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CHAPTER 5: Electric Power Distribution

Chapter · September 2017

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Ajay Singh
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 CHAPTER 5
The lines 33kV and below (some country up to 132 kV) is categorized as distribution
which includes utilization voltage and sources (their source including transformer). In
distribution line, sending end power and receiving end power is not same. It goes on
decreasing due to consumption at each load center. The voltage at each node (load
centre point) is different and also power flow in each branches between two nodes is
different and hence power loss is different in different branches.

5.1 Underground and Overhead Line Systems

An overhead lines are the structure of distribution system that transmits the electrical
energy over a large distances which consists of one or more conductors suspended by
towers or poles. The overhead (OH) lines are mainly bare conductors. The distribution
system that transmits electrical energy through cables buried in ground is called
underground distribution system. The underground (UG) systems mainly uses power
cables to transmit electrical energy. The UG lines are used due to following reasons:

- Extreme weather condition (snow, wind) in distribution areas.

- Densely populated urban areas having right of way problem.
- Can be used near submarine crossings.

Figure 1: Overhead Line System Figure 2: Underground Cable

Differences between overhead and underground line system.
S.N. Overhead System
1. Reliability is low.
2. Overhead system is very cheap as
no insulation coating is used over
the conductors i.e. the conductors
used are bare conductors.
3. Faults can be easily detected and
maintenance is very simple.
4. The amount of insulation required
is less because air provides
necessary insulation.
5. It may have interference with
communication lines.
6. There is liable hazards due to
lightning discharges.
7. For same amount of power, less
conductor size is used.
8. Less public safety.
9. This system can’t be used near
submarine crossings.
Underground System
Reliability is High.
It is Very costly, because a number of
insulation layers has to be used to
provide sufficient insulation.
Fault detection is complicated and
maintenance is complex.
High degree of insulation is required in
underground system.
It does not have interference with
communication lines.
There is no any hazards due to lightning
discharges.
It requires quite large size of conductor
for same power.
High Public Safety.
It can be used near submarine crossings.

Cables used in Overhead Line

Mostly bare conductors are used in OH line system but now-a-days Aerial Bundles
Cables (ABC) are used in most distribution system.

ABC cables are overhead power lines using several insulated phase conductors bundled
tightly together, usually with a bare neutral conductor. The ABC conductors comprise
three separately insulated aluminum phase conductors with an insulated aluminum
alloy neutral conductors/ messenger wire. ABC conductor was first introduced in Nepal
in 1989-90 just for a few service area under 7th Power Project.
Advantages of ABC Conductors

 Reliability: Due to the reduction on frequency of outages with insulated

conductors, the reliability of supply increases.

 Safety: Due to insulation safety to power utility personnel and the public is
increased.

 Clearance: Reduced clearances in ABC cables due to bundled of all conductors.

 Lower reactance: Reactance is about 1/4th of equivalent separated circuit. And

hence, improvement in voltage regulation.

 Non-Technical loss: Hooking and theft of electricity greatly reduced. Thus the
non-technical loss is reduced.

 Technical loss: The live conductors and also neutral are insulated hence leakage
current due to touching of tress and other object reduces. It reduces the technical
loss.

 Connection: Connection is tight so reduces sparking and voltage fluctuation.

Disadvantages of ABC Conductors

 Higher capital cost: ABC has higher capital cost than conventional open wire
construction (bare conductor distribution), but this is partially offset by a saving
through reduced pole height and less costly construction.
 Difficult to locate an insulation fault: Due to twisting of insulated conductors
it is more difficult to locate an insulation fault. But experience shows this
happenings are rare.
 Stressed Neutral line: Neutral are under grater stress and consequently likely to
break in case of falling trees etc. This is offset by special breakage point in
support fitting design to break before conductor ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
5.2 Distribution Feeder layouts - Radial, Loop and Network Systems
A feeder is an electrical distribution circuit fed from a single source point (breaker or
fuse) at the substation. It operates at primary distribution voltage and disseminates
power through a service area which is its feeder service area. There are basic types of
feeder systems:

- Radial System
- Loop System
- Network System

Radial Feeder Systems - A single Path

A distribution system in which there is only one path between costumer and substation
is called radial feeder system.

Advantages

- Low cost: this is least expensive type of distribution

- Simplicity of analysis: It is easiest to analyze and operate the system.

Disadvantages

- Less reliable: Any equipment failure will interrupt service to all consumers
downstream from it.

A cleaver design and planning of radial distribution system can achieve a fair degree of
reliability even without much addition of cost.

In some cases, feeder systems is constructed as a network and operates radially, In Y-

connected radial systems, the neutral conductor is connected through all open switch
points forming a network connecting feeder and substations.

Loop System – two paths

Distribution systems can be operated as Loop Systems in which the two paths consists
in between the consumers and substation. There is being a “null point” somewhere on
the loop where no power passes. This layout is basically dynamic radial system with
open point (null point) shifting as loads change. A loop must be able to meet all power
and voltage drop requirements when fed from only one end, not both.
Advantages
- High reliability than radial system
Disadvantages
- In terms of complexity, a loop feeder system is only slightly more complicated
than a radial system
- Major disadvantages are capacity and cost of the loop system

Network System – many paths

The distribution network involves multiple paths between all points in the network.
Power flow between any two points is usually split among several paths, and if a failure
occurs it instantly and automatically re-routes itself. Rarely does a distribution network
involve primary voltage level network design, in which all or most of the switches
between feeders are closed so that the feeder system is connected between substations.

The major advantages is that it provides very high level of reliability. The loss of any
source will not interrupt the flow of power to any customers. The multiple failure of
sources can occur with little or no interruption. Among their disadvantages, feeder
network systems costs considerably higher and much more complicated analysis and
operating procedures.
5.3 Distribution Equipment
 Sub-transmission Line:
The line (conductor) which feds power to the primary of transformer at
substations.

 Primary Distribution (Feeder):

The line (conductor) which feds power at to the primary of service transformer.

 Substation( Area Substation):

Meeting point between transmission & distribution the primary distribution
lines receives power at this juncture.

 Service Area:
Service area of a particular substation or feeder is the area served by that
particular substation or feeder.
 Service Wire (Secondary Distribution):
The conductor which route power at utilization voltage within very close
proximity to customers.

 Service Transformer (Distribution Transformer Also Called Distribution

Substation):
The transformer which lowers the voltage at utilization voltage level.

 Load Center:
Area served by a particular service transformer.

5.4 Voltage levels

In fact the distribution lines, their layouts and voltage levels vary widely. These can
be broadly classified as:
- Single Phase
- Three Phase
For distribution system, three-phase segments have a tremendous advantage:
o The current only has to be sent “out” to the load.
o There are no losses or voltage drop associated with bringing the
current “back” to the source in a completely balanced circuit.
By contrast, if serving a load from a single-phase Y-circuit (one-phase and neutral) or
two-phase delta circuit. Current flows goes out of the load & then must return and there
are losses associated with each direction.
Exactly how and where the transition from 3-phase to 1-phase circuit takes place in a
distribution system depends on planner preferences and other situations. Two popular
methods for 3-phase to 1-phase Transition are:
- American System
- European System
American System
The chief advantage of American system is low capital investment when the load
density is low. 120 V system is used in American system distribution. The secondary
voltage level in USA for residential service is 120V/240V depending on the load
requirements.
 Lower wattage devices (e.g. light) 120V
 Higher wattage devices e.g. Oven connected to 240V.
 This is achieved by a 1-phase 3 wire system.

Phase A

120V

240V

120V

Neutral

Figure 3: American System

European System
It is quite appropriate for higher load densities as are often found in urban areas. 3-
phase secondary provides fairly well balanced loading on the service level, decreasing
losses and increasing utilization. The utilization voltage is 230 V in European
distribution system.
European Layout uses few laterals and 1-phase primary circuit. Service Transformers
are larger & often 3-phase. As is the secondary circuit. Individual consumers are
provided with single phase Service from Three phase secondary circuit.

Figure 4: European System

 5.5 Urban and Rural Distribution System
The special characteristics of the urban distribution system are;

– Capacity limits design: Voltage drop & losses costs are seldom a major concern
requiring large no. of feeders.
– Loads are large & often 3-phases
– Reliability requirements are above average
– Route are restricted i.e. land problem

The above reasons lead to some common adaptations to work within these design
constraints as follows
– UG practice:
– Maximum size cable is often installed:
– Very grid like planning:
The special characteristics of the rural distribution system are;

 Sparse load
 Loads vary from small single phase to medium sized three phase.
 Distances are tremendous
 Losses are high
 Voltage drop limits design
 Reliability requirements below average
 Often not profitable

For these reasons following there are some common adaptations to work within these
design constraints.

 Application of higher voltage distribution to meet higher load reach.

 Use of single phase feeders
 Extreme and innovative measures are sometime need to apply e.g. Use of very
high voltage with earth return.
 No provision for contingency back up of feeders
 Radial feeder layouts are normally the rule.

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