due to its function as a
noun, the noun clause can function as: object of a verb,
subject of a sentence, complement , object of a preposition
and the whistlerline. (noun in apposition).
Dependent clause is a phrase that contains the
subject and main verb but does not stand alone,but rather it
becomes part of another sentence.Noun clause is a clause
that occupies the position of noun that is thr subject of the
object or complement of the parent sentence.
Preceded by a noun clause markers is a question
word, if or whether, and that. The noun clause is divided
into 2, question (Question) and sentence (statement). Here's
an explanation with examples for each.

1) Noun clause marker

Question words:
 what (time, kind, day, etc)
 who(ever)
 whose
 whom(ever)
 which(ever)
 where(ever)
 when(ever)
 how (long, far, many times, old, etc)
Formula: S + V + O
Example: I + know + where she lived
* The object is a noun clause.
2) Using IF/whether

The two words in this case mean "do". This word

is used for question words with answers yes or No.
Example:
Has She launch?
I don't know if she has launch or not
3) Statement

It is always preceded by that which means "that".

This Noun clause is usually preceded by a parent
sentence with a verb such as:
 assume
 believe
 discover
 dream
 guess
 hear
 hope
 know
 learn
  notice
 predict
 prove
 realize
 suppose
 suspect

4) Example Of Noun Clause

1) Question word
What she cooked was delicious. (As subject)
I want to know how he was in real. (Direct object)
There’s no reward for whoever finishes first.
(object of preposition)
I listened carefully to what she said. (object of
preposition)
The girl comes from where many people live in
poverty. (object of preposition)
if/whether
A: Where does Andy live?
B: I wonder if he lives in West Jakarta. (direct
object)
A: Does Andy live on Banana Street?
B1: I don’t know if he lives on Banana Street or not.
(direct object)
B2: I don’t know whether or not he lives on Banana
Street. (direct object)

2) That
 That today is his birthday is not right. (subject)
 I think that the group will arrive in an hour.
(direct object)
 The fact is that more than a hundred million
people live in the ten largest cities in the world.
(subject complement)
 We were worried that she couldn’t recover from
divorce.(adjective complement)

There are some functions of Noun Clause:

  As a Subject of a Verb
That tomorrow is her graduation is true
What she drew was beautiful
 As a Subject Complement
The fact is that she is smart and beautiful.
She must be whoever allows people to ask.
 As a Object of a Verb
Dimas believes that his dream will come true.
Bobby want to know how you feel.
 As a Object of a preposition
The man comes from where many people there live in
welfare.
 As a Adjective Complement
We were worried that she couldn’t back here.

2. Adjective clause
Adjective clause is a group of words which
contains a Subject and Predicate of its own, and does the
work of an adjective. Adjective clauses can be reduced to
adjective phrases under certain grammatical conditions. In
the examples below, you will see a noun modified by an
adjective clause and then an example of the same noun
modified by the shorter adjective phrase. The red dots
indicate that the main clause is incomplete as you are
focusing only on clause-to-phrase reduction in these
examples. For such reductions to occur, the relative
pronoun must be a subject pronoun in all cases.

Grammatical
Clause Phrase
Condition
Verb in adjective
People who live in people living in
clause is an
large cities... large cities...
active verb
Verb in adjective Students who are Students studying
clause is studying at urban at urban
progressive campuses... campuses...
Children born with
Children who are
Verb in adjective congenital heart
born with congenital
clause is passive disease... (the
heart disease...
preferred style)
Adj. clause has
Children most
the verb be + Children who are
likely to recover
adjective + most likely to recover
from serious
infinitive from serious illness...
illness...
complement
Dr. Francisco
Ramirez, chief
Adj. clause has pediatric surgeon
Dr. Francisco
another name for at Children's
Ramirez, who is chief
the modified Hospital,... the
pediatric surgeon at
noun (an appositive phrase
Children's Hospital,...
appositive) is preferred style
and is non-
restrictive.
Relative pronoun use who subject or object pronoun for
people which subject or object pronoun for animals and
things which referring to a whole sentence whose
possession for people animals and things whom object
pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative
clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer
who) that subject or object pronoun for people, animals and
things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also
possible).

relative pronoun Use

who subject or object pronoun for people

subject or object pronoun for animals

which
and things

which referring to a whole sentence

possession for people animals and

whose
things

object pronoun for people, especially

in non-defining relative clauses (in
whom
defining relative clauses we
colloquially prefer who)

subject or object pronoun for people,

animals and things in defining relative
that
clauses (who or which are also
possible)
USUAL PATTERNS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

S + Be/V + Adjective Clause

N/Pronoun
Relative Pronoun + S + V

Example:
a. A pilot is a person who flies an air plane.
b. This is the picture that I like very much.
c. An expert is a person who has special knowledge in one
area.
d. I have just met the girl whose car is Mitsubishi.
e. Lucia wears suit which cost US $ 250.
f. That is the place where the victim was found.
USUAL AND LESS USUAL ADJECTIVE

(a) USUAL: I like the people who live next to me.

LESS USUAL: I like the people that live next to me.
*In everyday informal usage, often one adjective clause
pattern is used more commonly than another. In (a): As
subject pronoun, who is more common than that.*

(b) USUAL: I like books that have good plots.

LESS USUAL: I like books which have good plots.
*In (b): As a subject pronoun, that is more common
than which.*

(c) USUAL: I like the people I met last night.

(d) USUAL: I like the book I read last night.
*In (c) and (d): Object pronouns are commonly omitted,
especially in speaking.*
USING ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
1. Using Whose
a. I know the man His bicycle was stolen.
↓
I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
b. The student writes well I read her composition
↓
The student whose composition I read writes well.

*Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same

meaning as other possessive pronouns used as
adjectives: his, her, its, and their. Like his, her, its, and
their, whose is connected to a noun:
His bicycle → whose bicycle
Her composition → whose composition
Both whose and the noun it is connected to are placed at
the beginning of the adjective clause. Whose cannot be
omitted.*
2. Using Where

a. The building is very old.

He lives there (in that building)

b. The building where he lives is very old.

The building in which he lives is very old.
The building which he lives in is very old.
The building that he lives in is very old.
The building he lives in is very old.
 *Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a
place (city, country, room, house, etc.).*
*If where is used, a preposition in NOT included in
the adjective clause, as in (a). If where is not used,
the preposition must be included, as in (b).*
I’ll never forget the day.
I met you then (on that day).
3. Use When
a. I’ll never forget the day. I met you then (on that
day).
b. I’ll never forget the day when I met you.
I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.
I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
I’ll never forget the day I met you.

*When is used in an adjective clause to modify a

noun of time (year, day, time, century, etc.).*
*The use of a preposition in an adjective clause that
modifies a noun of time is somewhat different from
yhat in order adjective clauses: a preposition is used
preceding which, as in (b). Otherwise, the
preposition is omitted.*
4. Using Adjective Clauses to Modify Pronouns
a. There is someone (whom) I want you to meet.
Everything he said was pure nonsense.
Anybody who wants to come is welcome.
*Adjective clauses can modify indefinite pronouns
(e.g., someone, everything, everybody). Object
 pronouns (e.g., who(m), that, which) are usually
omitted in the adjective clause.*
b. Paula was the only one I knew at the party.
Scholarship are available for those who need
financial assitance.
*Adjective clauses can modify the one(s) and
those.*
5. Using Subject Pronouns: Who, Which, That
Adjective Clause / Relative Clause with Subject
Pronouns: "Who", "Which", "That"
 Example without Adjective clause
I will introduce you to a friend. He runs a successful
business.
 Using Adjective clause
I will introduce you to a friend who runs a
successful business.
I will introduce you to a friend that runs a successful
business.

"Who", "which" or "that" is the subject of the adjective

clause.
"Who" is used to change the form of the subject.
"Which" is used to change the subject in the form of
objects.
"That" is used to change the form of the subject and the
object, and is more commonly used than "which".
However, "that" can only be used in defining relative
clause only. (Read Using the Adjective Clause Merge
Sentences (Relative Clause).
6. Using Object Pronouns: Who(m), Which, That
Adjective Clause / Relative Clause with Object
Pronouns: "Who(m)", "Which", "That"
 Without adjective clause
I will introduce you to a friend. You have never met
him before.
The book is about religion. I bought it in Gramedia
bookstore last week.
  Using adjective clause
I will introduce you to a friend (who(m)) you have
never met before.
I will introduce you to a friend (that) you have never
met before.
The book (which) I bought in Gramedia bookstore
last week is about religion.
The book (that) I bought in Gramedia bookstore last
week is about religion.
*Whom" is used to change the form of the object,
commonly used in formal English. For an informal
and conversational English, "who" is used more
often replace "Whom".
**"Which" is used to replace an object in the form
of objects.
***"That" is used to change the form of the object
or objects, and is more commonly used than
****"which". However, "that" can only be used in
defining relative clause only. (Read Combining
Sentences Using Adjective Clause (Relative
Clause).
*****In conversational English (oral), "who",
"which" or "that" is often omitted.
7. POSITION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
The normal position of an adjective clause is
immeditelyafter the noun or pronoun to which it refers.
However, sometimes a prepositional a participal phrase
may intervene-He greetedall his old friends from Paris,
who were delighted to see him again. Where such a
phrase intervenes, the antecedent of the adjective clause
may be ambiguous. For example, in the sentence The
 Dean wrote to the parents of the students who had
helped with the annual carnival, it is not clear whether
the antecedent of who is the parents or the students.
Occasionally an adjective clause referring to the
subject comes after the verb, especially when the
antecedent is a pronoun-Everyone came who could
afford the price of the ticket. Such a construction may
have a literary or even an archaic flavor:
All’s well that ends well (Shakespeare)
He prayeth best who loveth best (Coleridge)
3. Adverb Clause
Adverb clauses, also known as adverbial clauses,
are dependent clauses that function as adverbs. Since they
are dependent clauses, they must have a subordinating
conjunction to connect them to the rest of the sentence.
Being able to spot a subordinating conjunction will help
you recognize an adverb clause. Below are some examples,
which are grouped by what type of adverb question they
answer:
 When: after, when, until, soon, before, once, while, as
soon as, whenever, by the time
 How: if, whether or not, provided, in case, unless,
even if, in the event
 Why: because, as, since, so, in order that, now that,
inasmuch as
 Where: wherever, where
Adverb clauses can be placed at the beginning, middle or
end of a sentence. When placed at the beginning or in the
middle, they require a comma to offset them from the rest
of the sentence:
 Whether you like it or not, you have to go.
 The boy, although he is very bright, failed math.
However, when the adverb clause is at the end of a
sentence, no comma is needed:
 She enjoyed the party more than he did.
Examples of Adverb Clauses
Because they act like adverbs in a sentence, adverb clauses
answer the questions where, when, why and how in a
sentence. To see how they work, take a look at the
examples below:

Adverb Clauses of Place:

These adverbial clauses answer the question where.
 Wherever there is music, people will dance.
 You can drop by for a visit where we're staying for
the summer.
Adverb Clauses of Time:
These adverbial clauses answer the question when.
 After the chores are done, we will eat some ice cream.
 When the clock strikes midnight, she has to leave.
Adverb Clauses of Cause:
These adverb clauses answer the question why.
 She passed the course because she worked hard.
 Since he has long hair, he wears a ponytail.
Adverb Clauses of Purpose:
These adverb clauses also answer the question why.
 So that he would not ruin the carpet, he took off his
shoes.
 He ate vegetables in order that he could stay healthy.
Adverb Clauses of Condition:
 These adverb clauses answer the question how.
 If you save some money, you can buy a new game.
 Unless you hurry, you will be late for school.
Adverb Clauses of Concession:
These adverb clauses answer the question how, albeit in a
roundabout way.
 Even though you are 13, you can't go to that movie.
4. Relative clauses

Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative

pronouns who*, that, which, whose, where, when. They are
most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes
them. Here are some examples:

 Do you know the girl who started in grade 7 last

week?
 Can I have the pencil that I gave you this morning?
 A notebook is a computer which can be carried
around.
 I won't eat in a restaurant whose cooks smoke.
 I want to live in a place where there is lots to do.
 Yesterday was a day when everything went wrong!

* There is a relative pronoun whom, which can be used as

the object of the relative clause. For example: My science
teacher is a person whom I like very much. To many people
the word whom now sounds old-fashioned, and it is rarely
used in spoken English.

Relative pronouns are associated as follows with their

preceding noun:
 Preceding noun Relative pronoun Examples

a person who(m)/that, - Do you know

whose the girl who ..
- He was a man
that ..
- An orphan is a
child whose
parents ..

a thing which†/that, - Do you have a

whose computer which
..
- The oak a tree
that ..
- This is a book
whose author ..

Note 1: The relative pronoun whose is used in place of the

possessive pronoun. It must be followed by a noun.
Example: There's a boy in grade 8 whose father is a
professional tennis player. (There's a boy in grade 8. His
father is a professional tennis player.)

Note 2: The relative pronouns where and when are used

with place and time nouns. Examples: FIS is a school
where children from more than 50 countries are educated.
2001 was the year when terrorists attacked the Twin
Towers in New York.

Some relative clauses are not used to define or identify the

preceding noun but to give extra information about it. Here
are some examples:

 My ESL teacher, who came to Germany in 1986, likes

to ride his mountain bike.
 The heavy rain, which was unusual for the time of
year, destroyed most of the plants in my garden.
 Einstein, who was born in Germany, is famous for his
theory of relativity.
 The boy, whose parents both work as teachers at the
school, started a fire in the classroom.
 My mother's company, which makes mobile phones,
is moving soon from Frankfurt to London.
 In the summer I'm going to visit Italy, where my
brother lives.

Note 1: Relative clauses which give extra information, as in

the example sentences above, must be separated off by
commas.

Note 2: The relative pronoun that cannot be used to

introduce an extra-information (non-defining) clause about
a person. Wrong: Neil Armstrong, that was born in 1930,
was the first man to stand on the moon. Correct: Neil
Armstrong, who was born in 1930, was the first man to
stand on the moon.

There are two common occasions, particularly in spoken

English, when the relative pronoun is omitted:

1. When the pronoun is the object of the relative clause. In

the following sentences the pronoun that can be left out is
enclosed in (brackets):

 Do you know the girl (who/m) he's talking to?

 Where's the pencil (which) I gave you yesterday?
 I haven't read any of the books (that) I got for
Christmas.
 I didn't like that girl (that) you brought to the party.
  Did you find the money (which) you lost?

Note: You cannot omit the relative pronoun a.) if it starts a

non-defining relative clause, or, b.) if it is the subject of a
defining relative clause. For example, who is necessary in
the following sentence: What's the name of the girl who
won the tennis tournament?

2. When the relative clause contains a present or past

participle and the auxiliary verb to be. In such cases both
relative pronoun and auxiliary can be left out:

 Who's that man (who is) standing by the gate?

 The family (that is) living in the next house comes
from Slovenia.
 She was wearing a dress (which was) covered in blue
flowers.
 Most of the parents (who were) invited to the
conference did not come.
 Anyone (that is) caught writing on the walls will be
expelled from school

5. IF CLAUSE or CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

Conditional sentence definition

Conditional sentences are sentences expressing factual
implications, or hypothetical situations and their
consequences. They are so called because the validity of
the main clause of the sentence is conditional on the
existence of certain circumstances, which may be expressed
in a dependent clause or may be understood from the
context.