Plant Design PDF

Cebu Institute of Technology - University
College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Chemical Engineering
In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the course

CHE 522
Production of Raw Sugar and Activated Carbon from Sugarcane
Prepared By:
Cabarrubias, Jade G.
Fernandez, Christine Maureen V.
Fernandez, Shaira Dale C.
Granados, Eric Francis T.
Largo, Cherry Ann L.
Tampus, Allan Jr. S.
Submitted to:
Engr. Eleazar Al T. Guzman
September 2019
Executive Summary
This project is design for an integrated process of the production of raw sugar from
sugarcane and utilizing its waste bagasse into an activated carbon. Sugar is the generic name
for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides also called simple sugars,
disaccharides, or oligosaccharides many of which are used in food and drinks in which this
various type are derived from different sources.
Raw sugar is made from the sugarcane plant's juice, it is the residue left to remove the
molasses and refine the sugar crystals after sugar cane has been processed. The raw sugar type
is considered to have some nutritional value because it has the same vitamin and mineral
consistency as the plant juice of sugar cane. Wastes generated in the production such as bagasse
were undergone for further process which is an extension that can add value to the plant which
is the activated carbon.
This plant is designed to continuously produce 99,900 metric tons of raw sugar
annually, together with 82,850.4666 metric ton of molasses, 417,452.09 metric ton of sludge,
and 232,941.609 metric ton of bagasse as by-product. The bagasse will undergo further process
and designed to produce 142,617.3116 metric tons of activated carbon per year.
Processes involved in the production of sugar includes the separation of raw juice from
the raw material sugar cane using a roller press, further separation of impurities and purification
through a heater (addition of lime) and a clarifier. The clarified juice will be carried out in a
heat exchanger and evaporator to concentrate to its desired value and will undergo to
crystallizer to allow formation of crystals. Separation of the sugar crystals and molasses will
undergo through a process of centrifugation, and the removal of the moisture will be done
through drying the sugar crystals. The co-product bagasse will undergo washing, drying and
reduction of sizes through a crusher and seiver. This will follow the carbonization process in
the first furnace and be activated through chemical means by the addition of phosphoric acid
in the mixer. The paste will go to the next furnace, cooled, and then dried to obtain the final
product. Together with the auxiliary machinery, supports and other miscellaneous, the storage
tanks were also intended.
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Sugar is a natural element that has been part of our diet for thousands of years. Sugars
are carbohydrates that give energy to the body. The most common sugar in the body is glucose
that needs to function properly in the brain, important organs, and muscles. Certain sugars are
naturally discovered in foods (e.g. fruit, vegetables and milk), while others are used in
processing and cooking.
Sugar is the name for the sweet-tasting food that comes from sugar beet or sugar cane,
which is known as beet sugar or fruit sugar, respectively. Sugar as a chemical word generally
relates to all general formula Cn(H2O)n carbohydrates. Sucrose is a disaccharide, or double
sugar, consisting of one glucose molecule associated with one fructose molecule. Due to the
loss of one water molecule (H2O) in the condensation reaction between glucose and fructose,
sucrose is depicted by formula C12H22O11 (following overall formula C n[H2O ]n-1), and
structure as follows:
Sucrose is discovered in nearly all crops, but only in sugarcane (Saccharum

officinarum) and sugar beets (Beta vulgaris) and it occurs at levels elevated enough for
financial recovery. The former is a gigantic grass that grows in tropical and subtropical regions;
the latter is a root crop that grows in temperate regions. Sugarcane varies by weight from 7%
to 18% of sugar, while sugar beets by weight range from 8% to 22% of sugar.
Sugars have different types and one of it is raw sugar. Raw sugar is a moist, crystalline
mass with a 95-97% sucrose content. A layer of syrup still covers the strong cores of the crystals
of raw sugar. These associated substances create moist and tacky raw sugar and give it its
characteristic yellowish-brown color and malty, burnt flavor. The raw sugar water content is
0.25-1.1% and it is a medium in sugar manufacturing.
Sugar is one of the oldest commodities in the world where it is usually produced from
sugarcane, sugar beet and other crops containing sugar contents with large quantities of
sucrose. Sugarcane is far more affordable than sugar extracts from other sources. However,
there are factors that need to be considered in the sugarcane agriculture such as the climate,
landform, soil composition and structure. Commercially sugarcane is usually grown in the
tropics and subtropics, where its ideal environment is one in which rainfall is well distributed
during the growing season and the pre-harvest ripening period is relatively dry, where the
sunshine hours are plentiful throughout the whole season. Philippines was considered as the
second biggest producers of sugar in Southeast Asia and seventh in the world, because of its
tropical conditions (Glyn James, 2004).
Sugar made massive demand in the local and international market because of its wide
applications. One of the wastes from the sugar industry is the bagasse where it is either utilized
for steaming of the boiler or be made for another product such activated carbon and more (T.
Silalertruksa et al., 2015). Some by-products of the sugar are reprocessed for power generation
and into pharmaceutical products (A. Gupta et al., 2015). Sugarcane mill has a significant
contribution on government revenue and employment opportunities. It has other benefits like
the development of community system and administrative aspects of the environmental
management plan. (Omprakash Sahu, 2018).
The market is segmented on the basis of white, liquid and brown sugar. High demand
for the product in confectionary and bakery products is expected to propel industry growth over
the projected period. It is subdivided on the basis of products as powdered, granulated and
syrup. It is a consumed product amongst all which finds high demand for food and beverages,
dairy, pharmaceutical and bakery industry. Furthermore, increasing demand for the product in
the manufacturing of sweets, chocolates, chewing gum, and marmalade is expected to have a
positive impact on the industry trends. The increasing demand for sugar in various application
industries is embolden the new entrants in the market which in turn to increase the competitive
contention.
This plant is designed with an annual capacity of 99,900 metric tons of raw sugar, which
is the estimated amount of raw sugar demand in the Philippines that will operate continuously
for 2664 hours per year for 333 working days. A co-product bagasse will be further processed
and intended to produce 142,617.3116 metric tons of activated carbon per year.
Many steps were engaged in the processes: separation of raw juice from raw material
sugar cane by means of a roller press, further separation of impurities and purification by means
of a heater (addition of lime) and a clarifier. The clarified juice will be introduced to a heat
exchanger and evaporator to focus to the required value and it will then be subjected to
crystallizer for crystal formation. A method of centrifugation will undergo the separation of the
wet sugar crystals and molasses. Lastly, the removal of the moisture content from the wet sugar
crystals by drying the it will complete the whole process for the sugar manufacturing. The
bagasse, which a by-product from the extraction process of sugar processing will be washed,
dried and reduced by a crusher and siever. The method of carbonization will then follow in the
first furnace and be activated by adding phosphoric acid in the mixer through chemical means.
The paste is going to go to the next furnace, cooled, then dried to get the final product. The
storage tanks were also designed in conjunction with the auxiliary equipment, supports and
other miscellaneous.
The succeeding pages will address the demand of sugar in the Philippines and how it
would be suitable to invest in a sugar production plant.
1.2 Market Structure
30000000
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
2013 - 2014 2014 - 2015 2015 - 2016 2016 - 2017 2017 - 2018 2018 - 2019
Sugarcane Milled (MT/year)
Figure 1: Sugarcane Milled
In the year 2018, the sugarcane milled was higher compared to that of the year 2019
due to the climate change that is affecting the agriculture products. Also, the result in 2015-
2016 started to change but it gave more impact in the year of 2016-2017. Figure 1 shows that
the sugarcane milled through years’ changes, however, it can be observed that the sugar
produced did not low down to 20000000 MT/year.
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
2013 - 2014 2014 - 2015 2015 - 2016 2016 - 2017 2017 - 2018 2018 - 2019
Raw Sugar Production (MT/year)
Figure 2: Raw Sugar Production

In the year 2018 the target is lower than last year’s 25 million MTs due to the expected
unfavorable weather. Data from the Philippine Statistics Authority showed that the lack of
manpower in sugarcane fields, especially in Western Visayas caused a drop-in production in
the first quarter by 11.56% due to delayed harvest. Also, one of the factors is the decrease of
operating sugar refineries which minimizes the supply and increase in demand.
70
56.23 58.11
60 55.66
52.27 50.78 51.38 52.46
48.75 48.34 48.02 48.86 49.88
50 44.51 44.97
41.29
40
30
20
10
0
2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018
Raw Washed Refined
Figure 3: Retail (Peso per Kilo)
Figure 3 shows the wholesome prices for the three types of sugar (raw, washed and
refined). It can be observed from the graph that the retail price of the sugars increases from
year 2013 to 2018. These results provide a clear definition that sugar is in demand for the last
five years. And according to the supply and demand theory, if there is an increase in demand
the prices and quantity increases and if decreases the prices are raised and quantity decreases.
Raw Sugar Refined Sugar Molasses
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
2015 - 2016 2016 - 2017 2017 - 2018 2018 - 2019
Figure 4: Annual Total Demand in Metric Tons
Raw Sugar Refined Sugar Molasses
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
2015 - 2017 2016-2018 2017 - 2019
Figure 5: Demand Percentage Per Year
Figure 5 shows the demand percentage per year of sugar. According to the Sugar
Regulatory Administration, the demand percentage of the raw sugar has continuously
increasing throughout the year of 2015 to 2019. This can be clearly observed in the graph that
the raw sugar (blue line) is increasing each year. One of the reasons for this high demand are
the increasing number of food industries which requires raw sugar as a main ingredient in the
production of their respective goods. Due to the increasing amount of demand, the Philippine
market cannot supply the demand itself due to certain factors such as dry and humid weather
conditions resulting to droughts, causing for lower production. Thus, the food industries tend
to opt for the importation of raw sugar from other countries. This high demand and low supply
raise the value of sugar, so innovations and optimizations of the process in sugar production
must be look over as to possibly boost the country’s own sugar production.
1.2.1 Future of the Sugar Industry
In the Philippines, the sugar production for crop year 2018-2019 output in terms of
kilograms bags it reached to 7.3 million bags from 6.3 million in comparative period. The
country’s raw sugar demand increased in forty-seven percent lower at 5.5 million MT from
2017 with the level of 10.3 million MT. It is expected to marginally improve in the next crop
year despite the effects of the El Nino Phenomenon.
There are reasons why sugar will be greatly in demand in the future. It can be observed
from the previous statistics of SRA that raw sugar greatly increasing in terms of prices as year’s
passes, and with the increasing population of food industries. Second, Sugar Regulatory
Administration is urging planters to use an effective fertilizer in order to improve production
because of the high demand in the previous years.
Chapter II
Process Options and Selections
In this section, the options accessible for the selection of the type of process, equipment
and other significant decisions taken with regard to the layout of the industrial plant are
presented and assessed by incorporating marks for (+) advantages and (-) disadvantages. Below
are the requirements for selecting the alternatives accessible. The pros and cons impact on the
following factors are rated as follows:
Criteria for Selection Ratings

Economics 4
Environment 4
Production 3
Maintenance 3
Availability 2
The criteria for selection would be its economics where all costs such as fixed,
production, and labor cost are taken into account. The environment plays a vital role when it
comes to handling of the waste of the production process and other aspects such as emissions,
noise and etc. Production, operational time, and maximum output is a factor that would
determine the type of plant that would be designed as to attain the required quota. Maintenance
is essential in making sure that the plant does not meet any problems which would result in
loss of production and down time. Availability of raw materials, equipment and lot area
determines what scale could the plant be designed for as to operate at an optimum level.
2.1 Raw Material Selection (Considering the Location is Philippines)
When selecting a raw material for sugar manufacturing, the primary element should be
its sucrose content. A large number of sugar crops are cultivated in the Philippines, so the
choice of one of these options is described below by determining its advantages and
disadvantages
Table 1: Raw Material Selection

Materials Advantages Disadvantages
(+2) Soil requirement (-3) Water requirement
Sandy, loamy, well drained 1200-1300 mm(average)
with humus
(-2) Cropping length 12-18
(+2) Suitable Climate months
Tropical/Sub Tropical
(+3) Produces by products

Sugar-Cane
bagasse, ethanol, molasses
(+4) Milled 71 tons(average)

of sugarcane
(+4) Production of 1974

million tonnes (2011) TOTAL = 10 Points
(+2) Soil requirement (-2) Suitable Climate

Sandy, loamy, even alkaline Temperate
(+3) Produces by products (-4) Milled 58.2

Beet pulp, Beet molasses tons(average) of sugarcane
Sugar-Beet (+3) Water requirement (-4) Production of 271.6

400mm- 500mm million tonnes (2011)
(+2) Cropping length 5-6

months
TOTAL = 0 Point
2.2 Process Selection
In determining the type of process that a plant should undergo, different variables and
conditions are should be included. The two common processes that are usually use in industrial
plant is the batch and continuous process. The difference between these two is that a batch
process is an industrial process by which a content in batches of a restricted amount are
carefully metered and added as a single charge into an equipment, while continuous process is
when raw materials are continuously fed into an equipment and it is being formed and removed
continuously. To determine whether the production should be produced continuously or by
batch, the disadvantages and advantages are presented below.
Table 2: Process Selection

Process Advantages Disadvantages
(+3) Make a range of (-3) Frequents start up and
products using same shutdown of equipment
equipment
(-3) Cleaning time between
(+3) Can schedule batches
maintenance and inspections
to equipment in between
batches
(+2) Easier to scale up from

Batch Process
lab scale
(+4) Generally cheaper set

up costs
(+2) Employees understand

the process well
TOTAL = 8 Points
(+3) The quality of output is (-3) Requires periodic

kept uniform because each shutdown of whole plant for
stage develops skill through inspection and maintenance
repetition of work.
(-2) May rely on critical
Continuous Process (+3) Any delay at any stage pieces of equipment which
is automatically detected. As have the potential to stop
a result, there is automatic production
control of time and the direct
labor content is reduced. (-2) Employees knowledge
of the process is limited
(+3) Work-in-progress is
minimum on account of
sequence balancing.
(+3) Handling of materials is

reduced due to the set pattern
of production line.
(+4) Control over materials,

costs and output is
simplified. The repetitive
nature of processes make
production control easier.
(+4) Overhead cost per unit

is reduced due to spreading
of large fixed costs of
specialized equipment over a
large volume of output.
(+4) There is quick return on

capital employed.
TOTAL = 17 Points
2.3 Equipment Selection
There are factors to be taken into account in selecting the finest equipment for the
manufacturing plant, one of which is its eeconomy, where the substance is appropriate for the
machinery but is too costly so that options are regarded. Economy is also appropriate or is in
line with the economic norms of the Philippines and also with the production and maintenance
of equipment, including its accessibility in the country. To determine whether the equipments
are relevant its disadvantages and advantages are provided below.
2.3.1 Shredder
Table 3: Equipment Selection of Shredder

Equipments Advantages Disadvantages
(+3) Option if stringent (-3) Low productive
particle-size control is capacity
required
(-3) Some damage is likely
(+3) Better particle-size to occur should the cutter
control through the use of a encounter heavy metal or
sizing screen non-shreddable material
(+3) Ideal for processing (-3) The damage can range

"clean" material streams, from minor to extensive
such as plastic purgings,
foam, fiber, paper, rubber (-3) Cutter changing is
and even some metals like frequent when processing
aluminum abrasive materials such as
carpet
One-Shaft Shredder
(+3) Achieving a uniform
particle size (-3) Some materials can plug
or blind the screen
(+3) A viable solution with
certain types of clean (-4) The higher-rpm rotor
material can generate heat and fines
with some materials.
(-3) High maintenance when

processing material that
contains contaminates or
abrasives.
TOTAL = - 7
(+3) High productive (-2) For some materials and

Two-Shaft Shredder
capacity for applications that require
a smaller more uniform
(+2) ability to process particle size, the two-shaft
contaminated waste steams shredder is less suitable
that may contain metal or
non-shreddable materials. (-3) somewhat limited in the
particle size they can
(+4) the chance of damage produce.
to the equipment is minimal
when the shredder
encounters difficult-to-shred
materials
(+4) These large-diameter

cutters also are known for
long life, sometimes lasting
years in non-abrasive
applications
(+2) proper size and design

can be reliable
(+4) provide low operating

cost
(+4) process a high volume

of material under many feed
conditions and operating
environments.
TOTAL = 18 Points
2.3.2 Clarifier
Table 4: Equipment Selection of Clarifier

(+2) Less land required for (-3) Longer detention time
construction of multiple of the settled sludge
units.
(-3) Less effective for high
(+4) Potential construction solids loading conditions
cost savings due to use of
common walls between
individual tanks.
(+2) Longer flow path

Rectangular Clarifier
minimizing
(+3) Higher effluent weir

loading rates acceptable
(+3) Better sludge

thickening
TOTAL = 8 Points
(+3) Shorter detention time (-3) Higher short-circuiting

for settling sludge favoring potential
use as secondary clarifiers
(-2) Small circular tanks
(+3) More simple sludge require more yard pipping
collection system.
(+2) Easier to accommodate

Circular Clarifier in tank flocculation chamber
(+3) Overall, lower

maintenance requirements
(+3) Easier to remove heavy

sludge
TOTAL = 9 Points
(+2) Constructed of (-2) One negative of Plate

Stainless Steel they offer Settlers is their need for a
years of durability certain installation height.
Plate Settlers
(+3) Low maintenance (-2) This can generally be
overcome by special plant
(+2) Longer life than Tube specific designs provided by
Settlers the manufacturer, including
shorter plates to reduce the
(+2) Durable plates are elevation.
mounted in stainless steel
frames in a modular design (-4) The initial investment
for easy installation at the for plate settlers may be
site in new and retrofit for greater, however this can
existing systems easily be recovered due to
the longer life of the
stainless-steel plates
TOTAL = 1 Point
2.3.3 Evaporator
Table 5: Equipment Selection of Evaporator

(+2) The residence time of (-2) The effect of the
the raw material in the heat evaporation is related to the
exchanger is very short, distributor, and requirements
does not affect the chemical for the design, manufacture
properties of heat sensitive and installation of the
materials; distributor are very high.
(+3) The material in the heat (-2) High requirement of

exchange tube is film state installation, mainly for the
and the flow velocity are requirement of verticality,
fast, so the heat transfer assuming the tube length is
coefficient is very large. 9m, and the verticality
should less than 6. 4mm.
(+4) There is almost no
pressure drop, the pipe side (-3) It is need to ensure that
material is in the ambient the inner wall of the heat
pressure environment which exchanger tube is
can save energy. completely wet, but the
Falling Film Evaporator thickness of the film cannot
(+3) The low temperature be too large, so the raw
difference can be chosen material feed rate and heat
because the tube side exchanger length should be
material is driven down by exact designed and
its own gravity along the calculated.
inner wall of the tube rather
than by the pressure (-4) Due to the high
difference. requirements of design and
manufacture, the cost is very
(+3) There is very little high;
retention material in tube
side. (-2) It is not applicable to
materials that are easily
scaled or containing solid
suspension.
TOTAL = 2 Points
(+3) High heat transfer (-3) Poor heat transfer at low

coefficients as high temperature differences and
temperature differences low temperature
Short Tube Vertical
Evaporator (+2) Low headroom (-2) High floor space and
weight
(+3) Easy Mechanical
descaling (-2) Relatively high hold up
(+4) Relatively inexpensive (-3) Poor heat transfer with
viscous liquids
TOTAL = 2 Points
(+3) High heat-transfer (-4) Expensive

coefficients
(-2) Power necessary for
(+3) Positive circulation circulating pump
(+3) Efficiently transfers (-3) Relatively high holdup

heat from steam to liquid or residence time
Forced Circulation
Evaporator
(+3) Continuous liquid flow
(+3) Low amounts of

salting,
scaling, and fouling
TOTAL = 6 Points
2.3.4 Boiler
Table 6: Equipment Selection of Boiler

(+4) Can burn both coal and (-2) Need more space than
biomass fuel. gas or oil boilers because the
system is larger.
(+4) Could be reused and
save much cost for industry (-4) Upfront cost can be
quite expensive
(+3) High combustion
efficiency (-3) Requires some
Biomass steam boiler maintenance
(+4) Energy saving
(+4) Cost-effective
(+4) Environmental
protection attributes TOTAL = 14 Points
(+4) simple structure, low (-3) thermal efficiency is not

construction cost and easy as high as the water tube
operation. boiler, the average can only
reach 70% to 75%, the
(+3) little failures, easy highest can only reach 80%
maintenance and low
maintenance costs. (-3) much bigger water
Gas fired steam boiler (+3) water storage and steam storage, if the rupture
storage are big, it’s more occurs, it will cause a large
flexible when the load range of damage.
changes
TOTAL = 4 Points
(+3) Consisting of the small (-2) construction is complex

diameter accessories, which
can be dissembled and (-4) Manufacturing costs is
assembled, easy handling. more than the fire tube type,
and it’s a trouble to be
(+3) It is suitable for high cleaned up.
Water tube boiler pressure and large capacity.
(-3) the impact of
(+2) fuel equipment can be incrustation is considerable,
freely selected, the so the water quality is strict.
combustion chamber can be
free to design, combustion is (-3) because of the steam
more complete. drum, the water drum
capacity is small, so it is
(+4) heat transfer area is big, easy to cause the
thermal efficiency is higher, phenomenon of steam and
which can save fuel costs. water boiling together,
resulting in high humidity
steam.
(-3) in long-term, the water

tube contact with the high
temperature combustion gas
contact, which is easy to
damage.
(-3) steam storage is small,

so the pressure changes
greatly.
TOTAL = -6 Points
2.3.5 Crusher
Table 7: Equipment Selection of Crusher

Equipment Advantage Disadvantage
(+4) It's suitable for dry or (-4) Low efficiency, large
wet grinding, which has the energy consumption, high
features of smooth running, friction loss of grinding
competitive price, easy to body and body, and it will
replace, good operating pollute the product.
conditions, etc.
(-3) There is a strong
Ball Mill (+3) The whole grinding vibration and noise in
process is in the full sealing operation process, so it must
body, which is no dust or have a solid foundation.
ash fly. When crushing
explosive materials, it can be
filled with inert gas to
replace air. TOTAL = 0 Point
(+3) Produce more uniform, (-2) Not effective on fibre or

less fines and oversized two-dimensional products.
particles when it comes to Works best on easy to grind
product quality. materials like corn, cereal
grains etc.
(+3) Generates less heat (0-
Roller Mill
30C) unlike hammer (-3) Additional operator
mill that generates up to inputs are required since the
100C rolls need to be adjusted to
suit grind requirements.
TOTAL = 1 Point
(+3) It generates a defined (-2) Due to the thermal

maximum size without a generation in the mill head
closed-circuit crushing as a consequence of mill
scheme. fouling, it is not appropriate
for low-melting sticky or
(+3) It has countless size plastic-like material.
distributions due to self-
classification with a (-3) It has foreign products
Hammer mill minimum of penalties such as stone or metals that
enter the material owing to
(+2) Due to its large ability insufficient garbage
and its high reduction ratio, processes.
the system used for main,
secondary or tertiary
molding is extremely
relevant. TOTAL = 3 Points
2.3.6 Centrifuge
Table 8: Equipment Selection of Centrifuge

(+3) Pushers give greater (-3) Pushers require a
capacity for processing constant feed flood due to
their continuous nature.
(+3) Gentle handling makes
pushers better suited for (-3) Although high
fragile crystals. capacities may be preferred,
Pusher centrifuge this may result in longer
residence time.
(-2) Pushers have a limited

liquid filtration capacity
TOTAL = -2 Points
(+3) Tubular bowl (-2) The chamber bowl has a

centrifuges are easier to high capacity for solids but
clean and good sludge there is no solid discharge.
Tubular bowl centrifuge dewatering as compared to
conical plate centrifuge
TOTAL = 1 Point
(+3) Centrifuges have a (-4) The machine can be

clean appearance and have very noisy and can cause
little to no odor problems. vibration.
(+4) Easy to install and fast (-4) The device has a high-
at starting up and shutting energy consumption due to
down high G-forces. High initial
Rotating cylindrical
capital costs.
centrifuge
(+2) Requires a small area
for operation. They can be
selected for different
applications.
Total = 1 Point
2.3.7 Heat Exchanger
Table 9: Equipment Selection of Heat Exchanger

(+4) Lower capital cost and (-3) Fouling can be an issue.
footprint, a compact heat Lack of user awareness as
exchanger can replace some choice can also be limited to
normal size heat exchangers high pressure operation
bringing advantages in
performance
Compact Exchanger (+4) Energy efficient

Wide variety of
configurations to suit most
processes heat transfer
requirements
Small size and volume
TOTAL = 5 Points
(+2) Widely known and (-3) Less thermally efficient

understood since it is the than other types of heat
most common type transfer equipment
(+3) Most versatile in terms (-3) Subject to flow induced

of types of service vibration which Can lead to
equipment failure
Shell & tube heat
(+3) Widest range of
exchangers
allowable design pressures
and temperatures
(+3) Rugged mechanical

construction - can withstand
more abuse (physical and TOTAL = 5 Points
process)
(+4) Attractive option for (-4) High initial purchase
locations where cooling cost
water is scarce or expensive
to treat (-2) Require relatively large
footprint
(+3) Well suited for cooling
high temperature process (-3) Higher process outlet
Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
streams temperature (10-20 oF above
the ambient dry bulb
(+4) Low maintenance and temperature)
operating costs (typically
30-50% less than cooling
water) TOTAL = 2 Points
2.3.8 Crystallizer
Table 10: Equipment Selection of Crystallizer

(+3) Sufficient to handle all (-3) Difficult to prevent
C massecuite overflowing
(+3) Has the highest heat

transmission
Werkspoor Crystallizer
(+3) Less liable to damage
from high viscosity
massecuites
TOTAL = 6 Points
(+4) The cheapest form of (-3) Difficult to regulate

crystallizer crystal size
(+2) Wide range of

accessible dimensions
Forced Circulation
Crystallizer
(+3) High circulation rate
decreases particle deposits
on the walls of the ship
TOTAL = 6 Points
(+3) Easy to regulate crystal (-3) Frequent flushing

size necessary to minimize
deposits on the crystallizer
wall
(+4) Economic because of
penalties recyclability
Draft Tube Baffle
(-3) Can't manage a high-
(+4) More energy efficient density slurry efficiently
than crystallizers with
forced circulation
TOTAL = 5 Points
2.3.9 Heater
Table 11: Equipment Selection of Heater

(+4) Low maintenance costs (-3) High working pressure
with tubular heat exchangers
(-3) High working
(+3) Easy inspection and temperatures
disassembly
Horizontal Tubular Heaters (+2) High security in aseptic

processes
(+3) The most suitable

geometry for products
containing big-sized TOTAL = 6 Points
particulates.
(+3) Easy to install (-4) they are more expensive
to run than most other
(+3) Designed and built for heating options
safety
(-3) their heat output is low
(+3) Can't manage a high- compared to most other
density slurry efficiently heater types
Industrial Electric Heaters
(+3) Moisture and (-3) there are different types
contaminant resistant (radiant, convection, fan)
that deliver heat in different
ways to suit different
situations
TOTAL = 2 Points
(+2) Suited to high pressure (-2) Limited to low heat

applications. duties requiring surface
areas less than 47 m2
(+3) Standardization,
simplifies maintenance, (-2) Flow pattern is strictly
servicing and stocking of counterflow; there is no
parts. cross flow.
Double pipe Heat exchanger
(+2) Flexibility, units can be (-3) As units are added on
added or removed as the possibility of leakage
required. increases because of the
number of connections
(+2) Modular type increases.
construction.
TOTAL = 2 Points
2.3.10 Mixer
Table 12: Equipment Selection of

(+3) High conversion per (-4) High operating cost
unit volume for one pass
(-3) Product quality more
(+3) Flexibility of operation- variable than with
same reactor can produce continuous operation
one product one time and a
Batch Reactor
different product the next
(+3) Easy to clean
TOTAL = 2 Points
(+3) Continuous operation (-3) Lowest conversion per

unit volume
(+3) Good temperature
control (-3) By-passing and
channeling possible with
(+2) Easily adapts to two poor agitation.
Continuous Stirred Tank phase runs
Reactor
(+4) Low operating (labor)
cost
(+3) Easy to clean

TOTAL = 9 Points
(+3) Easily maintained as (-2) Poor temperature

there are no moving parts control
(+2) High conversion per (-3) Hot spots may occur

unit volume when used for exothermic
Plug Flow Reactor
reactions
(+3) Unvarying product
quality
TOTAL = 3 Points
2.3.11 Dryer
Table 13: Equipment Selection of Dryer

(+2) Less sensitive when it (-3) Difficult to quantify in
comes to particle size kiln/rolling action
(+4) Maintenance cost is (-3) Load and gas velocity

low variation sensitivity
(+3) Greatest capacity

compared to any type of
dryer
Rotary Dryer
(+2) Compact equipment
taking up much less room
than other dryers
(+3) Materials range from

fine to very coarse
TOTAL = 8 Points
(+3) Large scale, (-3) Load variations

automatically controlled sensitivity
operation
(-2) Feed particle must be
(+3) Low maintenance due equal to or less than 100
to no mechanical moving microns in size
parts
Fluidized Bed Dryer
(+3) Rapid mass and heat
exchange
(+3) Can avoid overheating

of sensitive products
TOTAL = 7 Points
(+3) Operation flexibility (-3) Final products would

not be granular
(+2) Only needs a single
pass for a material to dry (-2) Coarse feedstock is
unsuitable
(+4) Low consumption of
Thin-Film Dryers
energy
(+3) Many feedstock

consistencies can be handled
TOTAL = 7 Points
2.3.12 Furnace
Table 14: Equipment Selection of Furnace

(+3) Easy to operate and (-3) There is a limit in the
control applicability of heavy
feedstocks
(+4) Less energy
consumption, high heat (-4) Heavy crude oil and
effectiveness other low-value large
quantities increase as well as
Rotary Tube Furnace
(+3) Can be a mixture of the cost of public works
multi-furnace and high-end
production
TOTAL = 3 Points
(+2) No moving parts in kiln (-4) High assembly capital

costs, particularly when
(+2) Wet scrubbers can be using low feed rates
added
(-3) Excess air due to
(+3) The rotational speed of leakage, which reduces fuel
the kiln can be varied to efficiency
control the burning time of
the residence (-3) Liquid waste may clog
Rotary Kiln burner nozzles
(+3) No need preheating and
mixing (-2) Relatively low thermal
efficiency
(+2) Can be used for a broad
range of liquids and solids (-3) Careful operation so that
the refectory is not damaged
TOTAL = -3 Points
(+3) Great flexibility in feed (-4) Additional air results in

size the energy consumption to
power the larger fans needed
(+3) High fuel effectiveness to power the exhaust gas
cleaning equipment
Multiple Hearth Furnaces (+3) Ability to preserve
these materials in a mixed
state throughout their
furnace passage
TOTAL = 5 Points
2.3.13 Roller Press
Table 15: Equipment Selection of Roller Press

(+2) System is not (-4) It is costly
dependent of factory mill
performance.
(+3) Both the effect of the

Core Press juice quality and quantity
are taken into account.
(+2) Minimization of
personnel requirements. TOTAL = 3 Points
(+3) Produces less fines and (-4) Require higher capital

a more uniform particle. and higher operation cost
compared to roller press
(+3) Lessens working
hazards due to generation of
dust from the material.
Roller Mills
(+3) High energy efficiency
(+2) High availability and

reliability TOTAL = 7 Points
(+2) It requires small space. (-3) Possibility of screen

clogging
(+4) Inexpensive
(-3) Unsuitable for grinding
(+3) Easy maintenance of very hard materials due to
excessive wear
(+3) Capable of grinding
Hammer Mill several different types of (-3) Not recommended for
materials. plastic-like or low-melting
sticky materials due to
generation of heat in the
equipment.
TOTAL = 3 Points
2.3.14 Siever
Table 16: Equipment Selection of Siever

(+3) Advanced assessment (-2) Does not take into
of air jet sieves includes consideration the impacts of
quick and simple handling various ions on the particle
form
(+4) Low instrument cost
(-3) Because of the restricted
(+2) Accurate and range of mesh dimensions
reproducible size of particles available, a sample with a
narrow distribution may not
Industrial sieve shaker (+2) It's compact and be able to provide elevated
smaller in size resolution.
(+3) It is possible to separate (-3) Has no capacity to

different kinds of nuts analyze individual particles.
depending on the mesh size
used.
(+4) Low investment costs TOTAL = 10 Points
(+3) Process control facility (-4) Expensive cost

owing to stable
circumstances (-3) Possible fine particle
break
Fluidized solid sieve
(+3) Continuous operation
(+2) High thermal efficiency TOTAL = 1 Point
(+2) Has unique crystals (-4) Expensive cost

structure of neat
(-2) Occupy big space
Molecular sieve
(+2) Applicable in gases
TOTAL = -2 Points
2.4 Summary
2.4.1 Raw Material Selection
- Sugar-Cane
2.4.2 Process Selection
- Continuous Process
2.4.3 Equipment Selection
- Two-Shaft Shredder
- Circular Clarifier
- Forced Circulation Evaporator
- Biomass steam boiler
- Hammer mill
- Rotating cylindrical centrifuge
- Shell & tube heat exchangers
- Werkspoor Crystallizer
- Horizontal Tubular Heaters
- Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
- Rotary Dryer
- Multiple Hearth Furnaces
- Roller Mills
- Industrial sieve shaker

Chapter III
Basis of Design
3.1 Description of Design
This plant is designed to continuously produce 300 Metric Tons per day of Raw Sugar
with 7992 operating hours for 333 days. To manufacture Raw Sugar, Sugarcane as the raw
material will undergo a series of size reduction, extraction, clarification, and crystallization at
specific conditions while maintaining sanitary codes. And during the production process there
would be by-products produce such as molasses and bagasse. The bagasse would be utilized
and be made into activated carbon where it will undergo heating and a series of reactor for the
production of activated carbon which produces a capacity of 429 MT/day, while the Molasses
produces 249 MT/day.
3.2 Process Definition
Different unit operations were selected in this process on manufacturing raw sugar. The
first equipment that were selected in this process were the cutter, shredder, and roller press to
reduce the size of the sugarcane.
After the raw sugar cane was being cut, rolled, and washed, the raw material was
introduced to the heater. The heater was operated at 65 degrees Celsius with a pressure of 1
atm. Lime is also introduced in the heater to purify the raw juice. Lime as a chemical. Lime
and the heat introduced in the heater acts as a clarifying agent so that the inlet of the next unit
operation will give the desired result of the mixture juice. Since lime will be introduced in this
unit operation direct contact heater will be the suitable type that will be used. Direct contact
heater has many advantages especially in its power consumption and provides a complete
automation. Heated juice will be the product that will come out the heater and then will be
introduced to the clarifier or the settler.
Since the feed of the clarifier has already been prepared for the process of clarification
the unwanted solids will already settle down forming a sludge. The other product that the
clarifier will withdraw is the clarified juice. The clarified juice will then pass through a heat
exchanger to ready the syrup that will enter our double effect evaporator. The reason why a
heat exchanger was added in this process is because heat has a major relationship with the
surface area of the vessel to be used in the evaporator.
A double effect evaporator is needed in this process since we have a huge amount of
feed used. The amount of steam used in this double effect evaporator is 2026.24 MT/day having
a pressure of 200 kPa. The product that these two evaporators will produce will be called syrup
and will then undergo to the crystallizer to allow the formation of sugar crystals. As we made
the overall material balance of the whole process, we’ve found out that the values that we’ll
get if we will use a triple effect evaporator will be negative. That means that the amount of feed
that we will be introducing in this evaporator is not enough to undergo in a triple effect
evaporator, that only means that it can only work in either a single effect or a double effect
evaporator. While doing the calculation for the single effect evaporator, the amount of feed and
product is too much to handle for a single effect evaporator, and that leaves us with a fact that
we need to use a double effect evaporator for this.
The type of crystallizer that was selected is freeze concentration crystallizer since it
produces crystals. The product that the crystallizer will give is a mixture of the mother liquor
and molasses. The other product that the crystallizer gives will be the amount of water
evaporated. Since we aim to produce sugar crystals in this unit operation a seed is introduced.
A seed is introduced in a crystallizer to control supersaturation; thus, it is also an effective
method in growing crystals inside this kind of unit operation.
Since the product of out crystallizer will be a mixture of sugar crystals and molasses,
in order to separate this mixture, a process of centrifugation will be done. The outlet of this
unit operation will be the wet sugar and the separated molasses. A small amount of water is
introduced in this unit operation to prevent coating of molasses in our wet sugar.
Lastly, since the given product will be a wet sugar, a dryer will be used in order to dry
this, so, we can get the desired product that we want which is the dry sugar. The kind of dryer
that would be used will be a solar dryer. The outlets of this unit operation will be the dry sugar
(wanted product) and the water evaporated from the wet sugar.
3.3 Overall Input/Output (Block Scheme)
Sugarcane
4472 MT/day Raw Sugar
300 MT/day
Lime Juice
115 MT/day
Water Molasses
184 MT/day 249 MT/day
H3PO4
114 MT/day
Activated Carbon
Seed Grain 429MT/day
28 MT/day
Figure 6: Overall Input/ Output of Production of Raw Sugar
3.4 Basic Assumptions

3.4.1 Plant Capacity
The plant manufactures Raw sugar as the main product with by-products of Molasses
and Activated Carbon. And utilizes sugarcane as the raw material. It aims to produce 300
MT/day of Raw sugar while the by-products have a capacity to produce 249 MT/day of
Molasses and 429 MT/day of Activated Carbon.
3.4.2 Plant Location
Luy-a is a barangay in Medellin Municipality, Cebu Province. According to the 2015

Census, its population was 1,938 and it is accounted for 3.50 percent of Medellin's total
population.it is located on Cebu Island at roughly 11.1105, 123.9678. The elevation is
estimated at 9.0 meters or 29.5 feet above mean sea level at these coordinates. In figure _ shown
the plant location in Barangay Luy-a, Medellin.
Figure 7: Plant Location
(Source: www.googlemaps.com)
Bogo Medellin Milling Company Inc. is the source of the manufacturing raw material
used. In figure 2A shown the location of Bogo Medellin Milling Company Inc.
Figure 8: Raw Material Location

(Source: www.googlemaps.com)
3.4.3 Plant Layout
Figure 9: Site Development Plan Layout
Figure 10: Sugar Production Facility Plan Layout

Figure 11: Waste to Energy Facility Plan Layout
3.5 Battery Limit
Each activity involved within the processing and production of this distinguished, whether
it is not involved within or outside the plant and its operation. The selection of which process
activity is set to be within the plant falls solely to what extent the plant designers can attain and
what they cannot. The table below presents the scope and limitations of the entire project.
Table 17: Battery Limit of Whole Plant

Inside Battery Limit Outside Battery Limit
• Selection of the sugarcane • Installation and maintenance of
• Harvesting of the sugarcane equipment
• Preparation of the feed • Design of adequate wastewater
• Equipment design and specifications treatment
• Process safety specifications and • Design of quality control
prepare a process control and laboratories, process control centers,
instrumentation diagram for the • Transportation of delivery products
process • Design of adequate air pollution
• Specify packaging, handling, and control
storage conditions of the product • Design of adequate treatment for
• Assume 100% extraction of sucrose sludge
from sugarcane • Design for the proper solid waste
• No moisture left in the plant since management
the wastewater is treated.
• Introduction of warm water to roller
press, centrifuge, and washers
• Introduction of lime to heater
• Introduction of phosphoric acid to
mixer
• Introduction of seed to the
crystallizer for the growth of
crystals.
3.6 Economic Margin
Table 18: Economic Margin of Production of Raw Sugar
Purchase Sales
Materials Price Materials Price
Sugarcane: ₱ 6,707,422.908 Raw Sugar: ₱ 15,678,000
Lime Juice: ₱ 1,725,000 Molasses: ₱ 2,570,404.626
Water: ₱ 3,173.75331 Activated Carbon: ₱ 85,656,043.02
Phosphoric Acid: ₱ 7,250,935.808
Seed Grain: ₱ 1,520,200
TOTAL: ₱ 17,206,732.47 TOTAL: ₱ 103,904,447.6
ECONOMIC MARGIN: 83.44%
Chapter IV
Thermodynamic Properties
Thermondynamic properties is a quantity which is either an attribute of an entire system

or is a function of position which is continuous and does not very rapidly over microscopic
distances, except possibly for abrupt. These properties of process materials are needed at all
stages of design. In this chapter, the estimation of the physical properties being involved in the
process is being tabulated.
4.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Syrup
Sucrose is commonly found in sugar. It is a disaccharide, a molecule that consists of

two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is naturally generated in crops that refines
table sugar. In sucrose, glucose and fructose elements are bound by an ether bond between C1
on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic connection.
Glucose mainly occurs as two isomeric "pyranosis" (α and β), but only one of these types is
associated with fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of "furanoses," each with isomers
of α and β, but only one isomer connects to the glucosyle unit. What is noteworthy about
sucrose is that, contrary to most disaccharides, the glycosidic bond is formed between the
reduction ends of both glucose and fructose and not between the reduction end of one end and
the non-reduction end of the other.
Table 19: Thermodynamics properties of syrup (sucrose and water)

Sucrose Water
Molecular formula C12H22O11 H2O
Molecular weight 342.3 g/mol 18.02 g/mol
Boiling point 397.76°C @ 1 atm 100°C @ 1 atm
Melting point 185-187 °C 0 °C
Critical Pressure (atm) 45.67 atm 217.7 atm
Specific gravity 1.040 1
Latent heat of vaporation 184.54 kJ/mol 40.657 kJ/mol
Latent heat of fusion 63. 65 kJ/mol 79.7 cal/g
Specific heat (Cp) 2.66 kJ/kgK 4.187 kJ/kgK
4.2 Chemical properties of stainless-steel type 430
Stainless steel is a metal alloy consisting of steel mixed with components such as
chromium, nickel, molybdenum, silicon, carbon, aluminum, etc. For creating kitchen utensils,
it is widely preferred because it does not impact the flavor of food and is simple to wash. Also
contributing to their popularity are minimal maintenance and possible complete recycling of
stainless-steel utensils. As it is extremely resistant to stains, i.e. rusting, it is called steel. The
primary component of stainless steel is pure iron (Fe), combined with carbon to create' steel.'
To make it resistant to rust, Chromium is added to steel. Pure iron is prone to rusting, which is
due to its reaction with oxygen in the presence of water (moisture), whereas iron's reaction with
oxygen is corrosive and eats away at the iron, chromium reacts with oxygen in such a way that
only the outer surfaces become oxidized and further oxidation is prevented. Chromium forms
a passive layer of chromium oxide, which prevents mechanical and chemical damage, over
steel.
Table 20: Chemical properties of stainless-steel type 430

Element in %
Carbon 0.12
Chromium 16.0-18.0
Manganese 1.00
Nickel 0.75
Phosphorus 0.040
Silicon 1.00
Sulfur 0.030
4.3 Mechanical properties of stainless-steel type 430
One of the most commonly used stainless steels "non-hardenable;" magnetic in all
circumstances, excellent physical and mechanical features, about three-quarters of low carbon
strip ductility and lower than chrome-nickel grades; cost less than stainless steels in chromium-
nickel. Annealed 430 is prone to strain and roping conditions. After annealing, skin passage
decreases the probability of stretcher strains, but can also somewhat decrease ductility.
Excellent resistance to citric and nitric acid, sulfur gases; somewhat less resistance to corrosion
and heat than types 301, 302, and 304.
Table 21: Mechanical properties of stainless-steel type 430
Property
Elongation, min. (%) 22
Hardness, max. (Rb) 89
Tensile Strength, min. (ksi) 65
Yield Strength, min. (ksi) 30
4.4 Physical properties of stainless-steel type 430
Stainless steel grade 430 is a non-hardenable steel that contains straight chromium and
is part of the steel ferritic group. This steel, combined with practical mechanical characteristics,
is renowned for its excellent corrosion resistance and formability. Because of its nitric acid
resistance, it can be used in certain chemical applications. Stainless steel grade 430F is
normally given as a bar for use in automatic screwdriving devices. Grade 434 has comparable
characteristics to grade 430, although it is a version containing molybdenum. The content of
molybdenum increases its resistance to corrosion.
Table 22: Physical properties of stainless-steel type 430

Property
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, 68- 5.7 x 10-6
212˚F, (/˚F)
Density, (lb/in3) 0.276
Electrical Resistivity, (µΩ-in) 23.6
Modulus of Elasticity, (psi) 29.0 x 106
Specific Heat, Btu/lb-˚F 0.11
Thermal Conductivity, Btu/ft-hr-˚F 13.8
4.5 Thermodynamic properties of evaporator
The role of the evaporator is to transfer heat from the food stored in the cold room to
the flowing refrigerant vapor by convection and conduction through the fins and metal walls
of the evaporator coil tubing. The refrigerant entering the evaporator is almost all liquid, but as
it passes through the tube coil, it rapidly reaches its temperature of saturation and is
continuously transformed into vapor. The heat needed for this change of state arises from the
surrounding cold chamber atmosphere through the latent heat of evaporation.
Table 23: Thermodynamics properties of evaporator

Steam in 2026. 239086 MT/day
Steam out 1698.262662 Mt/day
Enthalpy steam 259.2786259.2786 Kj/ kg
Specific volume 1.67 ml/g
Internal energy 428.49135 Kj/kg
Chapter V
Process Structure and Description
The production of sugar and activated carbon involves the choosing the unit operation
needed to obtain the most efficient and desired products. Advantages and disadvantages are
taken into account in choosing the desired unit operations that need to be involved in this
process. This chapter deals with the selection of the unit operations, process conditions and
process chemicals that were introduced in this plant.
5.1 Heating
Sugarcane juice from the extraction process contains many impurities. The juice is
heated and purified by the addition of flocculation aids and lime. Heat helps to kill natural
enzymes in the juice, which would otherwise break down the sucrose. Lime is a suspension of
calcium hydroxide in solution and increases the pH of the juice from its natural acidic level to
a neutral pH of 7.0. The control of pH is critical throughout sugar processing. Sucrose
hydrolyses to glucose and fructose at a pH less than 7.0 and all of these sugars decompose
substantially at a pH greater than 11.5. The neutralized juice is pumped to a continuous clarifier
where it is inoculated with flocculants. Clear juice flows off the top part of the vessel, while
flocculated impurities, called muds, settle at the bottom.
To avoid that sucrose present in the filtrate is cleaved into fructose and glucose by
organic acids present, in a process called “inversion”, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2) also called
slaked lime or milk of lime is added. The “neutralized” juice is heated up to 95°C and clarified
by the action of calcium hydroxide, that is, the precipitation (incomplete) of impurities and
residues occurs, forming a “mud”, then separated by gravity or centrifugation. By heating, a
partial water evaporation is obtained, water that reaches a concentration of about 35% of the
juice. Ca2+ ions present, derived from Ca(OH)2, are removed by CO2 that is bubbled through
the liquor; the reaction between CO2 and Ca2+ ions produces a calcium carbonate precipitate
on the basket. The lime and the heat form a very heavy precipitant that flocculates.
Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Heating inside the heat exchangers before introducing the feed to the evaporators help
in decreasing the used area of the two evaporators in the process. The temperature obtained by
the product from the heat exchanger is 90 degrees Celsius which will then be introduced to the
evaporators.
5.2 Clarification
Clarification is being carried out during the heating process by adding a small amount
of chemical agent. The chemical agent being used in this process is lime juice. The lime juice
doesn’t react with the sugar juice, but rather coagulates during the heating process and traps
the particles and contaminants bringing them to the surface during boiling. This is usually done
in a continuous process. The addition of lime plays a very important role in maintaining the
natural acidity of the sugarcane juice since varying of pH contributes in inversion of different
kinds of sugar which will have a great effect in our final product if not stopped. Acidity losses
the amount of the desired sugar we want due to hydrolysis. The impurities coagulated will then
settle at the bottom which will be called sludge.
5.3 Evaporation
The juice from the heat exchanger will then be introduced to the evaporator which will
be concentrated to supersaturation. About two-thirds of the water in the heated juice from the
heat exchanger will be evaporated. The sugar crystals are formed at the top part of the vessel
and then the thick juice is in the bottom. Since there will be two evaporators used, the steam
used in the first effect is higher compared to the second effect. The temperatures in evaporation
is maintained since change of temperatures affect the color, sucrose inversion, and the
decomposition of the reducing sugars. As the concentration increases, the salts in the
evaporator is thrown out of solution since formation of scale is possible and this is very time
consuming since it can take 2-3 hours. The viscosity of the solution when it will undergo
evaporation will be raised from 1 cP to 10 cP while the pH will decrease from 9.5 to 8.9.
temperature plays a very important role in this process since it will be the one that will affect
the amount of crystals produced. If the juice is over-boiled then crystals may be present which
can cause discoloration. If the juice will then be under-boiled the amount of moisture content
present in the solution which may cause cloudiness and cause shorten its shelf life, with time.
5.4 Crystallization
Crystallization takes place in a Werkspoor crystallizer. As soon as the saturation point
has been exceeded small amounts of grain is added to help in the growth of crystals. When the
desired level of the sucrose concentration has been reached, the dense mixture of sugar crystals
and syrup which is also called massecuite will be discharged into the crystallizer.
Crystallization continues in the crystallizer as the massecuite is slowly stirred and cooled.
5.5 Centrifugation
The centrifuges used in the production of sugar are designed for processing massecuite,
a mixture of sugar crystals and molasses, which is produced by the crystallization phase of
sugar refining. The centrifugal spins the massecuite in a perforated basket at speeds of up to
1200 rpm.
A feeding system delivers the massecuite to the basket. The charging speed can be varied to
suit the properties of different massecuites.
When the massecuite valve has closed, the basket accelerates to its spinning speed.
Then the spinning phase is followed by braking, at the end of which the closing hood opens
and the discharging cycle begins.
The discharged sugar exits through the product outlet of the housing, which can be
equipped with an automatic cleaning facility, and is led to downstream conveyors.
During centrifugation, the mother liquor is separated from the sugar crystals. The crystals are
then sprayed with a fine jet of water to remove most of the syrup coating and produce raw sugar
of high purity.
Raw sugar from the centrifuges contains 97-99 percent sucrose. It has a golden color
from a thin film of molasses covering the sugar crystals. It is then deposited on conveyor belts,
where it cools and dries on its way to the storage facility.
The final moisture content of raw sugar is typically 0.5 percent. It can be stored in bags
or in bulk. It is often shipped loose, like grain, in cargo ships or freight trains to sugar refineries
around the world.
5.6 Drying
The product that the centrifuge will give is a combination of water and sugar crystals,
since, the goal of this process is to obtain the dry sugar crystals we need to undergo the wet
sugar crystals in a dryer in order to remove unnecessary moisture content.
5.7 Process Stream Summary
In this chapter, the overall processing of data in motion is being showed. The majority
of the data are continuous streams. Below is the tabulated process stream summary of what
comes in and comes out in each equipment involved in this process. Transitions of phases are
from the entering to the leaving fluids in an equipment is also tabulated as well as the pressures
and temperatures of the fluids.
Table 24: Drying Process Stream

S/N 29 IN 30 31 PRODUCTS
Name Wet Sugar Water Out Discharge
MT/day MT/day MT/day
Components
646.667 346.67 300
Phase S L S
Pressure 1 1 1
Temperature 60 60 60
Table 25: Centrifuge Process Stream

S/N 25 IN 26 27 28 OUT
Name Mixture Water In Molasses Discharge
MT/day MT/day MT/day MT/day
Components
837.46672 58 248.8002 646.667
Phase L L L S
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Temperature
Table 26: Crystallizer Process Stream
S/N 21 IN 22 23 24 OUT
Name Syrup Seed In Water Out Discharge
Components
1002.887904 1643.12792 53 837.46672
Phase L S L L
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Temperature 65 65 45 65
Table 27: Evaporator Process Stream

S/N 17 IN 18 19 20 OUT
Name Heated Juice Vapour 1 Vapour 2 Discharge
Components
4345.847584 1643.12792 1698.262662 1002.88790
Phase L V V L
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Temperature 96 91 58.20 56.4
Table 28: Heat Exchanger Process Stream

S/N 13 IN 14 15 16 OUT
Name Clarified Juice Steam In Steam Out Discharge
Components
2716.15474 4149.597 2519.898156 4345.847584
Phase L G G L
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Table 29: Clarifier Process Stream
S/N 9 IN 10 11 12 OUT
Name Mixed Juice Lime In Sludge Discharge
Components
3969.76462 115 1253.60988 2716.15474
Phase L G G L
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Table 30: Heater Process Stream

S/N 5 IN 6 7 8 OUT
Name Raw Juice Lime In Lime Out (sludge) Discharge
Components
3854.76462 115 3969.76462
Phase L L L L
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Table 31: Roller Miller Extractor Process Stream

S/N 1 IN 2 3 4 OUT
Name Raw Juice Water In Bagasse Discharge
Components
4454.288971 100 699.5243514 3854.76462
Phase L G G L
Pressure 1 1 1 1
Chapter VI
Mass and Heat Balance
6.1 Material Balances of the Plant
Computing the material balance of the whole process is very necessary in finding the
other parameters and properties involved in this whole plant. The column in the left is the list
of the mass flow rates going in while the one in the right side are the mass flow rates leaving.
Table 32: Overall Mass Balance of the Process

MASS IN MASS OUT
Ws = 646.667 MT/day Ds = 300 MT/day
M = 837.46672 MT/ day Wd = 346.67 MT/day
Wce = 58 MT/ day Ws = 646.667 MT/day
Sy = 1002.887904 MT/ day Mo = 248.8002 MT/day
Se = 27.64 MT/ day M = 837.46672 MT/day
F = 4345.847584 MT/day Wcr = 193.0611835 MT/day
CJ = 2716.15474 MT/ day V1 = 1643.12792 MT/day
SI = 4149.597 MT/ day V2 = 1698.262662 MT/day
MJ = 3969.76462 MT/day L2 = 1002.887904 MT/day
RJ = 3854.76462 MT/day HJ = 4345.847584 MT/ day
L = 115 MT/day SO = 2519.898156 MT/ day
Ss = 4454.288971 MT/day CJ = 2716.15474 MT/day
Wr = 100 MT/day SL = 1253.60988 MT/day
B =699.5243514 MT/day MJ = 3969.76462 MT/day
F2 = 100 MT/day RJ = 3854.76462 MT/day
EA = 253.87 MT/day B = 699.5243514 MT/day
DB = 493.7818951 MT/day WD2 = 205.7424563 MT/day
PF = 466.3495676 MT/day DB = 493.7818951 MT/day
HP = 113.5979716 MT/day WF = 332.4578538 MT/day
F3 = 100 MT/day PF = 466.3495676 MT/day
EA2 = 196.8058779 MT/day FG = 43.055 MT/day
P = 538.0956549MT/day R = 5.78947368 MT/day
PF2 = 471.5894504 MT/day S = 41.8518843 MT/day
WCO = 22.19244472 MT/day P = 538.0956549 MT/day
PC = 493.7818951 MT/day WF2 = 325.9752131 MT/day
PF2 = 471.5894504 MT/day
FG2 = 34.17896935 MT/day
R2 = 3.1579 MT/day
PC = 493.7818951 MT/day
AC = 428.2802151 MT/day
WD3 = 65.50168 MT/day
TOTAL
30227.67 MT/day 30226.1 MT/day
6.2 Overall Heat Balance
Table 33: Overall Heat Balance of the Process

IN OUT
Crystallizer
-10767827.84 -10767827.84
Evaporator
- 10767825.04 - 10767825.83
9794403 9794400.611
Heat Exchanger
9794400.611 9793965.085
Dryer
- 10767827.84 - 10767827.79
Heater
979440.611 9793801.436
TOTAL IN TOTAL OUT
-2920276.498 - 2921316.328
Chapter VII
Equipment Design
7.1 Double Effect Forced Circulation Evaporator

7.1.1 Equipment Description
Evaporation is a unit operation that separates a liquid from solids by means of heat
transfer via vaporization or boiling. In general, steam is not the desired end product, and it
could be recovered (or not) based on its energetic value. Therefore, the evaporation process is
normally achieved by evaporating a portion of the solvent, resulting in a concentrated solution.
The unit is designed to concentrate liquid feed from the raw materials (sugarcane) by means of
evaporation of the solvent and separating it from the solute which is the product to be attained
to produce the final product of crystallize sugar. Evaporator used in concentrating liquid-based
mixtures which is widely used to concentrate liquid foods, such sugar juice.
The equipment is a force circulation evaporator designed for concentrating the raw juice
of the sugarcane. Force circulation evaporator, for it is suitable for products with high levels of
suspended solids or highly viscous products. It is the most versatile of all evaporators, since it
does not depend on a natural thermosyphon effect that limits the heat transfer coefficient. Also,
with the presence of pump, fouling can be controlled well. It offers the highest operational
flexibility, since heat transfer, vapor-liquid separation and crystallization can take place in
separate components by locating the pumps outside the evaporator. It is compacted with high
capacity circulating pumps, which extend the production time causing to reduce the downtime
for the cleaning operations. The operation is not limited by the liquid/vapor ratio, and turndown
can be as low as 5% of capacity units. Forced circulation leads to high tube side velocities (6-
18 ft/ s), and hence higher heat-transfer coefficients and smaller heating surfaces. Positive
circulation renders this unit relatively insensitive to variations in physical properties or loads,
making it suitable for crystallizing solutions or slurries.
This type of evaporator is more expensive compared to the natural circulation

evaporator due to its operating cost and maintenance costs for the pump, however, the natural
circulation evaporator enlisted some limits under such condition: highly viscous solutions due
to low heat transfer coefficient, solution containing suspended particles, for heat sensitive
materials. All these problems may be overcome when the liquid is circulated at high velocity
through the heat exchanger tubes to enhance the heat transfer rate and inhibit particle
deposition.
The concentration is produced through a circulation that is continuous between the tube
bundles of the horizontal heat exchanger and the flash vessel (separator). A rising circulation
take placed when the products flows through the heat exchanger from the bottom to the top.
And the product discharge vapor in the flash vessel. The rising forced circulation permits a
higher transfer coefficient that causes for vapor and liquid to be together “flow boiling
phenomena”. And the circulation goes through.
7.1.2Main Body Design
The main body of the equipment, compromises the following components: tubular shell
and horizontal tube heat exchanger, a flash chamber (separator) mounted above the heat
exchanger and a circulating pump.
The feed that entered the equipment is composed of sugar composition that is related
to food industry and it is one of the main reasons in considering what type of material to be
used. The material used is a Ferritic Stainless-Steel Type 430 for it contains high chromium
and zero nickel. This type of stainless steel has low thermal expansion; has excellent high
temperature oxidation resistance, high thermal conductivity, have excellent creep resistance,
and not prone to stress corrosion cracking.
Forced is used to convey the liquor through the tube of the heat exchanger that produces
adequate velocity to achieve good heat transfer. A circulating pump that has a high efficiency
is designed for large volume to supply the force, which is usually of the axial-flow; single
elbow design, well suited for high flow rates and low pressure drops. It is also important that
the pump and the system are matched. The required NPSH (net positive suction head) is usually
critical, thus the fluid that is pumped must be near to its boiling point. The pump must be
operating at this type of design level. This pump operates at low speeds, which minimize
erosion and reduce maintenance.
Heat exchangers can be located on the discharge or suction side of the circulating pump.
In some cases, both discharge and suction side heat exchangers have been provided in the same
circulating system to maximize heat transfer surface.
The vapor/liquor flash chamber (separator) is connected at the bottom, or the top of the
heat exchanger, as per the geometrical arrangement based on the number of passes and it is
connected to each other through a recirculation loop. The flash chamber provides ample
liquor retention time to allow relieving supersaturation via crystal growth. This separator
compromises an inlet device: a demister, vortex breaker, and a control valve.
The separator includes internal parts, to promote separation of the process, such as:
a. A stationary elongated vessel having an upper section containing a vapor phase outlet.
b. Primary separation section (entrance): for separating the bulk of the liquid from the gas.
It is desirable to remove the liquid slugs and large droplets of liquid quickly from the
gas stream, and to remove gas from the liquid.
c. Secondary separation section: for removing smaller particles of liquid by gravity
settling depends to a large extent on the decreased gas velocity and reducing the
turbulence of gas.
d. Liquid separation section (or the liquid accumulation section): for removing gas
bubbles which may be occluded with the liquid, and for sufficient storage of the liquid
to handle the slugs of liquid anticipated in routine operation.
e. Vortex breaker (in the bottom of the vessel): prevents potential pump suction problems
if a pump is used to remove collected liquids.
Circulation evaporation incorporates the use of both heat exchangers and flash
separation units in conjunction with circulation of the solvent in order to remove liquid
mixtures without conventional boiling.
7.1.3 Equipment Design
7.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
The type of heat exchanger used is the 2 shell 4 pass heat exchanger consists of a
number of tubes mounted inside a cylindrical shell. This exchanger consists of four major parts:
Front Header, Rear Header, Tube Bundle, and Shell.
Front header is where the fluid enters the tubeside of the exchanger. It is sometimes
referred to as the Stationary Header. Front header is made up of a valve bonnet that covers the
opening through which the internal parts are inserted. The bonnet serves as the mounting base
for the actuator. It includes the seal which prevents fluid leakage along the stem.
Rear header is where the tubeside fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is returned to
the front header in exchangers with multiple tubeside passes. It is a fixed tube sheet that is most
likely of stationary header. A fixed-tubesheet has straight tubes that are secured at both ends to
tubesheets welded to the shell. The construction may have removable channel covers (e.g.,
AEL), bonnet-type channel covers (e.g., BEM), or integral tubesheets (e.g., NEN).
7.2.2 Main Body Design

Tube bundle compromises the tubes, tube sheets, baffles, tie rods, etc. to hold the bundle
together.
a. Tubes - the usual outside diameter range for petroleum and petrochemical applications
is 15 to 32 mm, with 19 and 25 being the most common. The thickness tolerances for
minimum wall tubes are minus zero, plus 18% to 22% of the nominal thickness, while
those of average wall tubes are plus and minus 8% to 10% of the nominal wall
thickness. The most common tube length range is 3600 to 9000 mm for removable
bundles and 3600 to 15000 mm for the fixed tube type. Removable bundle weights are
often limited to 20 tons. TEMA specifies minimum tube pitch/ outside diameter ratios
and minimum gaps between tubes.
b. Channel Partition Plates - for exchangers with multiple tube passes, the channels are
fitted with flat metal plates which divide the head into separate compartments. The
thickness of these plates depends on channel diameter but is usually 9 to 16 mm for
carbon and low alloy steels and 6 to 13 mm for the more expensive alloys.
c. Shell baffles - have the dual purpose of supporting the tubes at intervals to prevent sag
and vibration, and also of forcing the shell side fluid back and forth across the bundle,
from one end of the exchanger to the other. Segmentally single cut baffles are the most
common, however, thermal or pressure drop may dictate baffles of more complicated
shape. TEMA standards also specify that the minimum spacing between segmental
baffles need to be the larger of one-fifth of the shell inside diameter or 51 mm.
d. Baffle spacing - Baffle spacing is the centerline-to-centerline distance between adjacent

baffles. The TEMA standards specify the minimum baffle spacing as one-fifth of the
shell inside diameter or 2 in., whichever is greater.
e. Tie rods - Tie rods and spacers are used to hold the tube bundle together and to locate
the shell baffles in the correct position. Tie rods are circular metal rods screwed into
the stationary tube sheet and secured at the farthest baffle by lock nuts. The number of
tie rods depends on shell diameter and is specified, by TEMA.
Upon evaluation of the said part, Type B for stationary header (bonnet), Type F for the
shell tube, and Type M for Fixed tube sheet rear end are used.
7.3 SRT Circular Clarifier
Clarification process is to remove both soluble and insoluble impurities. Where the
clarification of the mixed juice in the sugar industry is achieved in a settler, known as a clarifier.
There will be two products separated, the clarified juice that would proceed to the heat
exchanger, and the sludge that was settled. which are obtained as an overflow and underflow,
respectively.
The Equipment that would be used in the processing plant is the SRT (Short Retention
Time) Juice Clarifier is a single tray settler characterized by a short retention time that usually
ranges between 20 to 45 minutes. Where its function is to remove solids from the mixed juice
by gravity sedimentation in quiescent conditions. But before clarification the mixed juice in
the heater is added with lime juice, where it coagulates the albumin, waxes and gums where it
promotes the formation of insoluble salts and neutralizes the natural acidity of the juice. After
that the superheated juice enters the flash vessel where the entrained air from the juice is
eliminated to avoid undesirable effects like flocs flotation. After that it enters influent pipe of
the circular clarifier. The solids that is found in the mixed juiced are sand adhering to the cane
stalks as well as from the material inherent in the cane stalk. The juice that entered in the
influent pipe, overflows to feed wells and is deflected laterally into the separation region of the
vessel. The separation begins by allowing the solid particles to settle down onto the base of the
clarifier. The solids are then swept from the base into a mud compartment, where the sludge
will be pumped and goes to the MRF. And the clarified juice overflows into take-off launders
that are located inside and outside the feed system.
The SRT Juice Clarifier is the commonly clarifier in the sugar industry. Its design is
based on the concept of introducing quiescent flow through multiple feed openings and
withdrawing the overflow through the entire surface area with minimum retention time. Also,
one of the advantages of the SRT clarifier is its cost and maintenance compared to other
clarifiers such as multi-tray type clarifier.

1. Feed Well - Offers enhanced energy dissipation and decrease of fluid velocity in an
influential input stream to decrease turbulence in the clarifier tank as the influential feed
joins the clarifier tank for removal.
2. Energy Dissipating Inlet - The aim of an EDI is to dissipate the hydraulic energy of the
influential stream as it enters the center column and efficiently and uniformly
distributes the stream to the center well.
3. Support Column – Supports the rake arm and this is where the feed enters and releases
it onto the feed well.
4. Scraper Blade - The blades move the remaining sludge at the edge of the clarifier to a
sump at the middle of the tank.
5. Rake Arm - Clarifiers use continuously revolving rake arms to push the concentrated
slurry towards the middle of the tank where it is separated.
6. Skimmer Arm - Rotates with the rake arm where the top part of solids is removed and
unsightly layer scum can be reduced. Scum Baffle -
7. Scum Trough - A skimmer sweeps over the clarifier's surface to collect any floatable
solids and remove them via the scum trough.
8. Weir Plate - Provides equal removal of water from the periphery of the circular clarifier
at 360 °.
9. Effluent Launder - Liquids where solids have already settled, flows over a V-notch weir
and cascades into a trough called an Effluent launder which surrounds the clarifier.
10. Motor Drive - produces low speed high torque rotation of sludge collector arms to
permit positive sludge collection and removal proper unit operation.
7.4 Shredder
A shredder is an equipment that is used for shredding different types of materials. The
systems of shredding are used to minimize the size of a given material. It is a very common
machine that is used mainly in offices for shredding documents, furthermore shredders can be
of many types depending on the material being processed.
Based on the purpose of use, shredders can be categorized as consumer shredder and
industrial shredder. For this process, and industrial shredder is designed for the reducing the
size of the sugarcane that will undergo for further reduction in the next process for better juice
extraction which is the roller press. Industrial shredders are typically heavy-duty and high-
volume systems used to process such recycling material streams as e-wastes, plastics, woods
and paper. This shredder is typically equipped with different kinds of cutting systems such as
vertical shaft design, horizontal shaft design, single-shaft, two-shaft, three-shaft, and four-shaft
cutting.
Different types of shredder are applicable for different purposes, such as strip-cut,
cross-cut and micro cut shredder. For this design, a micro cut shredder with a cutting system
of two-shaft is selected. A micro-cut shredder reduces materials into minuscule particles. The
most secure (and most costly) can reduce a single material to more than 12,000 pieces.
The cutting system that is selected which is the two-shaft is based on the materials properties.
Two-shaft which is also known as double shaft shredder, is a shredder in which rotor blades
are offset by a blade width that engages the cut surface. With optional transverse blades, the
material is comminuted in both the longitudinal and transverse directions.
This type of shredder is equipped with the following:
1. Stand/ Frame - Construction machine consists of stand, bearing support plates, nuts and
bolts. Frame is the supporting member which provides support for components like
gear, shaft, blades etc. In order to get the required strength, two plates (Bearing support
blades) are fixed with the help of nut and bolts. The machine frame with a certain size
which will connect through fastening process. The material used for the machine frame
is MS (Mild Steel).
2. Cutting Blade - Cutting system consists of the shafts, cutting blades, washers and gears.
The cutting blade is round-shaped blade with cutting edges, given circle-shaped hole in
the middle with keyway, mounted on the main shaft and main shaft move together.
Cutting blades are equally divided into certain degree of angle and each cutting edge of
cutting blade is joined by arc to second cutting edge up to particular length of cutting
edge.
3. Shaft - A shaft is rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section and which
is used to transmit power from one part to another part or from a machine which is
power producer to power machine, which absorbs power.
4. Gear - A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth or cogs, which
mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. A geared device gives different
desired speed, torque, and direction of a power source
5. Pulley and Built - V-belt pulleys (also called vee belt sheaves) are devices that transmit
power between axles by the use of a v-belt, a mechanical linkage with a trapezoidal
cross-section. V-belt pulleys are solely used for transmitting power between two
parallel axels. The v-belt and its complementing pulley create the most efficient belt
drive known (sometimes achieving 98%) transmission. Material is used for pulley and
belt respectively mild steel and rubber
6. Motor - Electric motor is electrical device that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. In certain applications, such as in the transportation industry with
traction motors, electric motors can operate in both motoring and generating or braking
modes to also produce electrical energy from mechanical energy
7.5 Flat Plate Hammer Mill
Hammer mill is an operation with the objective of shredding or crashing the raw
material into smaller components. It is essentially a steel drum mounted on hammers with a
vertical or horizontal rotating shaft. The hammers at the ends of the cross are free to swing.
While the rotor is spun at a high speed inside the drum while the material is fed into a hopper
for storage. The material is crushed in a selected size drum by hammer bars. Therefore, it is
low in cost, simple and sensitive in structure, durable and able to improve the crushing effect
of bagasse (raw material). As primary, secondary or tertiary crusher, hammer mills can be used.
The tool is a hammer mill designed to crush the bagasse or shred it. The bagasse will
crush to the next siever technique to reduce its size and maximize its efficiency. Without the
need for a close circuits crush system and relatively sensitive energy requirements, the hammer
mill produces assigned top dimensions. It has a lowering ratio and is able to molten many
different material types. The capacity of any given size and type of hammer mill is based on
multiple factors. It impacts the efficiency of the personality of the material to a greater degree.
The higher speeds will cause a shattering effect to carry hard material, but it is definite
from both a mechanical and operational point of perspective. Speed is the main parameter that
operates in the hammer mill to limit the amount of feed the mill requires. There are countless
rows of hammer used that affect the capacity or the amount of material obtained by mill is
definitely limited.
To determine the design of hammers it determined by operating parameters such as:
a. Rotor speed- it should be about 1,800 rpm long, about 25 cm (~10 inches), 6.35 cm
(~2.5 inches) wide, and 6.4 mm (0.25 inches) dense.
b. Motor horsepower- the number of hammers used for a rotor velocity of 1,800 rpm
should be 1 per 2, 5 to 3, 5 horsepower and 3,600 horsepower should be 1 per 1 to 2
horsepower.
c. Open area in the screen- the particle size and crushing effectiveness were determined.
The screen must be intended to preserve its integrity and provide the open area with the
greatest quantity.

7.6 Rotary Dryer
Rotary dryer is an industrial dryer form that involves reducing or minimizing the raw
material's liquid moisture content. It works by managing it through direct contact with a heated
gas. It utilizes standard counter-current air flow configurations to dry the sugar while falling
through the cylindrical drum of the dryer. It is a very significant unit operation to process sugar
cane into sugar. For security storage, the sugar humidity content must be decreased from 0.5 to
2.0 percent after leaving the centrifuge. The rotary dryers consist of rotary drum separating in
heating machinery while overheated steam is used by the centrifugal dryer to dry and dry the
sugar inside the centrifugal basket.
Rotating drums are the most common method of drying sugar, as it is suitable for a
variety of sugar and variable circumstances of feed. They are available in stainless steel, a
necessity for many food manufacturing facilities. When operating the rotary dryer, the counter
current air stream moves through the cylindrical drum to dry the sugar. To further regulate the
drying impact, heated air can be supplied through a centralized pipe into the dryer. Rotary drum
is important in consideration of a cost-effective, diverse and most available drying system for
sugar. It is designed to withstand extreme high temperatures and corrosive materials. A
temperature of 1000° F-1,100 ° F intake is able to be applied in rotary drum dryers. Rotary
drum dryers can handle much higher inlet temperatures with unique materials. If the product is
known to be corrosive, stainless steel may be used instead of carbon steel.

This type of rotary dryer is equipped with the following:
a. Rotary drum shell – carbon steel, stainless steel and hastelloy can be generated. It relies on
the demands of the material and process. For cases where heat retention within the dryer is of
utmost importance, it can be adapted. To keep the heat, the shell can be isolated.
b. Combustion chamber - it can be integrated into either co-current dryers or counter-present

dryers. The mechanism is to avoid the material from direct contact with the burner's flames. It
is accessible in the range of single or double shell, refractory lined and angled.
c. Burner- the engine behind any dryer controls the power output of BTU 'S / Watts. The engine
can be intended for a variety of fuels, natural gas, propane and diesel.
d. Raw material feed- where feedstock is typically supplied through a feed screw or chute into
the system. The feed chute is designed to be robust, wear-resistant and to reduce material build-
up.
e. Air seal-The goal is to avoid the drum from leaving early air and material. A seal is required
to connect the stationary element to the rotating drum when the combustion chamber and
release meet the drums. Depending on the material being processed, there are many different
sealing options.
f. Drive assembly- it enables the drum to rotate and there are several options for a chain and
sprocket, machinery and pinion. For bigger rotary drums up to 75 hp the chain and sprocket
configuration is ideal. Gear and pinion drive units are for heavy-duty applications with an
output of more than 75 hours.
7.7 Centrifuge
7.8 Werkspoor Crystallizer
Crystallization in the sugar industry is a separation process where a solid phase is
separated from a mother's liquor. The crystallization concept is focused on a compound's
restricted solubility in a solvent at a certain temperature, pressure, etc. Changing these
circumstances to a state where solubility is lesser will contribute to the development of a
crystalline solid. The dispersed phase composed of countless solid particles also forms the final
product to fulfill the necessary product requirements.
The selected equipment is the Werkspoor Crystallizer which consists of a hollow shaft
equipped with a disk for higher spacing to allow water circulation. Massecuite is currently
circulated with warm water, the entry of warm massecuite only falls into touch with water that
has already been heated. And that the temperature of the cooling water is progressively lower
at any point as the massecuite becomes cooled. False structure of grain is eliminated. The power
required is less than half that when the cooling water passes through the tubes. The liquor is
concentrated until the meta-stable state is reached. Crystallization is introduced by placing a
slurry of sugar fines which allows the nuclei to begin crystallization. The level of mother liquor
comprising sugar crystals is regulated so that crystallization happens without dissolving any
crystals or forming any new nuclei (fake seed).
7.9 CSTR Mixer
Chapter VIII
Process Control
Process controls play a very important role in how a plant process product. Due to the
controls that exist in a plant the process upset can be controlled and actions for subsequent
emergency can be executed directly. If adequate and reliable process controls are not present,
an unexpected process occurrence cannot be controlled, eliminated and monitored. These
process controls can range from simple manual actions to computer logic controllers, remote
from the required action point, with supplemental instrumentation feedback systems.
Instruments for controlling the process are incorporated in automatic control loops or manual
monitoring of process operation. In this chapter, details of process instruments and control
equipment are presented.
The objectives of the process control specifications are:
1. Safer Plant Operations

a. to detect dangerous situations that may happen during the whole process.
b. to provide alarms, valves, and transmitters that may help in detecting the problems
that may happen while running the process.
c. to show the controlling variables each equipment has.
2. Product Quality
a. To maintain the desired product this process wants to achieve.
3. Production Rate
a. To achieve the design product output
b. to prevent problems involving the capacity of each equipment.
4. Cost
a. To operate the whole plant at the lowest production cost.
In conclusion, the goal of improving the instrumentation of an equipment is because of

productivity, optimization, stability, reliability, safety, and continuity.
8.1 Centrifuge
8.1.1 P&ID of Centrifuge
8.1.2 Description of Centrifuge
The controllers introduced in this unit operation is the temperature controller. It will be
the one to maintain the temperature of the warm water that will be introduce inside the
centrifuge. The main purpose of letting warm water go inside a centrifuge is to avoid coating
of molasses for the production of wet sugar crystals. The process of centrifugation is prone of
coating viscous fluids on the sides of the equipment making it stick on the surface of the wet
sugar crystals (product from the centrifuge). At the bottom of the centrifuge a meter (M) is
placed to read the flow of the molasses (by-product) from the centrifuge.
8.2 Clarifier
8.2.1 P&ID Clarifier
8.2.2 Description of Clarifier
Before the raw juice form the heater will be introduced to the heat exchanger the heated
juice from the heater will be first clarified in a clarifier so suspended solids will be settled and
be extracted. Sugar cane has a ph of about 4.0-4.5 which is quite acidic. Calcium hydroxide,
which is also known as limewater is the chemical added in the heater together with the raw
juice to neutralize the ph of the juice containing the sucrose. The controlling variable in this
part of the process is the pH maintaining. The ph is maintained in both heater and the clarifier
so the process of clarification will be efficient. There are different ways in measuring the ph of
a solution in an equipment. There is measuring of ph using an indicator, hydrogen electrode
method, semi-conductor sensor method and ph imaging. In this industry we are using an
indicator in order to know and monitor the ph level of the heated juice inside the clarifier. In
the figure above, the two sensors present are the pH sensor and the temperature transmitter. In
many cases, the temperature of a remote process must be monitored. Since thermocouples and
RTD’s produce very small signals we attached a temperature transmitter in our clarifier to
monitor the temperature of the solution since the juice form the heater to the clarifier is
dependent to the temperature and if not maintained and monitored properly it will affect the
product that the clarifier will produce and might ruin the whole manufacturing of the raw sugar.
A flash tank is also placed on top of the clarifier to allow high pressure condensate and to
reduce the pressure steam. This flash tank is also used to reduce and cool to low-pressure steam
before introducing it to a heater or a heat exchanger. In the bottom part of the clarifier there’s
a passageway for the sludge. The sludge in this part of the process contains the waste and other
impurities that are settled down. There’s a pump at the bottom part of the clarifier so the sludge
will be vacuumed for further treatment.
8.3 Evaporator
8.3.1 P&ID of Evaporator
8.3.2 Description of Evaporator
Generally, the evaporators are used to remove the water percentage from the juice. The
juice from the heat exchanger will be introduced in a double effect evaporator for concentrating
the sugar. In the figure above, there are many types of controllers and transmitters that will
monitor the temperature, pressure, level of the solution, flow rate, and importantly, the
concentration. In the first effect, the pressure is monitored for the introduction of steam inside
the vessels. The pressure is monitored using the pressure transmitter (PT) and the (PL) above
it is an indicator for the low level that that the pressure must obtain. Since the pressure in this
process is thoroughly monitored a pressure element is included which will be the one that will
connect the fluid between the first effect of the evaporator. Samples from the first effect
evaporator will also be tested for its physical measurements, chemical analysis, regulatory
assessment and quality control. Analysis valve allows taking a representative portion of the
fluid inside the first effect where it will be extracted from the production line and safely store
it for transportation to the laboratory where it will be analyzed for further use. In this plant,
samples are also taken to make sure that the output meets the specifications before it will be
shipped. Beside the analysis valve (AV) a temperature low sensor is put. This sensor will be
the one that will alert the workers in the control room for sudden drop of temperature in the
first effect. Since temperature is one of the controlling variables in this process then it is a must
to control the temperature in this effect to avoid sudden hazards. Temperature transmitter (TT)
is placed on the upper part of the first effect to determine the temperature of the vapor space.
Determining the temperature of the vapor space is necessary since this will be the parameter
that you will use in determining the pressure inside the 1 st effect evaporator. A pressure low
sensor (PL) is also implanted in the first effect for the monitoring the measured pressure inside
the vessel. Along the pipe where the product from the first effect will pass there is a temperature
transmitter. This temperature transmitter will be the one to give signals in the control room
about the temperature of the concentrated product. Since temperature is a controlling variable,
the temperature entering the second effect as a feed must be monitored and adjusted to the
desired temperature to avoid malfunctioning of the vessel as well as the other equipment. In
the second effect, the sensors placed are just the same in the first effect which is put to maintain
and monitor the temperature and pressure of the fluid inside the second effect evaporator. The
only sensors that are not found in the first effect which are in the second effect are the PIC,
VSE, and the LG. The pressure indicating controller (PIC) will be the one that will control the
process variable by converting its pressure change into mechanical displacement. The VSE will
be the sensor for measuring the viscosity of the liquid in the second effect to make sure that the
product the evaporation will give us meets the specifications that we set. The level gauge (LG)
will then be the one that will measure the fluid level in the second effect. The valves found in
the bottom of the second effect will be the control valves for the flowing of mixture (product
from the evaporator) to the next unit operation which is the crystallizer.
8.4 Crystallizer
8.4.1 P&ID of Crystallizer
8.4.2 Description of Crystallizer
The mother liquor is then crystallized in a Werkspoor Continuous type of Crystallizer

for sufficient to exhaust molasses. The massecuite is reheated in order to reduce its viscosity.
The controlling variables in this unit operation are the feed controlling, brix value,
concentration, and the temperature. In the figure above, density meter (DM) is introduced after
the pump. The density meter will be the one responsible for the measurement of the density of
the sample liquid from the previous unit operation which is the evaporation. The temperature
is also controlled in this unit operation. A temperature controller is place outside the equipment
of the crystallizer to monitor the fluctuating of the temperature. Since temperature will have an
effect in the product that this process will produce, then it must be controlled and maintained
at the right temperature. It is very important to have a monitoring system for the crystallization
process of sugar. This kind of monitoring process can generate products of the highest quality
and can facilitate energy savings in the industry.
8.5 Rotary Dryer
8.5.1 P&ID of Rotary Dryer
8.5.2 Description of Rotary Dryer
The controlled variable in this unit operation is the pressure and pressure especially
when it comes to the air going in and out. The temperature controller will be responsible for
the monitoring and controlling the temperature of the solution in the rotary dryer. The pressure
controllers which is aligned with the temperature sensors are responsible for the specifications
for the air out. The temperature is controlled for the amount of air needed to be pass through
the equipment. Since the controlled variables in this equipment are the pressure and
temperature, the sensors should also be controlling these two variables since it is fluctuating.
8.6 Roller Press
8.6.1 P&ID of Roller Press
8.6.2 Description of Roller Press
The only controlling variable in the roller press is the flow rate of the raw material which
is the shredded sugarcane. The flow rate of the feed must be controlled because if not then there
is a big possibility that the roller press might break. During this process, hot water is sprayed
on to the sugarcane to dissolve any remaining hard sugar, the smaller pieces of sugar cane will
then be spread out on a conveyor belt. Since hot water will be used for the washing part in this
process a temperature controller must be needed in monitoring the temperature of the hot water.
the hot water should remain hot and won’t fluctuate to cold or at room temperature. The hotness
of the water helps in extracting the sucrose from the sugarcane itself.
8.7 Heater
8.7.1 P&ID of Heater
8.7.2 Description of Heater
After the juice extraction the raw juice from the roller press will then be introduced to
the heater. The heater will be the one to convert the raw juice into a heated one. Lime is added
in this process for the reason of purifying the juice and to neutralize the juice. The pH level of
the juice from the extraction process would range from 4.0-4.5 which is acidic. The control of
ph is critical throughout the process since sucrose hydrolyzes to glucose and fructose at a pH
level less than 7.0 and all of these other sugars decompose substantially at a pH greater than
11.5. The temperature is also controlled in this process since it will act as a clarifying agent
that will the formation of sludge in the juice clarification process. The valves shown in the
figure above is for the sample analysis in each inlet streams and outlet streams for the analysis
of the specifications of the reactant and product. The lime that will be introduced in this process
will only be in room temperature.
8.8 Heat Exchanger
8.8.1 P&ID of Heat Exchanger
8.7.2 Description of Heat Exchanger
The purpose of putting heat exchanger before the double effect evaporator is for the
temperature of the clarified juice from the clarifier will be heated. There is a relationship
between the area of the evaporator and the temperature of the feed, which is inversely
proportional. That means when the temperature of the feed will get increase then the area of
the double effect evaporator will be less. Temperature controllers are the only type of controller
which can be found in this equipment. The temperature low will be the responsible for lowering
the temperature in the heat exchanger and the temperature transmitter will be responsible for
transmitting the signal about the temperature reading of the fluid inside the heat exchanger.
8.9 P&ID of Sugar Processing
8.10 P&ID of Activated Carbon
Chapter IX
Process Wastes
9.1 Solid Waste Management
The solid waste generated from sugar industry need proper management and treatment
or otherwise it would cause environmental problems. The solid wastes are separated into three
facilities the Waste to Energy Facility, where wastes such as the bagasse is converted into
activated carbon to utilize its properties and to maximize the profit of the industry. Second is
the Material Recovery Facility (MRF), where any recyclable solid waste generated in plant will
be properly separated in the MRF. And lastly the Composting Facility, because we have a huge
amount of organic waste such as the sludge, it is utilized and treated to convert it into compost
for future sugar plantation in the sugar industry
9.1.1 Waste to Energy Facility
9.1.1.1 Process Description
Fibrous residue called bagasse is generated from the sugarcane. The bagasse generated
the largest amount of waste in the sugar processing plant, and in order to utilize this waste, it
is sent to the waste to energy facility where it would be converted into activated carbon to be
sold in various industries. Not only does it minimize the waste generation of the sugar industry,
it also maximizes the economic margin. Bagasse may also be used for the production of
products such as wallboard, furfural, and paper.
9.1.1.2 Process Diagram
Figure 1: Process Flow of Waste to Energy Facility

9.1.2 Material Recovery Facility
9.1.2.1. Process Description (Sorting Facility)

Materials Recovery facility (MRF) is a solid-waste management plant that processes
recyclable materials to sell to manufacturers as raw materials for new products. MRFs play an
important role in reducing the waste stream of the sugar industry. So, the first step of managing
the solid waste of the sugar processing plant is unloading the collection of the recyclable
materials into a large recessed area called the tipping floor. Where sorters remove larger items
and contaminants that could get caught in the machines. After that it is fed to the bin unto the
conveyor belt where is goes to the pre-sorting station to remove other contaminants and larger
items. Then it goes to the OCC (Old Corrugated Containers) screen where it separates old
corrugated cardboard from Smaller material where it passes through the openings between the
discs. and directly under the OCC screen glass falls onto the Debris Roll screens separating
glass from the rest of the material and moving it into a glass clean u system before taken away
to be further processed at a glass processing facility. After that it goes to the polishing screens
which has a series of rotating disks that are set to separate the different types of material. Where
there would be three polishing screens, two of which are set to separate newsprint and mixed
paper, where it floats over the top and onto a conveyor belt while the plastics and metal
containers fall back which then goes onto the electromagnetic separator where a large magnetic
conveyor belt attracts the ferrous metals, separating the plastics where it then goes to the optical
sorters, where it separates the plastic containers by the type of material they’re made of. And
non-ferrous metals such as aluminum can are separated using the eddy current separator by
using a strong magnetic field to repel aluminum from the incoming material after that sorters
will remove any contaminants. All of the solid recyclable waste is now separated and can be
further process or sold in various industries.
9.1.2.2Process Diagram (Sorting Facility)
Figure: Process Flow of Sorting Facility
9.1.2.3 Process Description (Composting Facility)
A composting facility is a device or a structure that transforms waste organic material

into a biologically stable product with the use of controlled aerobic decomposition. The
biologically stable product can be used as a soil amendment that improves soil quality in terms
of its biochemical function and structure and its capacity to support plant life. Organic wastes
such as sludge and sugarcane trimmings are placed in an open area composting facility where
it is gathered and sorted into long piles to approximately 20 ft wide and 12 ft high and 400 ft
long. During the 10 to 14-week composting period, the temperature and moisture is monitored
daily and watered. The piles are turned 1-2 times per week to aerate the compost in order to
provide the necessary oxygen. Because the organic waste is broken down in the presence of
oxygen because of the microorganisms that thrived in oxygen-rich environment. Where these
microorganisms eat the debris and leave behind finished compost.
9.2 Wastewater Management
The wastewater from sugar industry when it discharged without treatment it leads to
pollution problem in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Also, sugar industry wastewater
when treated completely produces unpleasant smell when released into environment. The sugar
mill is under in agro-industries which involve a large quantity of fresh water for processing and
discharge half of the ratio as effluent. The wastewater in sugar industry produces from different
sections such as sludge from clarifier, cleaning operations, leakage from pumps and pipes in
the evaporator, centrifuge house. Also, it contains oil and grease including the thread of cane
which filter and skim before dissolving with another source’s wastewater. There is common
treatment process which has screening, equalization, sedimentation, coagulation, oxidation
pond and filter in series. In figure 1, it shown as the normal used in wastewater treatment in
effluent in wastewater sugar industry.
9.2.1 Wastewater Facility

9.2.1.1 Process Diagram (Sugar Production)
Figure: Process Flow of Wastewater Treatment

9.2.1.2 Process Description (Sugar Production)
Wastewater from the operation and cleaning process from sugar and activated carbon
plant flows to the to wastewater facility. Firstly, it flows to the screen and grate chamber then
to the sedimentation tank. In sedimentation tank, suspended solids passing through screens and
grit chambers are removed from the sewage. These tanks, also known as main clarifiers,
provide approximately two hours of detention moment to settle gravity. As the sewage flows
through them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The settled solids— known as
raw or primary sludge — are moved along the tank bottom by mechanical scrapers. Sludge is
collected in a hopper, where it is pumped out for removal. Mechanical surface-skimming
devices remove grease and other floating materials. To remove big floating items, the screen
chamber (Bar Screen) is used. There may be large floating solids, paper etc. in the untreated
effluent. The screening chamber protects these products from choking pipe system and
blocking equipment from pumps, impellers and aberration. All these materials are removed in
this room by bar screen, 10 mm broad and 50 mm deep, arranged between two neighboring
bars with a spacing of 20 mm. Frequent cleaning operations are performed to remove trapped
matter. Oil & grease chamber operates to remove oil & grease from the influence that can cause
harm to the pumping unit, risk to biological therapy. Diurnal or wet-weather flow peaks can be
temporarily stored in equalization basins. Basins provide for the temporary holding of
incoming sewage during plant maintenance and a means of diluting and distributing toxic or
high-strength waste discharges that may otherwise prevent secondary biological therapy
(including portable toilet waste, car holding tanks and septic tank pumpers). Flow equalization
basins require variable discharge control, typically include bypass and cleaning provisions, and
aerators may also be included. Cleaning can be simpler if the screening and grit removal basin
is downstream. Aeration is the method through which air is circulated, blended with or
dissolved in a liquid or substance. Consequently, aeration tanks are given to aerate wastewater
through higher effectiveness in the biological therapy of waste. Clarifiers are tanks constructed
with mechanical means for ongoing removal by sedimentation of solids deposited. A clarifier
is usually used for clearing and (or) thickening of solid particles or suspended solids from
liquid. Concentrated impurities released from the tank's bottom are known as sludge, while the
particles floating to the liquid's surface are known as scum. The easiest dewatering technique
is provided by sludge-drying beds. A digested slurry of sludge is distributed over an open sand
bed and permitted to stay dry. Drying occurs through the sand through a mixture of evaporation
and gravity drainage. A sand-built piping network gathers the water that is pumped back to the
plant's head. The sludge cake, as it is called, may have a solid content of about 40% after about
six weeks of drying. With a pitchfork or front-end loader, it can then be separated from the
sand. The dry sludge is used by farmer as a fertilizer for crops.
9.2.1.3 Process Description (Activated Carbon Production)

Activated carbon is one of the most popular adsorbents used in numerous industries for
the removal and recovery of organic. It has high adsorption capability due to its high internal
surface area and porosity formed during carbonization process. Since there are waste water in
production of activated carbon, it needs to treat like the sugar industry.
In activated carbon wastewater produced mainly by water from washing the bagasse
used in roller press and cleaning process. The composition of wastewater has high
concentration of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) which needs to be treated before it goes
to an open body of water. The wastewater of activated carbon will go undergo the same
treatment of the wastewater in sugar industry.
9.3 Air Pollution Management
The bagasse burning waste air produced a flue gas comprising carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, water, and particulate matter. An air pollution control device such as cyclone
separator is installed to reduce pollutants emitted into the atmosphere.
Figure 1. Cyclone Separator
An air pollution control device such as cyclone separator is installed to reduce

pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. It is one of the instruments that usually remove bigger
parts of particulate matter. Its system is like a centrifuge, but it feeds dirty air constantly. Dirty
flue gas is fed into a room in a cyclone separator and inside the chamber a spiral vortex similar
to a tornado is produced. The lighter sections of this gas have less inertia, so being influenced
by the vortex and moving it up is easier for them.
Contrary to this, bigger particulate matter parts have more inertia and are not as readily
affected by the vortex. Because these larger particles have difficulty following the high-speed
spiral motion of the gas and vortex, the particle hit inside the walls of the container and fell
into a hopper for collection. It consists of a particulate fly ash that can be used in the cement
industry as a raw material.
Compared to other industries, air pollution from the sugar sector is regarded very
negligible. During the unloading of sugarcane from the loader, the source of air pollutant is in
the form of dust; slicing and shedding in small branches in the form of suspended particulate
matter; burning of sugarcane bagasse informs smoke and open dumping of solid waste in the
form of odors. During all these operations, an important precaution has been taken.
Water spray around the area was completed in covered automatic equipment, cutting
and shedding to protect against dust at the time of loading and unloading. Cyclone separator
has been installed in boiler house chimney to reduce suspended particulate matter (SPM), wet
scrubber and absorber are used to reduce sulfur dioxide (SO) and nitrous oxide (NO) and
maintain appropriate height. Open dumping of solid waste such as filter cake, mud and
molasses has been reprocessed and used to avoid smell in other industrial applications.
Air pollution has a significant effect on the staff, the equipment and the people around
them. Proper attention will be needed or worker and equipment surface corrosion will occur. It
can be maintained by frequent floor cleaning, water spray on the dusty area, producing very
nice sugar during centrifugal, which has to be captured by exhaust fans and cyclones and
making the mask available to the nose. Especially because of unburned powerful air pollution
from steam generation and diesel engine and fibers particles migrate along with flue gases and
settle in the workplace.
Chapter X
Process Safety
10.1 Dow Fire

The incidence of fires and explosions have led to severe damage in many industries,
primarily in industries’ financial losses. Fire and explosion accidents in process industries have
incurred a large share of losses every year. These accidents are, respectively, the first and
second major risks in the process industries that cause financial, human, and ecological losses.
Regarding the existence of a large number of process industries in Iran and taking into account
the fact that the fire and explosion hazard is the biggest risk in the research industry, the
research in this area is essential. Different methods of assessing fire risks have been applied to
reduce fire and explosion risks.
10.2 Penalty Factor Determination
10.2.1 Exothermic chemical reaction penalty factor

This penalty factor applies only if the experimental set-up contains a chemical reaction.
1. Small exotherms involve a 0.30 penalty. Examples of mild exotherms include

hydrogenation, isomerization and sulfonation, hydrolyzing and neutralization.
2. The penalty is 0.50 for moderate exothermic systems. Examples are alkylating,
esterifying, sulfurizing, polymerizing, condensing and addition to mild exotherms.
3. A penalty of 1.00 is necessary for critical-to-control exotherms. Halogenations are an
example of such a reaction.
4. Especially delicate exotherms involve a 1.25 penalty. Nitrations are an instance of such
a response
10.2.2 Endothermic chemical reaction penalty factor

This punishment applies only if there is a chemical reaction in the experimental
configuration.
1. Calcinations require a penalty of 0.40.

2. A penalty of 0.20 is required for electrolysis
3. Pyrolysis or cracking responses require a penalty of 0.20 or 0.40. For direct fired
devices, the greater punishment applies.
10.2.3 Indoor or otherwise enclosed area penalty factor
This penalty factor refers to any experimental installation indoors.
1. Dust filters and collectors situated within an enclosed region are subject to a punishment
of 0.50.
2. 2. Any method where flammable liquids are treated at temperatures above their flash
point in an enclosed region is subject to a penalty of 0.30.
3. Any method in which liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or flammable liquids are treated
at temperatures above their boiling point in an enclosed region shall be subject to a
penalty of 0.60.
10.2.4 Transfer and handling of material penalty factor

This penalty factor applies only to installations that involve transferring material to / from
storage or real material storage.
1. A penalty of 0.50 is applied to any configuration involving the link and disconnection
of transfer lines for flammable products of category I or type LPG. This applies, for
example, to disconnecting and connecting to the setup pressure gas cylinders containing
the specified type of gases.
2. A penalty of 0.50 is applied to any installation where the introduction of air into batch
reactors, batch mixers or centrifuges can create a flammability or reactivity hazard
during the manual addition of certain ingredients.
3. Any storage of multiple products is subject to a punishment depending on the fire
hazard of the products:
a. For products stored in drums, cylinders, aerosol cans or mobile flexible containers,
i.e. plastic containers of any size, a punishment of 0.85 applies to flammable gases
and fluids with NFPA flammability scores of 3 or 4. Examples include gas-
pressured cylinders and liter-sized glass or plastic containers close experimental
installations.
b. A flammable solid of 3 rating NFPA, e.g. foam, fibre, powder including rubber
products like tires, shoes, styrofoam plastics, methocelular cellulose ethers are paid
in dust / lacquer-free packings a penalty of 0.65.
c. A flammable solid of a NFPA flame retardant of 2 is punishable by 0.40 for e.g.
plastic granular material, rack storage, wood pallets, and non-polluting soil
materials such as polystyrene.
d. For flame retardant fluids above 37.8 C and below 60 C a penalty of 0.25 is
implemented.
e. Any situation where any of the materials referred to above are stored in racks
without in-rack sprinklers will be subject to a fee of 0,20. For example, in a
ventilated chemical warehouse or in another warehouse with shelves.
10.2.5 Drainage and spill control penalty factor

The Dow Guide (1994) altered the requirements for selecting the penalty factor for
drinking and spill control. This penalty factor applies if a flash point is below 60 OC of a product
in the experimental set-up or the material is used above its flash point.
1. A floor intended to avoid spills to other experimental settings will be subject to a

punishment of 0.50.
2. A penalty of 0.50 is imposed on the overall ground that enables a shock to spread to
other experimental installations.
10.2.6 Toxic material penalty factor

In comparison with that set in the Dow Guide (1994), the criteria for the toxic material
punishment factor are unchanged. Toxic materials can complicate urgent responses by
decreasing the capacity to explore or mitigate harm during an occurrence for emergency
reaction staff. Use 0.20 times the health factor of the NFPA punishment.
The following are the definitions of the health factor, as given in NFPA 704:
1. 0 Materials that would not pose a risk other than normal fuel in brief fire exposure
circumstances.
2. 1 Materials that could cause irritation at brief exposure, but only small residual injury,
including material that would require an authorized air purifier.
3. 2 Materials, including those required by the use of air-resistant respiratory protective
equipment which can cause temporary incapacitation or potential residual harm on
intensive or brief exposure.
4. 3 material, including those needing protection against bodily contacts, that might cause
severe temporary or residual injuries on brief exposure.
10.2.7 Sub-Atmospheric Pressure Penalty Factor
A hazardous condition may happen when air comes into contact with plastics that are
susceptible to moisture or oxygen or when air is blended in a closed system with flammable
vapors. A penalty of 0.50 is applied in either of these situations and if the pressure is less than
500 mm Hg.
10.2.8 Operations in Or Near Flammable Range Penalty Factor

The following conditions are covered:
1. A liquid storage tank with an NPFA flammability score, NF, of 3 or 4, where air can be
drawn into the tank when the tank is pumped out or suddenly cooled. Operating
pressure-vacuum relief system open vent or non-inert gas padded, i.e. a system to
safeguard a ship from vacuum destruction. Storage of fuel liquids without inerting at
temperatures above their closed cup flash points. Either of these three circumstances
requires a 0.50 penalty. If an inert, closed vapor recovery system is used and its
airtightness can be guaranteed, there will be no penalty.
2. Experimental machinery or storage tanks that could only be within or near the
flammable range in case of device or machinery failure involve a 0.30 penalty. Any
experimental device relying on inert purge to maintain it out of the flammable range
needs a 0.30 penalty. This also applies to tank vehicles and padded parges. If a Sub-
Atmospheric Pressure Penalty Factor has already been taken, no penalty will apply.
3. Equipment or activities that are by nature always within or near the flammable range
receive a penalty of 0.80, either because purging is not practical or because it was
chosen not to purge.
10.2.9 Dust Explosion Penalty Factor

The penalties mentioned below are designed to apply to any experimental set-up involving
processing of dust: transferring, mixing, grinding, bagging, etc.
Particle size, microns Tyler mesh size Penalty
< 75 > 200 2.00
75 to 100 150 to 200 1.25
100 to 150 100 to 150 0.75
150 to 175 80 to 100 0.50
> 200 60 to 80 0.25
10.2.10 Operating Pressure Penalty Factor
Pressure, kP Pressure, psig Penalty

6,895 1,000 0.86
10,343 1,500 0.92
13,790 2,000 0.96
17,238 2,500 0.98
20,685 to 68,950 3,000 to 10,000 1.00
> 68,950 > 10,000 1.50
For other materials the penalty must be adjusted as follows:
1. Multiply the penalty by 0.70 for extremely viscous products like bitumen, tars, heavy
lubricating oils and asphalts.
2. Multiply the penalty by 1.2 for compressed gases used alone or flame-retardant liquids
pressurized with any gas above 103 kP.
3. Multiply the penalty by 1.3 for liquefied flammable gasses – including all other
flammable products stored above their boiling point.
10.2.11 Low Temperature Penalty Factor

The following penalties are applied:
1. A 0.30 penalty is applied for experimental installations using carbon steel construction
and operating at or below the temperature of the ductile / brittle transition. If no
information is accessible, a temperature of transformation of 10 C is presumed.
2. Use a penalty of 0.20 for products other than carbon steel at or below the transition
temperature. Remember that there is no punishment if the material is suitable for the
lowest operating temperature possible.
10.2.12 Corrosion and Erosion Penalty Factor

Brick porosity and imperfections are probable sites for rapid corrosion in plastic linings.
The following penalties are applicable:
1. The penalty is 0.10 for corrosion levels below 0.013 mm / year with a pitting or local
erosion danger.
2. The penalty is 0.20 for corrosion levels ranging from 0.013 mm / year to 0.025 mm /
year.
3. The penalty ins 0.50 for a corrosion rate greater than 0.025 mm / year.
4. Apply a 0.75 penalty if there is a danger of developing stress-corrosion cracking. This
is prevalent in experimental installations that are subjected to chlorine vapor
contamination over long periods of time.
5. A 0.20 penalty is applied where a lining is needed to avoid corrosion. However, if the
lining is simply intended to safeguard a product from color development, no penalty
will be imposed.
10.2.13 Joints and packing penalty factor

Flammable or fuel leakage can be attracted by packing, joints or joints and packing,
especially where heat and pressure cycling happen. In accordance with the design of the test
configuration in the research and the material in the configuration, a penalty factor should be
chosen. There should be the following sanctions:
1. If there is a risk of some leakage or a minority of the pump and the glans, the penalty
is 0.10.
2. For test installations known to offer pumps, compressors and flange joints periodic
leakage issues, the punishment is 0.30.
3. The penalty for heat and pressure cycling procedures is 0.30.
4. If the material in the experimental set-up penetrates into the nature or is an abrasive
slurry that may cause intermittent screening problems and a rotating shaft seal or a
package is used for the experimental set-up, the penalty is 0.40.
5. The penalty is 1.50 for any experimental configuration with vision glazes, bellows or
extending joint.
10.2.14 Fired Equipment Penalty Factor

If the device being assessed is the fired equipment itself, the distance from the potential
source of leakage becomes zero.
If a piece of fired equipment is located within the process area and there is a possibility that
the material could be released above its flash point in the unit selected as Material Factor, a
minimum penalty of 0.10 will be required regardless of the distance involved.
10.2.15 Hot Oil Heat Exchange System Penalty Factor

The penalties in this chapter are based on the amount of heat exchange liquid used to
evaluate the configuration.
No penalty is implemented if the hot oil is non-combustible or is always used below its
flash point when a combustible fluid is used. However, consideration should be given to the
possible creation of mists.
The amount used in the following table to determine the penalty is the smallest
1. A spill of 15 minutes triggered by a break in the experimental set-up line or

2. The inventory of hot oil within the active hot oil scheme.
The hot oil heat exchange system penalty factor is determined from the following table:
Penalty
Quantity of Liquid
Liq. Above flash point Liq. At or above boiling point
(m3)
<0.2 0.15 0.25
0.2 to 0.4 0.30 0.45
0.4 to 1.0 0.50 0.75
>1.0 0.75 1.15
10.2.16 Rotating Equipment Penalty Factor

A 0.50 penalty is applied to experimental setups that utilize or are:
1. A compressor with an impact of 100 hp or more.

2. A pump with an impact of 10 hp or more.
3. Agitators (mixers) and circulating pumps where failure could result in an exotherm due
to absence of cooling owing to interrupted mixing or coolant flow or disrupted and
resumed mixing.
Other high-speed rotating devices with an important history of failure, such as centrifuges
10.3 Fire and Explosion Index
10.3.1 Multiple Hearth Furnace
Table 34: Dow Fire of Multiple Hearth Furnaces

Area/country Division Location Date
Site Manufacturing unit Process unit
Prepared by Approved by Building
Reviewed by Reviewed by Reviewed by
Materials: Activated Carbon
Material factor 1
1. General process hazard Penalty factor range Penalty factor used
Base factor 1.0 1.0
A. Exothermic Chemical reaction 0.3 to 1.25 1.25
B. Endothermic processes 0.2 to 0.4 0
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.25 to 1.05 0
D. Enclosed or indoor process unit 0.25 to 0.9 0.5
E. Access 0.20 to 0.35 0.35
F. Drainage and spill control 0.25 to 0.50 0
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) 2.75
2. Special Process Hazard
Base factor 1.0 1.0
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.2 to 0.8 0
B. Sub-Atomic pressure (<500mmHg) 0.5 0
C. Operation in or near flammable range
1. Tank farms storage flammable liquids 0.5 0
2. Process upset or purge failure 0.3 0
3. Always in flammable range 0.8 0.8
D. Dust explosion 0.25 to 0.2 0.25
E. Pressure (0 KPa) 0 to 0.85 0
F. Low temperature 0.2 to 0.3 0
G. Quantity of flammable/Unstable of material
1.Liquid gases in process 0.1 to 3.0 0
2. Liquid gases in storage 0.1 to 1.65 0
3.Combustible solids in storage, in process 0.1 to 1.65 0.5
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.1 to 0.75 0.1
I. Leakage – joints and packing 0.1 to 1.5 0
J. Use of fire equipment 0.1 to 1.0 1.0
K. Hot oil heat exchanger system 0.1 to 1.15 0
L. Rotating equipment 0.5 0
SPECIAL PROCESS HAZARD FACTOR(F2) 2.65
PROCESS UNIT HAZARD FACTOR (F1 x F2)=F3 7.29
FIRE AND EXPLOSION FACTOR 7.29
10.3.2 Double Effect Forced Circulation Evaporator
Table 35: Dow Fire of Forced Circulation Evaporator
Materials: Syrup
Material factor 1
Base factor 1.0 1.0
A. Exothermic Chemical reaction 0.3 to 1.25 0
B. Endothermic processes 0.2 0.2 to 0.4 0
D. Enclosed or indoor process unit 0.25 to 0.9 0.5
E. Access 0.20 to 0.35 0.35
F. Drainage and spill control 0.25 to 0.50 0.5
Base factor 1.0 1.0
3. Always in flammable range 0.8 0
D. Dust explosion 0.25 to 0.2 0
E. Pressure (200 KPa) 0 to 0.85 0.6
1.Liquid gases in process 0.1 to 3.0 1.5
2. Liquid gases in storage 0.1 to 1.65 0.5
3.Combustible solids in storage, in process 0.1 to 1.65 0
I. Leakage – joints and packing 0.1 to 1.5 0.5
J. Use of fire equipment 0.1 to 1.0 0
L. Rotating equipment 0.5 0.25
10.3.3 Werkspoor Crystallizer
Table 36: Dow Fire of Werkspoor Crystallizer
Materials: Sugar Crystals, Water
Material factor 1
Base factor 1.0 1.0
A. Exothermic Chemical reaction 10.4 0.3 to 1.25 0
D. Enclosed or indoor process unit 0.25 to 0.9 0
E. Access 0.20 to 0.35 0.35
G. Drainage and spill control 0.25 to 0.50 0.50
Base factor 1.0 1.0
F. Low temperature 0.2 to 0.3 0.20
3.Combustible solids in storage, in process 0.1 to 1.65 0
L. Rotating equipment 0.5 0.5
10.3.4 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Table 37: Dow Fire of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Materials: Clarified Juice
Material factor 1
Base factor 1.0 1.0
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.25 to 1.05 0.40
E. Access 0.20 to 0.35 0.35
Base factor 1.0 0
B. Sub-Atomic pressure (<500mmHg) 0.5
10.3.5 Biomass Steam Boiler
Table 38: Dow Fire of Biomass Steam Boiler
Materials: Water, Coal
Material factor 1
Base factor 1.0 1.0
E. Access 0.20 to 0.35 0.35
Base factor 1.0 0
10.3.6 Vertical Tubular Heater
Table 39: Dow Fire of Vertical Tubular Heater
Materials: Raw Juice
Material factor 1
Base factor 1.0 1.0
E. Access 0.20 to 0.35 0.35
Base factor 1.0 0
10.4 Hazard and Operability Study
Assigned by: Failure Mode and Effects Analysis Date issued: August 2019
Process Engineer (FMEA)
Potential Cause(s)/ Current Process Current Process

Process Function Potential Failure Mode Potential Effect(s) of Mechanism(s) of Failure Controls (Prevention) Controls (Detection)
Failure
CUTTING AND SHREDDER
The raw material is Unacceptable material raw material rested long Visual inspection None
Cutting of sugarcane bitten time
in stock
unsharp wedge inefficient cutting frequently used Visual inspection None
Rust oxygen exposure Stop frequently used None None
insufficient amount of oil difficulty of process Stop operation frequently used Visual inspection None
ROLLER PRESS
Extraction rust equipment reject oxygen exposure Visual inspection Timer
loose rolls not fully press small amount extraction frequently used None None
blockage of gear tendency of stoppage may machine breakage stuck up material daily maintenance not fully shredded, bulk
occur materials
HEATER
no flow / less flow leakage of pipes not accurate amount of Due to degradation of change of pipes when daily maintenance
juice will flow pipes rusting is detected
high temperature too much additive juice will not be clarified Work instruction not proper communication in temperature control valve
( lime) followed control room
CLARIFIER
contaminated juice particulate matter did not lack of lime juice Work instruction not proper communication in None
settle down followed control room
hard removable of sludge not all impurities will sludge stuck on orifice frequently used automatic cleaning None
flow system

Failure
HEAT EXCHANGER
no flow no juice will flow not accurate amount of scaling and fouling cleaning system daily cleaning
juice will flow
pressure build up explosion various potential hazard no proper vents daily maintenance pressure gage
high temperature pressure build up explosion due to high temperature daily maintenance temperature control valve
temperature
BOILER
amount of calcium and amount of steam will be heat exchanger & water sampling chemical analysis
magnesium salt less evaporator will not work not properly treat
properly
pressure build up Explosion various potential hazard no proper vents daily maintenance pressure gage
CRYTALLIZER
small amount sugar smaller in sales loss of money small seed grain proper communication in reading in control room
crystal produce introduces control room
hardened sugar crystals improper flow of mixture clogging in the pipes temperature used is not proper communication in reading in control room
the desired temperature control room
CENTRIFUGE
coating of molasses in the improper flow of mixture clogging in pipes the pressure of the water making sure the control reading flow system
insides of the equipment introduced is less system works control
less amount of water coating of molasses inside desired final product will improper communication proper communicatio in daily maintenance
introduced the equipment not be aimed the control room

Failure
CENTRIFUGE
more amount of moisture difficulty in drying the it will not be dried measured amount of proper communication in daily maintenance
content produced than the wet sugar crystals properly water is not taken into the control room
amount of sugar crystals account
produced
pressure build up Explosion various potential hazard no proper vents daily maintenance pressure gage
temperature used is improper mixture of the mixture's viscosity temperature transmitter proper reading of the checking of the valve
higher or lower than the solution produced will be less than not working temperature control valve readings every hour
usual temperature the desired viscosity in the control room
DRYER
amount of water desired percentage of the the dry sugar crystals the efficiency of the dryer pilot plant should be done comparing the trend of
evaporated is less water evaporated would product wouldn't be used didn't meet the to know the efficiency of efficiency of the dryer
not be obtained possible desired efficiency that we the dryer selected selected from time to time
need
wet sugar crystals not the desired final product dry sugar crystals the efficiency of the dryer pilot plant should be done comparing the trend of
dried enough wouldn't be possible wouldn't be obtained used didn't meet the to know the efficiency of efficiency of the dryer
desired efficiency that we the dryer selected selected from time to time
need and to double check the
composition of the
moisture content in the
dry sugar crystals

Failure
MIXER
Corrosion oxygen exposure Stop frequently used None None
Overheating motor difficulty of process Stop operation frequently used Visual inspection None
Vibration in shaft Overflow liquid Rejects high temperature Visual inspection Temperature control
Agitator stop Process stop Operation not function Operator did not follow None None
the instructions
DRYER
Drying of raw material/s Low temperature Dryer temperature -Incorrect calculation of Provide a design plan
increase wind pressure and wind according to the situation.
flow rate.
None
Dryer temperature Ignition of raw material - Improper use of dryer - Consult the dryer None
increase manufacturer to obtain
and learn the equipment
manual.
Small drying equipment Inspection of leaks ad None
wind pressure increase
that may occur
10.5 Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) In Sugar Industry
It is essential to be competitive on the local sugar market as a low-cost producer. More

than that, however, it is vital to constantly meet the expectations of your costumers. Many
importers of local sugar industry serve a sophisticated, discerning public demanding a high-
quality, secure product. A systematic strategy that identifies root causes of quality variation
and has formal processes in place that address these causes is likely to be more effective in
meeting market expectations rather than a haphazard reactive mode of problem solving as they
emerge. Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) is a structured methodology aimed at ensuring
that a manufacturing concern continuously manufactures a secure product that meets defined
quality criteria and legal requirements.
GMP is more relevant than IS0 (although IS0 remains a requirement for some
customers) to meet the needs of most customers. Although GMP should be component of a
quality management system like IS0 9000 for food production issues, it is discovered that many
food factories with IS0 accreditation (including raw and refined sugar manufacturers) do not
have an operating GMP scheme in place. The IS0 9000 scheme needs each organization to set
its own quality standards, and proper execution will guarantee consistent compliance with these
norms. If the safety and health requirements of GMP are not component of the performance
requirements of the business, then the firm can be accredited to IS0 9000 without GMP
performance.
Any organization that produces food products is suggested to ensure that GMP
processes have been introduced and are operating effectively before considering IS0 9000
accreditation. GMP is more practical and cost-effective because it can be tailored to the specific
requirements of the factory without needing much wasteful paperwork.
It is recommended to follow the measures described in this document to integrate GMP

to a food business that is IS0 9000 accredited and perceives that it does not have a formal GMP
scheme. GMP's main concern is how things are accomplished. It is a system of instruments
used in the design and construction of the product, security and quality. It is difficult to attain
zero foreign matter inclusions in product failures or zero package failures in an industrial
operation.
• Personnel hygiene
• Cleaning and sanitation
• Waste management pest
• Management of foreign objects, chemicals and microorganisms
• Planned maintenance
Strategies for implementation differ, but there are fundamentally five components:
• Commitment and policy
• Planning Implementation
• Monitoring and verification
• Review and improvement.
These five steps are prevalent to all management systems implementation and are used for
critical control point (HACCP) critical assessment of IS0 9000 and hazard analysis. In turn, the
steps will be addressed.
1. Commitment and policy
It is vital that leadership is confident of the need to implement GMP. They must know
not only the advantages of GMP, but also the resources needed to make it function. What is
needed is a clear understanding of what checks are already in place and what improvements
need to be made. Once a choice has been taken to implement the GMP, management will
develop a particular GMP strategy that will form part of the overall business plan and task of
the organization. This policy will not be cast in stone, but may be amended as further progress
is made with the scheme. It will integrate the vision, key values and beliefs of the company and
should take into consideration the picture that the organization hopes to obtain. Once the
commitment to keep it going has been formalized, it cannot be transmitted and then ignored.
Posters, incentive schemes, announcements, notifications, articles in the newsletters of the
organization and through media such as e-mail may be conveyed. Responsibility for general
efficacy would be provided to a senior individual who has sufficient power and expertise. It
would set up a steering committee to guide its execution.
2. Planning
Careful original planning is crucial. It is essential to appoint a champion to take charge

of the application of this. This person's first step will be to set up a task force to investigate
what needs to be achieved, to draft a preliminary strategy, to make a rough estimate of the
resources required and to consider the allocation of responsibilities. The members of the task
force must have adequate understanding, operational experience and expertise in auditing
techniques. If the necessary expertise is not accessible within the organization, it will likely be
necessary to send chosen employees to brief training courses or to use an outside advisor. The
cost estimate will likely include employees and personnel time, training needs, consulting
assistance, equipment, process changes and a database for information management.
Before the Task Force begins setting targets and making estimates of costs and
resources, a preliminary GMP review will be conducted to evaluate' Where are we now?'. This
may involve interviewing experienced staff, seeing for themselves the status of distinct
activities and using existing maintenance and inventory control information systems. This
evaluation will recognize those elements of its operation that affect the quality of its final
product. It is essential to take a stand against internationally accepted norms, such as those
developed by the American Baking Institute (Anon, 1995).
The result of the evaluation will be a set of priority goals and goals and a management
scheme to achieve them. Examples of suitable targets for the sugar industry.
• Minimum leakage of pipes, pumps, flanges and seals reduces bagacillo and dust levels
in the factory's crystallizer and dryer sections
• Minimum air drainage through which micro-organisms can be introduced in the
production areas
• Minimum sugar spillage
• Minimum damage to the finished product
• Minimize the presence of birds, rodents and insects in the packing station and
warehouse.
Targets indicate measurable activities and include time schedules or limitations.

Examples of objectives are
• No bottles, bins, sandwiches or smoking bits will be found in the work area
• Sugar Driers Filters are cleaned once daily in the morning shift
• The goal is less than X tons per month for the rework of the damaged packets
• The bait stations for rodent are checked once a week and the outstanding data will be
recorded in the identified file.
The task force also takes into account education and consulting conditions needed for
the scheme to be implemented.
3. Implementation
In cane sugar mills, the following elements have to be resolved by a GMP:
• Damage to warehouse packages must be maintained at the minimum, in order to prevent
costly replenishment of spilled sugar and pesticide attraction. Similarly, conveyor belts
spillage must be kept to a minimum.
• Installation of the pot extraction technologies should eliminate the dust usually
produced at the sugar packaging facility at conveyor transportation and packaging
machines, as it is hard to manage bees, insects, birds and other plagues when sugar dust
is settled in a factory setting. Moreover sugar dust makes it difficult to maintain healthy
households
• A personal hygiene policy must be formulated and implemented. Wash basins must be
available in accessible places, in particular near the packaging station, with soap and
clean towels. Separate and closed rest rooms where staff can eat and drink and store
and showers. It must not be allowed to eat, drink or smoke at the workplace.
• A scheduled (preventive) maintenance scheme will minimize juice leaks. Microbial
contamination through factory floor reused juice can lead to process problems induced
by microbial polysaccharides and could affect the finished product's quality. It is
inappropriate to maintain informal (weekend) maintenance.
• Strong air currents in the plant should be minimized as they inevitably contain
microorganisms, soil particles, fly-ash and bagacillo that contaminate the end product.
They come from outside the plant. Structural changes may be required to control these
air currents.
• The pipe lag must be frequently checked and steps taken to avoid the entry of
deteriorated lagging material into the product streams.
• Formalized timetables for cleaning the various job zones have to be drawn up.
• Steps must be done to remove lubricants (e.g. massecuite) from the process stream.
• A policy on the control of glass will be necessary. Once glass has entered the process
stream, particularly after the clarifier, it is virtually impossible to remove except by
remelting and re-crystallising the sugar. All electric lighting near process vessels needs
to be protected by perspex covers. No bottles should be allowed in the process area.
Seed slurry should be dispensed from a stainless-steel tank, not glass bottles
• It is necessary to establish formal processes to cope with various types of waste. The
product that is spread must not be used for other kinds of waste in unique containers.
Packing material strings and wrappings should be collected for recycling and
accumulated in specified fields. There must not be left any metal off-cuts, bolts and
welding rods left after minor repairs.
Each of these elements is addressed in three stages:
• Company policy- for example, white protective overalls will be applied in every
sugar packer.
• Procedures- groups of documented guidelines that clarify and explicitly how
strategies are to be implemented. For a group of individuals, processes, e.g. dress
code are particular.
• Work instructions- for example, how the operator monitors the temperature online.
The certain important stakeholders are allocated at the beginning of execution. These
people need excellent human relationships, abilities in communication and an intimate
understanding of their specific operations. They are responsible for involving employees in
their areas to assist in developing alternatives to identified issues. The multidisciplinary team
strategy is the only one that works on a long-term basis because the system needs to be run by
its owners. The solutions shall include timetables, processes and controls that do not recur or
contain recognized problems. It is then possible to make fairly exact estimates of resource and
equipment changes.
The procedures must be well documented in order for those who need to implement
them to be readily available and understandable. The GMP policy, goals and goals, along with
the comprehensive processes must be collected in a handbook. Copies of the manual must be
given to the main departments, but a procedure must be established whereby all modifications
are inserted in their correct places in all manuals.
A computerized Tracking System that records major items and additional resources
required and measurable advantages (e.g. reduction in customer complaint amount, decreased
breakout time, decreased amounts of product to be reworked) can be beneficial for budget and
financial control reasons from the GMP programme. The estimated return on investment will
be facilitated.
4. Monitoring and verification

Monitoring includes monitoring the efficacy of processes and the achievement of their
aims. Regular feedback on issues in carrying out the required duties must be provided on how
these can be overcome and how the stipulated processes can be enhanced. Each department
should determine the best way to provide feedback. It is necessary to record only important
elements of the results. The collection of useless information has no advantage. Corrective
measures shall be taken as quickly as possible where necessary. If the current processes are to
be modified, they must be recorded and included in the handbook. This principle will assist
individuals to guarantee that their duties are not set in their own ways and can be done without
thinking. To add to the efficiency of the scheme.
5. Review and improvement

The review method needs a regular self-inspection by the food safety team. Periodic
checks may be essential to obtain objectivity from a third party. The inspections identify
projects that will improve quality, which will have to be planned, carried out and monitored in
turn. This starts the endless quality improvement cycle that forms part of the entire management
of quality. Comprehensive reporting and formalized procedures are needed for the audit results.
The company cannot fully realize its market potential without it. GMP is the basis for managing
and improving quality. GMP has many economic advantages aside from guaranteed product
quality. Proper GMP application will probably lead to a culture change that encourages a
proactive manufacturing and quality control strategy.
Chapter XI
Economics
The main objective of establishing a chemical plant is to profit from it. Using different
equations and correlations a profitability analysis of the designed sugar production plant was
studied.
11.1 Estimation for Economics
Table 40: Estimation for Fixed and Total Capital Investment

Direct Cost
A. Equipment + Installation + Instrumentation + Piping
+ Electrical + Insulation + Painting
1. Purchased Equipment ₱ 1,774,453,655
2. Installation, Including Insulation and Painting
₱ 709,781,462
(40% of Purchased Equipment)
3. Instrumentation and Controls
₱ 177,445,365.5
4. Piping
₱ 177,445,365.5
5. Electrical Installation
₱ 177,445,365.5
B. Buildings, Process, and Auxiliary
₱ 532,336,096.5
C. Service Facilities and Yard Improvements
₱ 709,781,462
D. Land
₱ 88,722,682.75
Total Direct Cost ₱ 4,347,411,455
Indirect Cost
A. Engineering and Supervision
₱ 652,111,718.2
(15% Total Direct Cost)
B. Construction Expense and Contractor’s Cost ₱ 434,741,145
(10% Total Direct Cost)
C. Contingency
₱ 505,719,291.5
(8.5% of Fixed Capital Investment)
Total Indirect Cost ₱ 1,592,572,155
Fixed Capital Investment
₱ 5,914,845,515
(Direct + Indirect Cost)
Working Capital
₱ 657,205,057.2
(10% Total Capital Investment)
Total Capital Investment ₱ 6,572,050,572
Table 41: Estimation of Total Product Cost
Manufacturing Cost
1. Direct Production Cost
A. Raw Materials ₱ 5,113,281,049
B. Operating Labor ₱ 14,305,680
C. Utility ₱ 1,899,691,110
D. Maintenance and Repairs
₱ 295.744,275.8
(35% Fixed Capital Cost)
E. Operating Supplies
₱ 29,574,227.58
(0.5% Fixed Capital Cost)
F. Laboratory Charges
₱ 1,430,568
(10% Operating Labor)
G. Patents and Royalties
₱ 59,148,455.15
Total Direct Production Cost ₱ 8,493,173,455
2. Fixed Charges
A. Depreciation
₱ 591,484,551.5
B. Local Taxes
₱ 591,484,551.5
C. Insurance
₱ 29,574,227.58
(0.5% Fixed Capital Cost)
D. Plant Overhead Cost
₱ 7,152,840
Total Fixed Charges ₱ 687,360,074.2
Total Manufacturing Cost ₱ 9,180,533,529
General Expenses
A. Administrative Cost
₱ 2,145,852
B. Distribution and Selling Cost ₱ 113,252,051.2
(4.5% Total Product Cost)
C. Research and Development Cost ₱ 113,252,051.2
(4.5% Total Product Cost)
D. Financing
₱ 295,742,275.8
Total General Expenses ₱ 2,491,545,126
Total Product Cost ₱ 11,672,078,660
11.2 Calculations for Economics
Calculation for Annual Income

Annual Income = Gross Annual Income – Total Product Cost
Annual Income = ₱ 21,965,487,650 - ₱ 11,672,078,660
Annual Income = ₱10,293,408,990
Economic Criteria:
a.) Rate of Return (ROR)
The Rate-of-Return (ROR) is calculated using the formula below on the cash flow diagram:
𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑥 100% = 𝑅𝑂𝑅
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑥 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
(10,293,408,990)(1) − (6,572,050,572)
𝑥 100% = 56.62%
(1)(6,572,050,572)
b.) Pay-out Time (POT)

𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝐼𝑁𝑉𝐸𝑆𝑇𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇
𝑃𝑂𝑇 = + 𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑅𝑇 𝑈𝑃 𝑌𝐸𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐴𝑆𝐻 𝐼𝑁𝐹𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑃𝐸𝑅 𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐼𝑂𝐷
6,572,050,572
𝑃𝑂𝑇 = + 1 = 1.64 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
10,293,408,990
Chapter XII
Conclusion and Recommendation
A plant producing a raw sugar from sugarcane and activated carbon from its waste
bagasse is successfully designed. The unit operations involved and the adopted process
required for purification, separation, clarification, activation, and carbonization processes are
prudently selected to ensure the most efficient and desired products with high output, cost, and
energy efficiency. In addition, the plant design economic study shows that it is viable and has
a large annual cash flow, gaining an economic margin of 83.44%, a return rate of 56.62% and
a decent payback period of 1.64 years, demonstrate that the design is cost-efficient.
The design includes process safety and health measures to ensure safe operations that
will also ensure efficient operation, to ensure the safety of the workers and to prevent accidents.
In the environment aspects, small amount of wastes is generated and are handled with proper
industrial waste management ensuring an environmentally friendly operation.
Nevertheless, to enhance productivity and financial sustainability, the design process

can still be improved. One way is to diversify the current process or create an innovative
technique to minimize utility costs. Likewise, to meet the competition, improving the recovery
rates of the mills is important and this will require sufficient quantity and good-quality
sugarcane to process. Maintaining the product yield and quality would also mean higher
profitability.
In the meantime, it is suggested that the annual quantity of raw sugar and activated
carbon production be increased in order to meet the requirement of other sectors and ultimately
enter the worldwide market. To improve the authenticity of the design, further research and
amplification are suggested.
Chapter XII
Appendices
A.1 Material Balance Computation of the Production of Raw Sugar
Solution {1}
Sugar Crystal Balance: @Ds = 300 MT/day

0.97 Ds = 0.45 Ws
0.97 Ds = 0.45 Ws (300 MT/day)
Ws = 646.667 MT/day
Overall Material Balance:

Wd + Ds = Ws
Wd = 646.667 – 300
Wd = 346.667 MT/day
Solution {2}
Overall Material Balance: @ Ws = 646.667 MT/day

M + Wce = Ws + Mo
M + 58 = 646.667 + Mo
M – Mo = 588.667 {1}
Water Balance:
(0.8)(0.5)(M) + Wce = 0.55 Ws + 0.15 Mo
(0.8)(0.5)(M) + 58 = (0.55)(646.667) + 0.15 Mo
0.4 M – 0.15 Mo = 297.66685 {2}
M = 837.46672 MT/day Mo = 248.8002 MT/day
Solution {3}
Overall Material Balance: @ M = 837.46672 MT/day

Sy + Se = M + Wcr
Sy – Wcr = 837.46672 – 27.64
Sy – Wcr = 809.82672 {1}
Water Balance:
0.35 Sy = 0.083 Wcr + (0.5)(0.8)(M)
0.35 Sy = 0.083 Wcr + (0.5)(0.8)(837.46672)
0.35 Sy – 0.083 Wcr = 334.986688 {2}
Sy = 1002.887904 MT/day Wcr = 193.0611835 MT/day
Solution {4}
BPR2 = 1.78x + 6.22x²

BPR2 = 1.78(0.15) + 6.22(0.15)²
BPR2 =0.40695
Ts3 = T2 + BPR2
Ts3 = 56 + 0.40695
Ts3 = 56.40695°C
F = L2 + (V1 + V2 )
0.15 F = 0.65 L2 + (V1 + V2 )0
0.15 F = (0.65) (1002.887904) + 0
F = 4345.84784 MT/day
F = L2 + (V1+ V2 )
4345.847584 = 1002.887904 + (V1 + V2 )
(V1 + V2 ) = 3342.95968
3342.95968
V1 = V2 = = 1671.47984
2
F = V1 + L1
L1 = 4345.84784 - 1671.47984
L1 = 2674.367744
L2 = L1 − V2
L2 = 2674.367744 – 1671.47984
L2 = 1002.887904
F (0.15) = L1 X1
4345.847584 (0.15) = 2674.367744 X1
X1 = 0.24375
L1 X1 = L2 X2
2674367744 (0.24375) = 1002.887904X2
X2 = 0.65
BPR1 = 1.78X1 + 6.22 X² = 1.78 (0.24375) + 6.22 (0.24375)²

BPR1 = 0.80343
BPR2 = 1.78X2 + 6.22X2 = 1.78(0.65) + 6.22 (0.65)²
BPR2 = 3.78495
∑ ∆Tavailable = TS1 − T2 − (BPR1 + BPR2 )

∑ ∆Tavailable = 120 - 56 – 4.58838
∑ ∆Tavailable = 59.41162 °C
1 1
∑ ∆T 59.41162 (2270)
U1
∆T1 = =
1 1 1 1
+
U1 U2 2270 + 1705
∆T1 = 25.48℃
1 1
∑ ∆T 59.41162 ( )
U2 1705
∆T2 = =
1 1 1 1
U1 + U2 2270 + 1705
∆T2 = 33.928℃
∆T1 = 29℃ ∆T2 = 32℃
T1 = TS − ∆T1 T2 = T1 − BPR1 − ∆T2
T1 = 120 – 29 T2 = 91 – 0.80343 - 32
T1 = 91℃ T2 = 58.19657
TS2 = T1 − BPR1
TS2 = 91 – 0.80343
TS2 = 90.19657℃
Effect 1: Effect 2: Condenser:

TS1 = 120℃ TS2 = 90.19657℃ TS3 = 56.40695℃
T1 = 91℃ T2 = 58.19657℃
Cp = 4.19 – 2.35 x
F: 4.19 – 2.35 (0.15) = 3.8375
L1 : 4.19 – 2.35 (0.24375) = 3.6171875
L2 : 4.19 – 2.35 (0.65) = 2.6625
T1 = 91℃ TS2 = 90.19657℃

BPR1 = 0.80343℃ TS1 = 120℃
Saturation Enthalpy @ 90.19657℃

90 2660.1
90.19657 2660.4136
95 2668.1
H1 = HS2 + 1.884 (0.80343)

H1 = 2660.4136 + 1.884 (0.80343)
H1 = 2661.927262
Saturation Enthalpy @ 120℃

Vapor Liquid
HS1 = 2706.3 hS1 = 503.71
λS1 = HS1 − hS1

λS1 = 2706.3 − 503.71
λS1 = 2202.59
Effect 2: T2 = 58.19657 TS3 = 56.40695 BPR2 = 3.78495
Saturation Enthalpy @ 56.40695℃

55 2600.9
56.40695 2603.34846
60 2609.6
H2 = HS3 + 1.884(3.78495)
H2 = 2603.34846 + 1.884(3.78495)
H2 =/; 2610.479306
HS2 @ 90.19657
90 355.90
90.19657 356.7408
95 376.92
λS2 = H2 − 356.7408
λS2 = 2610.479306 − 356.7408
λS2 = 2253.738506 kJ/kg
V1 = F − L1
V1 = 4345.847584 − L1
V2 = L1 − L2
Equations:
{1} F Cp (TF − 0) + S λS1 = L1 Cp (T1 − 0) + V1 H1
4345.847584(3.8375)(48) + S (2202.59) = L1 (3.617)(91) + (4345.847584 - L1 )

(2661.927262)
800505.125 – 11568330.16 = -S (2202.59) – 2332.780262 L1
-10767825.04 = -2202.59 S – 2332.780262 L1
{2} L1 Cp (T1 − 0) + V1 λS2 = L2 Cp (T2 − 0) + V2 H2
L1 (3.617)(91) + (4345.847584 - L1 )(2253.738586) = L2 (2.6625)(58.19657) + (L1 − L2 )

(2610.479306)
9794403 = 4535.070892 L1 - 2455.530938 L2
Since L2 = 1002.887904
Using Eq.2: 9794403 = 4535.070892 L1 - 2455.530938 (1002.887904)

L1 = 2702.719664
Using Eq.1: -10767825.04 = -2202.59 S – 2332.780262 (2702.719664)

S = 2026.239086
V2 = L1 − L2 = 2702.719664 − 1002.887904
V2 = 1698.262662 MT/day
V1 = 4345.847584 − 2702.719664
V1 = 1643.12792 MT/day
V1 + V2 1643.128+1698.26
Steam Economy = = = 1.65
S 2026.24
Solution {5}
1 day 1 hr
Q = (2.66)(109 )(4345.847584)(66)( )( )
24 hrs 3600 sec
Q = 8830520855 KW
∆H = 2257 – 419 = 1838
C
m=
∆H
m = 4149.597 MT/day (SI)
Sucrose Balance:
0.15 HJ = (0.30)(0.80)(CJ)
0.15(4345.847584) = (0.30)(0.80)(CJ)
CJ = 2716.15474 MT/day

CJ + SI = HJ + SO
2716.15474 + 4149.597 = 4345.847584 + SO
SO = 2519.898156
Solution {6}

SL + CJ = MJ
SL – MJ = -2716.15474 {1}
Lime Balance:
-0.95 SL + 0.30 MJ = 0 {2}
MJ = 3969.76462 MT/day
SL = 1253.60988 MT/day
Solution {7}

RJ + L = MJ
RJ = 3969.76462 - 115
RJ = 3854.76462 MT/day
Solution {8}
Overall Material Balance: @Wr = 100

SS + Wr = B + RJ
SS – B = 3854.76462 – 100
SS – B = 3754.76462 {1}
Water Balance:
0.75 SS + Wr = 0.4 B + 0.842 RJ
0.75 SS – 0.4 B = (0.82)(3854.76462) – 100
0.75 SS – 0.4 B = 3060.906988 {2}
SS = 4454.288971 MT/day
B = 699.5243514 MT/day
A.2 Material Balance Computation of the Production of Activated Carbon
Solution {1}:
Solid Balance:
0.60 B = 0.85 DB
(0.60)(699.5243514) = (0.85)(DB)
DB = 493.7818951 MT/day

B = WD2 + DB
WD2 = 699.5243514 – 493.7818951
WD2 = 205.7424563 MT/day
Solution {2}:
Basis: 100 kg Feed
Carbon Balance:
1 mol C
(0.75)(100 kg C) ( ) = (0.05 + 0.337) X
12.01 kg C
X = 16.13642378 kmol dry flue gas
PV = nRT
(16.13642)(1000)(8.314)(273.15)
V=
101325
V = 361.6611872 m3
1.5 1 1
nair = [(0.456)(16.13642378) - (14.01) (2)] (79) x 100
nair = 9.246425384 kmol Air
PV = nRT
(9.246425384)(1000)(8.314)(273.15)
V =
101325
V = 207.2375656 m3 air
kg
Excess Air (EA) = (207.2375656 m3)(1.225 ⁄ 3 ) = 253.87 MT/day
m
361.661872
Theoretical flue gas (FG) = ( ) = 43.055 MT/day
8.4
Solid Mass Balance:

0.80 DB = 0.90 PF
(0.85)(493.7818951) = 0.90 PF
PF = 466.3495676 MT/day
Ash Balance:
(0.055)(100) = 0.95 R
R = 5.78947368 MT/day

F + EA + DB = WF + PF + FG + R
100 + 253.87 + 493.7818951= WF + 466.3495676 + 43.055 + 5.78947368
WF = 332.4578538 MT/day
Solution {3}:
Solid Balance:
0.90 PF = 0.78 P
(0.90)(466.3495676) = (0.78)(P)
P = 538.0956549 MT/day
Water Balance:
0.10 PF + 0.30 HP = 0.15 P
(0.10)(466.3495676) + (0.30)(HP) = (0.15)(538.0956549)
HP = 113.5979716 MT/day

PF + HP = S + P
S = 466.3495676 +113.5979716 – 538.0956549
S = 41.8518843 MT/day
Solution {4}:
Basis: 100 kg Feed
Carbon Balance:
1 mol C
(0.60)(100 kg C) (12.01 kg C) = (0.09 + 0.30) X
X = 12.80983796 kmol dry flue gas 2
PV = nRT
(12.80983796)(1000)(8.314)(273.15)
V =
101325
3
V = 287.1033425 m
5 1 1
nair = [(0.456)(12.80983796) - (14.01) (2)] (79) x 100
nair = 7.168154607 kmol Air
PV = nRT
(7.168154607 )(1000)(8.314)(273.15)
V =
101325
3
V = 160.6578595 m air
kg⁄
Excess Air (EA) = (160.6578595 m3)(1.225 ) = 196.8058779 MT/day
m3
287.1033425
Theoretical flue gas (𝐹𝐺2 ) = ( ) = 34.17896935 MT/day
8.4
Solid Mass Balance:

0.78 P = 0.89 PF2
(0.78)(538.0956549) = 0.89 PF2
PF2 = 471.5894504 MT/day
Ash Balance:
(0.03)(100) = 0.95 R
R = 3.1579 MT/day

F3 + EA2 + P = WF2 + PF2 + FG2 + R2
100 + 196.8058779 + 538.0956549= WF2 + 471.5894504 + 34.17896935 + 3.1579
WF2 = 325.9752131 MT/day
Solution {5}:
Solid Balance:
0.89 PF2 = 0.85 PC
(0.89)(471.5894504) = 0.85 PC
PC = 493.7818951 MT/day

PF2 + WCO = PC
WCO = 493.7818951 – 471.5894504
WCO = 22.19244472 MT/day
Solution {6}:
Solid Balance:
0.91 PC = 0.98 AC
(0.85)(493.7818951) = 0.98 AC
AC = 428.2802151 MT/day

PC = AC + WD3
WD3 = 493.7818951- 428.2802151
WD3 = 65.50168 MT/day
A.3 Computations of Overall Heat Balance
Solution {1} Crystallizer
Feed: 1002.89 MT/day

@56.45oC = 329.56 K
Mixture: 837.47 MT/day
Mw: 324.30 g/mol
Average Heat Capacity: 0.2732 kJ/MT K

Heat of Solution @ 20oC: -200 g sucrose/100 grams H2O
𝑘𝐽
𝐻 = (1002.89 𝑀𝑇)(329.56 − 296.15) (0.2732 ) = 9152870.20 𝑘𝐽
𝑀𝑇 ∙ 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
(−20 ) (1000 )
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 1 𝑀𝑇 𝑘𝐽
= −58428279.29 ⁄𝑀𝑇
1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑀𝑇
(342 − 30𝑔) ( )( )
1000𝑔 1000 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽⁄ 1 𝑀𝑇
(−58428279.29 𝑀𝑇 ) (27.64 𝑘𝑔) (1000 𝑘𝑔) = −1614957.639 𝑘𝐽
𝑞 = −9152870.20 𝑘𝐽 − 1614957.639 𝑘𝐽 = −10767827.84 𝑘𝐽
Solution {2} Evaporator
V2 = 1698.262662 MT/day F = 4345.85 MT/day λS2 = 2253.738506

V1 = 1643.1279 MT/day L2 = 1002.89 MT/day H2 = 2410.48
L1 = 2702.719664 MT/day S = 2026.24 MT/day H1 = 2661.927262
T1 = 90oC TF = 48oC λS2 = 2202.54
Effect 1
FCp (TF – 0) + Sλs1 = L1Cp(T1 -0) + V1H1
(4345.85)(3.8375)(48) + (2202.59)(2026.239084) = (2702.719664)(3.617)(91) +
(4345.85 – 2702.719664)(2661.927262)
800505.125 – 11568330.16 = -4462975.96 – 6304851.87
(Mass In) -10767825.04 = -10767827.83 (Mass Out)
Effect 2
L1FCp (T1 – 0) + V1Sλs1 = L2Cp(T2 -0) + V2H1
(2702.7197)(3.617)(91) + (4345.85 – 2702.72)(2253.74) = (1002.89)(2.6625)(58.1966) +
(2702.719664 – 1002.89)
9794403 = (4535.071)(2702.719664) – (2455.53)(1002.89)
(Mass In) 9794403 = 9794400.611 (Mass Out)
Solution {3} Heat Exchanger

CJ = 2716.15474 MT/day
SO = 2519.8982 MT/day
SI = 4149.597 MT/day
HJ = 4345.8476 MT/day
Q = mcCpdT
Q = (2716.15474 MT/day)(0.06326 kJ/ kg K)(97 – 40) (1000 kg/MT)
Q = 9793965.005 kJ
Solution {4} Dryer

From Energy Balance
MaHa2 + MpHp1 = MaHa2 + MpHp2 + q
q = MaHa2 + MpHp1 - MaHa2 - MpHp2
Ha = Cs (Ta – To) + WHL
Cs = 1.006 + 1.88(W)
Hp = Cp (Tp – Tb) + (mc)(Cp)(Tp – To)
Ws = 646.667 MT/day
D = 300 MT/day
Wa = 346.67 MT/day
q = -(47.15){[(1.005) + (1.88)(0.45)](33) + (0.45)(1227.19)} + (646.667)(2738.17)(1006) –
(64){[(1.005) + (1.84)(0.75)](67) + (0.45)(2513)} – (300)
q = -2880.06345 – 5522355 – 1770684.179 – 10355520 – 1130550 + (300)(536.9948)
qout = 9793965.085
Solution {5} Heater

RJ = 3853.765
Q = mcpdT
Q = (3854.765 MT/day)(50 – 32)(0.1412 kJ/kg K)(1000 kg/MT)
Q = 9793801.436 kJ
Solution {6} For Activated Carbon
Dryer 1
From Energy Balance

Cs = 1.006 + 1.88(W)
Ws = 646.667 MT/day
D = 300 MT/day
Wa = 346.67 MT/day
q = -(47.15){[(1.005) + (1.88)(0.45)](33) + (0.45)(1227.19)} + (646.667)(2738.17)(1006) –
(64){[(1.005) + (1.84)(0.75)](67) + (0.45)(2513)} – (300)
q = -2880.06345 – 5522355 – 1770684.179 – 10355520 – 1130550 + (300)(536.9948)
qout = 9793965.085
Dryer 2
From Energy Balance
Cs = 1.006 + 1.88(W)
Ws = 646.667 MT/day
D = 300 MT/day
Wa = 346.67 MT/day
q = -(47.15){[(1.005) + (1.88)(0.45)](33) + (0.45)(1227.19)} + (646.667)(2738.17)(1006) –
(64){[(1.005) + (1.84)(0.75)](67) + (0.45)(2513)} – (300)
q = -2880.06345 – 5522355 – 1770684.179 – 10355520 – 1130550 + (300)(536.9948)
qout = 9793965.085
Furnace 1
Q = mcpdt
Q = (493.78)(1.3)(1000)(1273.15-300.15)
Q = 817266.36 MJ
Furnace 2
Q = mcpdt
Q = (471.58)(1.3)(1000)(1273.15-300.15)
Q = 780522.36 MJ
A.4 Computation of the Economic Margin
A. Purchase
Sugarcane:
(P 1500⁄MT) (4471.615272 MT⁄day) = P 6,707,422.908
Lime Juice:
1000 kg⁄
(P 15⁄kg) ( MT) (
115 MT⁄ ) = P 1,725,000
day
Water:
1000 kg⁄
(P 517.70⁄30 m3 ) (1⁄1000 m3 ) ( MT) (
183.914621 MT⁄ ) = P 3,173.75331
day
Phosphoric Acid:
1.88 g⁄ 3 1 kg
( ) ( 100 cm ⁄ ) 1 m3⁄ ⁄1000 g) (1 MT⁄1000 kg)
cm 3 1m ( 1000 L) (
(P120⁄𝐿)(531.915 L⁄𝑀𝑇) (113.5979716 MT⁄day) = P 7,250,935.808
Seed Grain:
1000 kg⁄
(P 55⁄kg) ( MT) (
27.64 MT⁄ ) = P 1520200
day
TOTAL = 6707422.908 + 1725000 + 3173.75331+7250935.808 + 1520200

= P 17,206,732.47
B. Sales
Raw Sugar:
1000 kg⁄
(P 52.26⁄kg) ( MT) (
300 MT⁄ ) = P 15,678,000
day
Molasses:
(P 10331.20⁄MT) (248.8002 MT⁄day) = P 2,570,404.626
Activated Carbon:
1000 kg⁄
(P 200⁄kg) ( MT) (
428.2802151 MT⁄ ) = P 85,656,043.02
day
TOTAL = 15678000 + 2570404.626 + 85656043.02 = P 103,904,447.

C. Economic Margin:
Total Sales − Total Bought

EM = x 100
Total Sales
103,904,447.6 − 17,206,732.47
EM = x 100
103,904,447.6
EM = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟒𝟒%
A.5 Calculations for Heat Exchanger of Evaporator:
Sol. [1]
Thi = 120 Tco = 58.119657
Tho = 58.119657 Tci = 120.5640
(Thi - Tco ) - (Tho - Tci )
∆Tlm=
(T - T )
ln [ ( hi co) ]
Thi - Tci
(120- 58.119657)-(58.119657-120.5640 )
∆Tlm= = 8.442299063℃
(120- 58.119657)
ln [( ]
58.119657-120.5640 )
(2026.239056 MT/day) (1000 kg/1 ton)(1 day/24 hrs)(1 hr/3600 s) = 23.45784127 kg/s
(23.45)(4.19)(120 – 58) = m(2.66)(96 – 56)
m = 57.73544771
q = mCpdT = 6080.561444 kJ/s
q = UA∆T
(1000 J/1 kJ)(6080.561444 kJ/s) = (650 W/m2k)(A)(281.532299)
A = 12.85 m2
Sol. [2]
OD = 0.01905 m ID = 1.7778 x 10-3 m
Wall thickness at ID = 0.0027686 m
Thermal Expansion of Stainless Steel (Ferritic Type 420)
Thermal expansion coefficient (b) = 1.0 x 10-6
V = bV1∆T = (1.0 x 10-6)(30)(626.25) = 0.0187875 m
Diameter = 0.01905 m – 1.778 x 10-3 m = 0.017272 m
Sol. [3]
Length of the tube (L) = Tube length – 2(Tube thickness) – 2(Tube expansion allowance)
L = 2m – 2(0.0027686) – 2(0.0187875) = 2 m
Sol. [4]
A 12.85
Nt = = =118 tubes
πdo L π (0.017272)(2)
Sol. [5]
Tube Pitch = OD of the tube + Legment of the tube + Tube clearance + Hole clearance
OD = 0.01905
Legment = (0.25)(Tube diameter) = (0.25)(0.017272) = 4.318 x 10-3
0.707 PT = PT – 0.017272
PT = 0.059
C = PT – Tube diameter = 0.059 – 0.017272 = 0.04596706485 m
Tube clearance = 0.04597 m
Hole clearance = 0.0064 m
Tube Pitch = 0.01905 + (0.25)(0.01905) + 0.045967 + 0.0064 = 0.109517 m
Sol. [6]
0.866 x P2 x N 0.866 x (0.109517)2 x (118)
Tube Plate Area (AT) = ( ) (% extra) = ( ) (0.20)
β 60°
AT = 4.0997 x 10-3
AT x 4 4.0997 x 10-3 x 4
Tube Plate Diameter= √ = √ = 0.07225 m
π π
Sol. [7]
Shell Thickness:
kg
P ∙ Di (3 ⁄ 3 ∙100)(14.83 x 10-3 )
TS = ( ) +C= ( cm ) +1.5
2-F∙S-P (2)- (1400)(100)(0.7)-(3)(100)
Ts = 1.5 mm
Shell Diameter:
A = 2πr2 + 2πrL
12.85 = 2π(r)2 + 2π r (2)
r = 0.745 , d = 1.49 m
Shell Length:
Volume = 4345.86 = 5030 kg/s υ = 1.5 m/s
V = 2πr2υ = 2π(0.745)2(1.5) = 5.23 m3/s
V = πr2hL
5.23 m3/s = π (0.0745)2(h)
h = 3m
A.6 Computations of Flash Vessel Separator
Sol. [1]
Gas Density
g 1000Pa
Pμw (200 kPa) (18.02 mol) ( 1kPa ) kg
ρg = = 3 =1.225 3
RTz Pa∙ m m
mol k 0.9 120+273.15
(8.314 ) ( )( )
MT kg
Mass flow rate=4534.85 =50.2992
day s
kg
50.2992 s m3
QA = =41.05699
kg s
1.225107 3
m
Area of the Vessel = 52 m2
3
4QA (4)(41.05699 m ⁄s )
Vessel Length= = = 4.9 m
HVT DV (π)(3.4)(3.17 m⁄s )
Diameter:
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝑆2 = 2𝜋(𝑟)(4.9)
𝑟 = (1.706335511)(2)
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 3.4126 𝑚
Sol. [2]
Torispherical Heads:
Crown radius = (3.4126)(0.80) = 2.73 m
Knuckle head = (3.4126)(0.156) = 0.5324 m
Sol. [3]
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑐 1
𝑒= ∙
2𝑓𝐽 − 𝑃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(𝐷𝑐) 1
12𝑚𝑚 = ∙ = 2.5 𝑚
(2)(148.04)(1) − 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
A.7 Calculations of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Sol [1]
Thi = 110°C Tco = 91°C
Tho = 75°C Tci = 30°C
(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 )
ln ((𝑇 − 𝑇 ))
ℎ𝑜 𝑐𝑖
(110 − 91) − (75 − 30)

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = (110 − 91)
ln ( (75 − 30) )
(2026.239056 MT/day) (1000 kg/1 ton)(1 day/24 hrs)(1 hr/3600 s) = 23.45784127 kg/s
(23.45)(4.19)(110 – 91) = m(2.66)(96 – 56)
m = 17.53025109 kg/s
q = mCpdT
q = (17.53 kg/s)(2.66 kJ/ kg.s)(91 – 30) = 2844.4178 kJ/s
q = UA∆T
(2844.56144 kJ/s)(1000 J/1 kJ) = (3140 W/m2.k)(A)(91 – 30)
A = 14.8510047 m2
Sol [2]
OD = 27.7 mm ID = 23.98 mm
Wall thickness at ID = 3.72 mm
Thermal Expansion of Stainless Steel (Ferritic Type 430)
Thermal expansion coefficient (b) = 1.0 x 10-6
V = bV1∆T = (1.0 x 10-6)(30)(513.15) = 0.0153945 m

Diameter = 27.7 mm – 23.98 mm = 0.00372 m
Sol [3]
Length of the tube (L) = Tube length – 2(Tube thickness) – 2(Tube expansion allowance)
L = 2m – 2(0.00372) – 2(0.0153945) = 1.961771 m

Sol. [4]
𝐴 14.851 𝑚2
𝑁𝑡 = = = 87 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝜋𝑑𝑜𝐿 (𝜋)(0.0277)(1.961771)
Tube Pitch = OD of the tube + Legment of the tube + Tube clearance + Hole
clearance
Legment = (0.25)(Tube diameter) = (0.25)(0.0277) = 6.925 x 10-3
0.707 PT = PT – 0.017272
PT = 0.059
C = PT – Tube diameter = 0.059 – 0.017272 = 0.04596706485 m
Tube clearance = 0.04597

m Hole clearance = 0.0064
m
Tube Pitch = 0.0277 + 6.925 x 10-3 + 0.045967 + 0.0064 = 0.086992 m
Sol. [6]
0.866 x 𝑃2 𝑥 𝑁 0.866 x (0.086992)2 𝑥 86.99
𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴 𝑇 ) = (% 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎) =
𝛽 60°
AT = 9.501737233 x 10 -3
𝐴𝑇 𝑥 4 9.501737233 x 10−3 𝑥 4
Tube Plate Diameter = √ =√ = 0.1099908523 𝑚
𝜋 𝜋
Sol [7]
Shell Thickness:
S=3 C = 1.5 mm P = 3 kg/cm3 F = 1400
𝑃 ∙ 𝐷1
𝑇𝑠 = + 𝐶 = 1.5 𝑚𝑚
2−𝐹∙𝑆∙𝑃
Shell Diameter:
A = 2𝜋r2 + 2𝜋rL
14.851 = 2𝜋r2 + 2𝜋r(1.961771)
r = 0.8428 m d = 1.685555 m
Shell Length:
Clarified Juice = 2716.15474 MT/day
Velocity = 1.5 m/s
V = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝜇 = (2)(𝜋)(0.84278)2 (1.5)
V = 6.694213651 m3/s
6.694213651 m3/s = (𝜋)(0.84278)2 (ℎ)
h=3m
A.8 Calculations of Rotary Dryer
Sol [1]
Inlet Air Temperature: 165°C
Outlet Temperature: 80°C
Inlet Temperature of Feed: 30°C
Discharge Temperature: 60°C
Assumptions:
NTU should range between 1.5 – 2.0 selected on the basis of an economic balance between
diner cost and fuel cost.
(𝑇1 − 𝑇𝐷𝑇 )
𝑁𝑇𝑈 = ln
(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝐷𝑇 )
(165 − 60)
1.8 = ln
(𝑇2 − 60)
T2 = 77.3563832°C
Sol [2]
Cp of Sucrose: 2.66 kJ/kg°C Cp of H2O: 4.186 kJ/kg°C
Temperature Detail:
Feed All
Inlet 51.5 165
Outlet 60 51.5
(165 − 30) − (80 − 60)
∆𝑇𝑚 = = 7.855284688°C
(165 − 30)
𝑙𝑛
(80 − 60)
Since sugar has a particle size ranging 450 – 650 𝜇𝑚 minimum air velocity is based on
particle size
100 𝑙𝑏⁄ℎ𝑟 ∙ 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑥
=
420 𝜇𝑚 500 𝜇𝑚
X = 119.047619 lb/hr . ft3
Amount of Air required
𝑄𝑇
𝑀=
𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Heat needed to rise the feed to 40°C
Q1 = (646.667)(2.66)(40-30)
Q1 = (646.667)(1000)(2.66)(10)
Q1 = 17201342.2 kJ
Q2 Heat required to evaporate 346.67 MJ
Q2 = (346.67)(1000)(2296.1)P
Q2 = 795988987 kJ
Q3 Heat required to superheat sugar at 60°C
Q3 = (1000)(60 -40)(346.667)
Q3 = 38799980 MJ
QT = 851990309.2 MJ
𝑄𝑇
𝑀= = 176889.0332 𝑀𝑇⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶𝑝∆𝑇
Extra amount of 30% of this quantity to account heat losses
1.3 x M = 229955.7432 MT/day
Area of Drier:
𝑀𝑇
(229955.7432 )
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴= = 16.43 𝑚2
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑘𝑔
(119.47619 )(4.88 3 )
ℎ𝑟 ∙ 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚 𝑙𝑏
𝐴𝑥4 (16.43)(4)
Diameter of the dryer = √ =√ = 4.573765 𝑚
𝜋 𝜋
Length of transfer unit has been related to mass velocity and d

Ltu = (0.0064)(Cp)(6)0.84(d)
Ltu = (0.0064)(2.66)(119 x 4.88)(4.574)
Ltu = 16.33389912
Length of the drier
L = Ltu x Ntu = (16.33301)(1.8) = 29.40101841 m
𝐿 30 L
= =6 /D should range between 4 - 10
𝐷 5
A.9 Calculations of Werkspoor Crystallizer
Given:
Hot Massecuite
Specific Gravity = 1.47 T1 = 91oC
T2 = 58.19657oC
Quantity of Water required
To = 58.196517
T = 39oC
to = 32oC
(𝑇𝑂 − 𝑇) 𝐶
𝑊=
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜
(58.19652 − 39) (0.44)
193.0611835 𝑀𝑇⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦 =
𝑡 − 32
𝑡 = 32.04375
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑡
𝑆= 𝛼 ( )( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐾 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡) − (𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜) 𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜
1002.887904 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.44 58.1965 − 39 58.196517 − 32.044
= 𝛼 ( )( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
55 (58.1965 − 32.044) − (39 − 32) 39 − 32
S = 15.89854058 m2 Area of Crystallizer
Diameter: 2.8 – 4 m
discs' outside diameter = 20 – 30 mm less than the interior diameter
interior diameter = 2.78 m
Open Sector = 45o
Diameter = 3.2 m
Interior Diameter = 3 m
315
Surface Area of Disc = 1.225 x 𝑥 3 = 3.8
300
For Open Sector 60o
S = 1.225 D2
S = 11.025 m2 Area of Open Sector
3.2 𝑚
Height of massecuite level above the axes (D)(1/20) = = 0.16 𝑚
20
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 3.2𝑚2
Theoretical working volume = 8
= 8
= 4.021238597 𝑚3
L = 3.3 D
L = 10.56 m Length of Crystallizer
Average Spacing Between discs
15.89854055
𝑛= = 7 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑠
3
10.56 − 0.5 𝑥 2
𝑒= = 1.912 𝑚
2
A.13 Calculations for Hammermill
Determination of Shaft Speed
d1n1 = d2n2
𝐷1 𝑁2
=
𝐷2 𝑁1
Nominal Length of the belt
𝜋 (𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) 2
𝐿 = 2𝐶 + ( )
𝐷 + 𝐷2 + ( )
2 1 4𝐶
Design Parameters:
D1 = 0.09 m D2 = 0.07 m N1 = 4000 rpm
𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 (0.09)(4000)
𝑁2 = = = 5142.86 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐷2 0.07
Calculation of Length belt:
3.142 90 − 70 2
𝐿 = 2(490) + (90 + 70) + ( )
2 4(490)
L = 1231.39 mm
Belt contact angle (Hall, Holowenko, and Laughlin 1980)
𝑅−𝑟 45−35
𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 1.17°
𝐿 490
Shaft Velocity:
𝜋(0.09)(4000)
𝑉= = 18.85 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
60
Centrifugal Force:
0.2 𝑥 18.85
𝐹𝑐 = = 5685.16 = 5.685
0.0125
Determination of Tensions on the belt

𝑘𝑔
𝑀 = 0.01 𝑥 0.012 𝑥 1140 = 0.21888
𝑚
Centrifugal Tension
Tc = 0.2188 x 18.52 = 74.88 N
3Tc = T1 = 3 x 74.88 N = 224.64 N
224.64−74.88 149.76
= 𝑒 0.3 𝑥 48 = = 103.81 N
𝑇2 −74.88 𝑇2 −74.88
Determination of Power Transmitted by the belt

Power = (T1 + T2) V
P = (224.64 + 103.81)(18.5) = 6076.325 W
A.10 Calculations of Centrifuge
Changing and Acceleration: 1 min
Drying : 40 seconds
Electrical Barking 15 seconds
Mechanical Barking 10 seconds
Discharging 20 seconds
Complete Cycle 2 min 25 seconds
Times of Fugaling
A 2-6 mins
B 4-10 mins
C 10-45 mins
Capacity of Basket
∂m = 0.28R = 0.14 D
∂m = 0.20 R = 0.10 D
Volume of Massecuite
V = 𝜋 ∂H (D − e)
D H
5.325m x 3.8m
Area = 12.75 m2
Thickness of metal:
𝑀𝑤 2 𝑟𝐷 𝑀𝑤 2 𝑟
e= 2𝜋𝐷𝐻𝑓
= 2𝜋𝐻𝑓
Power Used
Power = (1065 x 760)(5)
Power: 1500 rpm
= (16.4 kW)(5)
References
Journals
Websites
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammermill
[2] https://feeco.com/hammer-mills/
[3] https://www.feedmachinery.com/glossary/equipment/hammer_mill/?
[4] https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/hammer-mill-working-principle
[5]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326490185_Design_construction_and_performa
nce_evaluation_of_a_flat_screen_hammer_mill_machine
[6] https://www.ecologixsystems.com/product-activated-carbon-coconut/
[7] http://www.gaoful.com/solution/activated-carbon/
[8] https://www.slideshare.net/KRISHNARAJV2/sieving-machine-1
[9]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305357251_DESIGN_AND_FABRICATION_
OF_HORIZONTAL_SIEVING_MACHINE
[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifuge
[11] https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/centrifuge
[12] https://www.sepmag.eu/blog/the-industrial-centrifuge
[13]http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/SeparationsMechanical/Centrifuges/Centr
ifuges.html
[14] http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1121/
[15] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger
[16] https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103027/pdf/mod1.pdf
[17] http://pmarpl.com.au/training/pmaops205b/proc205-010301-shelland-tube-heat-
exchanger.htm
[18]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244387458_Design_of_multiple_shell_and_tub
e_heat_exchangers_in_series_E_shell_and_F_shell
[19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decanter_centrifuge
[20] https://www.suezwaterhandbook.com/processes-and-technologies/liquid-sludge-
treatment/centrifugation/continuous-cylindro-conical-decanter
[21] https://www.slideshare.net/AtalKhan/furnace-design-
53412008?fbclid=IwAR2p_RdnOGS72AhI_zQA3D9XFh7WGlzKSMbX3h6xvLmqDOzuDj
MuoO98fEU
[22] https://www.slideshare.net/KRISHNARAJV2/sieving-machine-1
[23] https://hosokawamicron.co.jp/en/machines/111
[24] https://feeco.com/rotary-dryer-parts-components-glossary/
Curriculum Vitae
Name: Jade
Address:
Email:
Contact No.:
Name: Christine Maureen V. Fernandez

Address: Sta. Theresa Village 1, Ramona
Dumlog, Talisay City
Email: ChristineFernandez.24.1998@gmail.com
Contact No.: 09499328826
Name: Shaira Dale Fernandez

Address:
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Cebu Institute of Technology - University

College of Engineering and Architecture

In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the course

Production of Raw Sugar and Activated Carbon from Sugarcane

Engr. Eleazar Al T. Guzman

Sucrose is discovered in nearly all crops, but only in sugarcane (Saccharum

Sugarcane Milled (MT/year)

Figure 1: Sugarcane Milled

Raw Sugar Production (MT/year)

Figure 2: Raw Sugar Production

Raw Washed Refined

Figure 3: Retail (Peso per Kilo)

Figure 4: Annual Total Demand in Metric Tons

Raw Sugar Refined Sugar Molasses

Figure 5: Demand Percentage Per Year

1.2.1 Future of the Sugar Industry

Criteria for Selection Ratings

Table 1: Raw Material Selection

(+3) Produces by products

(+4) Milled 71 tons(average)

(+4) Production of 1974

(+2) Soil requirement (-2) Suitable Climate

(+3) Produces by products (-4) Milled 58.2

Sugar-Beet (+3) Water requirement (-4) Production of 271.6

(+2) Cropping length 5-6

Table 2: Process Selection

(+2) Easier to scale up from

(+4) Generally cheaper set

(+2) Employees understand

(+3) The quality of output is (-3) Requires periodic

(+3) Handling of materials is

(+4) Control over materials,

(+4) Overhead cost per unit

(+4) There is quick return on

Table 3: Equipment Selection of Shredder

(+3) Ideal for processing (-3) The damage can range

(-3) High maintenance when

(+3) High productive (-2) For some materials and

(+4) These large-diameter

(+2) proper size and design

(+4) provide low operating

(+4) process a high volume

Table 4: Equipment Selection of Clarifier

(+2) Longer flow path

(+3) Higher effluent weir

(+3) Better sludge

(+3) Shorter detention time (-3) Higher short-circuiting

(+2) Easier to accommodate

(+3) Overall, lower

(+3) Easier to remove heavy

(+2) Constructed of (-2) One negative of Plate

Table 5: Equipment Selection of Evaporator

(+3) The material in the heat (-2) High requirement of

(+3) High heat transfer (-3) Poor heat transfer at low

(+3) High heat-transfer (-4) Expensive

(+3) Efficiently transfers (-3) Relatively high holdup

(+3) Low amounts of

Table 6: Equipment Selection of Boiler

(+4) simple structure, low (-3) thermal efficiency is not

(+3) Consisting of the small (-2) construction is complex

(-3) in long-term, the water

(-3) steam storage is small,