IEEE

TRANSACTIONS
ON
ACOUSTICS,
SPEECH,
ANDSIGNAL
PROCESSING,
VOL.
ASSP-23,
NO. 6, DECEMBER 1975 525

[5 1 A. Fettweis, “Pseudopassivity, sensitivity, and stability of wave
digital filters,” IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-19, pp. 668-
673, Nov. 1972.
161 A. Sedlmeyer and A. Fettweis, “Digital filters with true ladder
configuration,” Int. J. Circuit Theory Applications, vol. 1, pp. 5-
10,1973.
17 1 A. Fettweis, ‘‘Reciprocity, interreciprocity, and transposition in
wave digital filters,” Int. J. Circuit Theory Applications, vol. 1,
pp. 323-337, Dec. 1973.
18 1 R. E. Crochiere, “On the location of zeros and the reduction in
the number of adds in a digital ladder structure,” IEEE Trans.
Audio Electroacoust. (Corresp.), vol. AU-21, pp. 551-552, Dec.
1973.
19 1 K. Renner and S. C. Gupta, “On the design of wave digital filters
with a minimal number ofmultipliers,” IEEE Trans. Circuits
Syst., vol. CAS-21, pp. 137-145, Jan. 1974.
-,‘“Reduction of roundoff noise in wave digital filters,” IEEE
Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-21, pp. 305-310, Mar. 1974.
A. G. Constantinides, “Alternative approach to designofwave
digital fiiters,” Electron. Lett., vol. 10, pp. 59-60, Mar. 7,1974.
R. Nouta, “Jaumann structures inwave digital fiiters,” Int. J. Cir-
cuit Theory Applications, vol. 2, pp. 163-174, June 1974.
A. Fettweis, H. Levin, and A. Sedlmeyer, “Wave digital lattice
fiters,” Int. J. Circuit Theory Applications, vol. 2, pp. 203-211,
June 1974.
A. Fettweis, ‘Wave digital filters with reduced number of de-
lays,’’ Int. J. Circuit Theory Applications, vol. 2, pp. 319-320,
Dec. 1974.
[15] -, “Some results in wave digital filter theory,” in h o c . Fifth
Colloq. Microwave Communication, vol. 11, Budapest, Hungary,
June 1974, pp. CT-101-CT-110.
[16] A. Sedlmeyer, “Structures for wave digital fiters and their real
time realization on a minicomputer,” PhD. dissertation, Univ.
Bochum, Bochum, Germany, July 1974.
[17] R. Nouta, “Wave digital cascade synthesis,” in Proc. European
Con5 circuit Theory and Design, London, England, July 1974,
pp. 7-12.
[18,] ‘A. Sedlmeyer, ‘‘Real time realization of wave digital filters on a
minicomputer,” in Proc. European Con5 Circuit Theory and De-
sign, London, England, July 1974, pp. 251-256.
[ 191 -, “Berechnung von Wellendigitalfiiternmittels Filterkatalog,”
Nachrichtentech. Z., vol. 27, pp. 302-304, Aug. 1974.
[20] A. Fettweis, “On sensitivity and roundoff noise.in wave digital
filters,” IEEETrans. Acoust., Speech, Signal Processing (Cor-
resp.), vol. ASSP-22, pp. 383-384, Oct. 1974.
[21] W. H. Kuand S. M. Ng, “Floating-point coefficient sensitivity
and roundoff noise of recursive digital fiters realized in ladder
structures,” to bepublished.
[22] A. Fettweis and K. Meerkotter, “Suppression of parasitic oscilla-
tions in wave digital filters,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. (Special
Issue on Digital Filtering.and Image Processing), vol. CAS-22,
pp. 239-246, Mar. 1975; also “Correction to ‘Suppression of
parasitic oscillations in wave digital fiiters,’ ” IEEETrans. Cir-
cuits Syst., vol. CAS-22, p. 575, June 1975.
[23] S . J. Mason and H. J. Zimmermann, Elecrronic Circuits, Signals,
and Systems. New Yolk: Wiley, 1960.

Bode Plot Analysis of Linear Discrete-Time Systems

Abstract-The equivalent continuous-time transfer function mination of the asymptotic behavior of a transfer function,
H(z)IZ,@T of a linear discrete-time system may be evaluated using
performance measures such as gain and phase margins can be
standard Bode plot techniques. The utility of these techniques is ex-
estimated quite accurately.
tended in thispaper through a frequency-scalewarping of the Bode plot
and a mapping from the z plane to polar coordinates (rather than theWe propose here to extend the well-known Bode plot tech-
more commonly used Cartesian coordinates) in the w plane.These niques to the analysis of discrete-time systems. This extension
has been suggested previously [ I ] [2] ;however, the modifica-
graphical techniques may also be used in the preliminary synthesis of a
& itransfer function. Examples are included to illustrate the use of
tions discussed here have the merit of presenting the transfer
these techniques.
function in terms of the real frequency w rather than a func-
tion of w , and of allowing the treatment of complex-valued
poles andzeros in a straightforward manner. Our aim is to
I. INTRODUCTION evaluatea given discrete-time transfer function, H(z), along
ESIGNERS of continuous-time networks for feedback the contour z = eiwT in the z plane. We shall refer to the
systemcompensationor
frequency selectivity fre- resulting function as the equivalent transfer function’
quently make use of a Bode plot representation of a H e q ( j w ) = H ( z ) l , j w T . This complex-valued functiondescribes
network’s transfer function. Such a plot is useful both in eval- the effect ofpassing acontinuous-time signal througha
uating the frequency response corresponding to a given set of discrete-time system with appropriate signal conversion equip-
poles and zeros, and also in obtaining insight into the network ment at input and output- [5] . The increased use of discrete-
synthesis problem of selecting pole-zero positions to achieve a time systems implemented both in special-purpose hardware
given performance. Through a straightforward graphical deter- and in software (e.g., on a minicomputer) provides the motiva-
tion for the study presentedhere.
Manuscript received November1,1974.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Uni- 1 See the “frequency response” of [3] or the“sinusoidal response” of
versity of Colorado, Denver, Colo. 80202. [41.
 526 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ACOUSTICS,
SPEECH, AND SIGNAL PROCESSING, DECEMBER 1975

11. BILINEARTRANSFORMATION AND BODE PLOT be performed graphically by means of a Smith chart (more
We shall perform the evaluation of H&w) in two steps. commonly used in transmission line analysis). To find the w
First, applying the standard bilinear transformation [3], [4] plane images of poles and zeros in the z plane, we place a
Smith chart overlay upside down on the z plane, with the cir-
7 - 1
cumference of the chart corresponding to the unit circle, and
read the real and imaginary parts of the w planepoles and
zeros directly from the Smith chart. By this procedure, we
z=- 1 t w may obtain the w plane Cartesian coordinates of the image of
I-w
any point plotted inside or on the unit circle in the z plane.
to H(z), we map this functionintothew plane, where To~construct the Bode plot, however, we would prefer to
w = u + ju. The relation in (2) maps the unit circkof the z have the u plane poles and zeros defined in terms of their
plane, along which we are evaluatingH(z), onto the imaginary damping ratio 3' and natural frequency Un ,where for the point
axis in the w plane. The point z = ejwT maps to the point w = u t j u these quantities are defiged as
eiwT- 1
w= .
elwT t 1
and
=j tan wT/2

=j u , where wT/2.
u = tan (3)
Heq( j w ) may now be evaluated as
HeJjw) = & w ) I ~= j u
where we define
In the next section we shall describe a graphical technique for
obtaining this z-to-w mapping. Suppose for now that we have
obtained the function&) by some means. The Bode plot of
thisfunction may be generated using standard techniques,
with amplitude ordinateproportional to logl.@ju)l,phase
ordinate proportional to LE?(ju),and abscissas proportional to
log(u) = log[tan(wT/2)]. The plot is constructed as if u were
the frequency of interest, with asymptotic relations of &u)
versus u used in the construction.
To interpret the plot, however, we must distort the abscissa
to obtain the Heq(jw)versus w relation. With a sampling fre-
quency of fsamp = 1/T samples/s, we define the normalized
frequency v as
This representation affords an easy Bode plot determination of
the frequency response due to a pair of complex poles or
zeros. To develop a mapping from the z plane to (5, u n ) coor-
dinates in the w planes we note that the transformation (2) is
I-to-1 and has thepropertythat circles in one plane are
mapped onto circles in theother' plane [7] (including the
special case of a straight line as a circle of infinite radius).
Fig. 1 displays the mapping of interest, where the circle IwI = 1
maps onto the imaginary z axis and the real w axis maps onto
the real z axis. We see here thatthe straight line passing
through w = 0 and w = 00, as defined by the points a , and a 2 ,
maps onto the circle passing through z = 1 , z = - 1, and the
image points ai and a;. The center of this circle is located at
z = c1 and its radius is rl ,where
( 4 +a;)
c1 =
2

v=--- f - UT With the substitutions

fSamP 2n
al = - { + j m
which, in terms of the variable u used to construct our plot, is
a2 = f - j m
1
v =- tan-l u
71 we obtain
with the inverse
u = tan TV. (7b)
By adding a v scale to the abscissa of the Bode plot, we can
readily determine the amplitude- and phase-transfer function
at any desired fraction of thesampling frequency.
from which
111. GRAPHICAL EVALUATION OF THE
BILINEARTRANSFORMATION
It has been recognized [6] that the mapping of points be-
tween the z and w planes under the transformation in (2) may and
GABEL AND SMITH: BODE PLOT ANALYSIS 527

,z-plane

Fig. 1. Mapping of constant damping ratio andnatural frequency

contours under the bilinear transformation.

Fig. 2. Completed mapping.

We verify that the limiting values { = 0 and { = 1 give c1 = 0,

r1 = 1 (the unit circle) and ai = 0, a; = - j m (the real axis), re-
spectively. In a similar fashion, we determine that the circle of
radius u, in the w plane maps onto a circle in the z plane with
center at z = c2 and radius r2, where

and
Fig. 3. Plot of poles and zeros for Example 1.

z plane w plane
Here the limiting values u, = 0, u, = 1, and u, = 00 yield
z = -1.0 5 = 1, v, = 0.50
c2 = 1, r2 = 0 (the point z = 1); c2 = m, r2 = m (corresponding z = -0.5. 5 = 1, v, = 0.40
to the imaginary axis); and c2 = - 1, r2 = 0 (the point z = - 1). =o . ~ P /~ 5 = 0.30, v, = 0.13
The complete mapping is displayed in Fig. 2. Here the cir-
cles whose centers are on the real z axis correspond to con- We locate the break points on the chart of Fig. 4, which has
tours of constant natural frequency, expressed on this chart as the abscissa log (tan nv) labeled in terms of v. Note that the
a fraction of the sampling frequency v, = l/n tan-' u, . Circles point v = 0.5 is infinitely far to the right (corresponding to
whose centers are on the imaginary z axis correspond to con- u = tan 03). The asymptotic curves are now drawn from the
tours of constant damping ratio(since the set of points corre- finite break points, with a dc gain of ,H(1) = 0.98 = -0.2 dB.
sponding to a particular value of in the w plane consists of The -20 dB/decade and -40 dB/decade slopes are found from
two lines, the image of this set consists of two circles in the z the left-hand side of the chart, where the tangent relationship
plane with identical radii and conjugate centers). In effect, we is nearly linear. Note that the damping ratio of 5 = 0.30 gives
have generated a polar form of the Smith chart, with coordi- rise to an overshoot of approximately 5 dB in the frequency
nates v, and 5. A similar plot: known as the Carter chart [8], domain. The amplitude and phasecurves sketched from the
can be used to obtain the w plane image in terms of the coor- asymptotes are foundto be essentially identical to those
dinates u, = tan nu, and 6 = cos-' {. evaluated numerically from H(z).
Example 2: Let us take
Use of the Charts
2 ( -~ 0.5)-- 2 ( -~ 0.5)
Example I : Let us evaluate Heq(u) for a system with the
transfer function
= z + 0.42 z(z + 0.4) '
From the plot of Fig. 5, we find the image points of the poles
H(z) =
2 + 1.5z + 0.5 - ( z + 1) (z + 0.5)
and zeros to be
6z2 - 6.782 + 3.84- 6(z - 0.8ei"I4)( z - 0.8e-in/4)'
Plotting the poles and zeros on the chart of Fig. 3, we read the z plane w plane
w plane image points as
~ ~ ~ ~~~

z = 0.5 5 = 1, v, = 0.10
z=O 5 = 1, v, = 0.25
2Form 82-PSPR available
from
Analog
Instruments Company, z = -0.4 5 = 1, v, = 0.37
P.O. Box 808, New Providence, N.J. 07974.
528 TRANSACTIONS
IEEE ON ACOUSTICS,
SIGNAL
SPEECH,
PROCESSING,
AND DECEMBER 1975

.001 .01 .1.2.3 T r 49 .499

20
m
-0
- 0
a!
W
3
G -20 100
2
4
Y)
al
0
0 %
'0
v

-100 :
0
s
0.
-200
Fig. 4. Bode plots for Example 1. Fig. 6 . Bode plots for Example 2.

9'

Fig. 5. Plot of poles and zeros for Example 2.

We must be careful at this point to also include the zero at
z = a,which maps to the point w = 1. In general, to treat a
zero at z1 outside the unit circle, weuse the fact that its w
plane imageis the negative of the w plane imageof l / z l .
Thus, in this example, the magnitude components due to the
pole at z = 0 and the zero at z = cancel, since their images
are at w = - 1 and w = 1 , respectively (this is equivalent to
Il/zlz=&T = 1 in the direct z plane evaluation of Heq(o)).
Since the w plane image of the zero is in the right-half plane,
however, the phase characteristics due to the pole and zero are
additive. With a dc gain of H(l) = 0.715 = -2.9 dB, we obtain
the transfer function plot ofFig. 6.
Example 3: As a final example, we consider the synthesis of
a second-order recursive filter whose equivalent transfer func-
tion is to approximate that of a double integrator, with the
gain normalized to 0 dB at 1 percent off,,
where, as before, v = o T / 2 ~ .Assuming a transfer function of
the form3
Fig. 7. Bode plots for Example 3.
We wish to locate the zeros z1 and z2 to approximate the ideal
characteristic ascloselyaspossible inboth amplitude and
phase. From the desired characteristic, plotted on the Bode
chart of Fig. 7, we see an effective double-break point at a
normalized frequency of v, = 0.32. Locating the point
v, = 0.32, 5 = 1 on the modified Carter chart of Figs. 3 or 5,
we read the corresponding zero location as z = -0.22. To avoid
the phase distortion which would be caused by a double zero
at this point, we place one zero at z1 = -0.22 and the second
at z2 = 1/(-0.22) = -4.55 to obtain
(z -k 0.22) (z + 4.55)
H(z) = k
(z - 1)2
The resulting transfer function has a 'phase component of 1 80"
throughout the frequency band, and matches the ideal ampli-
tude characteristic to within 2 dB.
We could obtain a better amplitude fit, at the expense of
some phase distortion, by separating the break points and
placing a -20 dB/decade slope between them. For example,
placing one break point at v, = 0.22 and the other atv, = 0.41,
we locate the corresponding zeros at z1 = 0.088 and
z2 = 1/(-0.47) = -2.13 to give

(Z- 0.088) (Z+ 2.13)

H(z) = k
3To clarify the presentation, we have placed poles on the unit circle (z - 1)2
at z = 1. These poles may be moved slightly inside the unit circle with-
out altering this analysis. The maximum amplitude deviation has been reduced to
IEEE
TRANSACTIONS
ONACOUSTICS,
SPEECH, AND SIGNAL
PROCESSING,
VOL. ASSP-23,NO. 6, DECEMBER 1975 529

0.5 dB, withacorrespondingmaximum phase deviation of Copies of the charts used in this paper are available from the
32 degrees. authors.

CONCLUSION REFERENCES
We have presented two modifications of the Bode-plot ap- [l] M. P. Pasteland G. J. Thaler, “Sampleddatadesign by log gain
proach to evaluating digital filter transfer functions. First, we diagrams,” IRE Trans. Automat. Contr., vol. AC-4,pp. 192-197,
Nov. 1959.
altered the Smith chart representation of the bilinear trans- [2] B.C. Kuo, Analysis and Synthesis of Sampled-Data Control Sys-
folrm by plotting contours of constantdampingratioand tems. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
natural frequency v,. Second, we obtained the asymptotic [3] B.Goldand C. M. Rader, Digital Processing of Signals. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
be.havior on a graph with abcissa labeled in terms of the fre- [4] J. A. Cadzow, Discrete-TimeSystems. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
quency v =f/fsamp, and plotted as log (tan nv). These modifi- Prentice-Hall, 1973.
cations allow the straightforward handling of complex-valued [5] R. A. Gabeland R A. Roberts, Signals and Linear Systems. New
York: Wiiey, 1973, pp. 362-364.
poles and zeros, and lead to a plot of the transfer function in [6] B. GoldandC. M. Rader, Digital Processing of Signals. New
terms of the normalized physical frequency v, rather than the York: McGraw-Hill, 1969, pp. 74-76.
w plane frequency u. In addition, observation of the v , con- [7] R. V. Churchill, Complex Variables and Applications. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1960, pp. 73-75.
tours lends insight into the problem of designing a network to [8] P. H. Smith, ElectronicApplications of the Smith Chart: New
meet a given specification. York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

The Importance of Phase in Image Processing Filters

Abstract-We demonstrate thatphase accuracyis extremely important matched filtering and image restoration have complex fre-
in :Image processing filters and express the hopethat more work will bequency responses. It is obvious that to design these filters,
done on the development of filter design techniques which use phase
as well as magnitude specifications. one has to include phase as well as magnitude specifications.
It is less obvious, but nonetheless true, that even the desired
filter has linear phase, failure to include the phase specification
I. INTRODUCTION may leadto an unsatisfactory design.

I. ‘T is well known that the phase of the Fourier transform of Thepurposeof this paper is to call theattentionof re-
an image is generally more important than the magnitude. searchers in filter design to the fact that phase is extremely
Thus, if F(u, u) = IF@, u)l exp 8(u, u ) is the Fourier trans- important in imageprocessing, and to stimulatethem into
f o ~ mof an image f(x,y)-where f(x,y ) is the brightness ofthe developing fiter design techniqueswhich usephaseaswell
image at a spatial point with coordinates ( x , y ) and (u, u) are as magnitude specifications. To this end, we shall take a simple
spatial frequencies, then theinverse transform ofIF(u, u)I bears image restoration example, and demonstrate that1) even when
no resemblence to f ( x , y ) , while the inverse transform of the desired filter has linear phase, ignoring phase specification
exp O(u, u) retains a likeness of f ( x , y ) . This is illustrated in maylead to disaster, and 2) by specifyingphaseaswellas
Fig. 1. Considering the importance of image phase, we find it magnitude, wecan indeed design ‘good recursive filters for
surprising that with a few exceptions mostof the past work on image processing.
the design oftwo-dimensional recursivedigital filters used
only magnitudespecifications for the frequency responses. 11. LEAST-SQUARE FILTERFORIMAGE RESTORATION
Many filters required in imageprocessing tasks such as The emphasis of our paper is not on the design techniques
for two-dimensionalrecursive filters, but rather on the fact
ManuscriptreceivedFebruary 14, 1975; revisedJune 16, 1975. This that phase is extremely important for image processing filters.
work was supported in part by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
of the DepartmentofDefenseunderContract MDA 903-74-C-0098 Therefore, for the sake of simplicity, we shall take an image
and in part by INRS-Telecommunications,University of, Quebec, restoration example where the degradation is along one direc-
Quebec, P.Q.,Canada.
T. S. Huangand J. W. Burnettarewiththe School of Electrical
tion only. As a result, we have to design only one-dimensional
Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind. 47907. filters and apply themto the image line by line.
A. G. Deczky is with Bell Northern Research, Ottawa, Ont., Canada. A 64 X 64 sampled image of a character was generated on a