Emergence of Sociology

Sociology is a discipline that tries to study society in a scientific manner.

Where did it emerge? In the West

When? In the 19th century

Why did it emerge?

Sociology as a discipline emerged in the 19th century Europe, as a product of a particular era in Western
society, marked by a period of immense changes characterized by distinct economic, political, social
and intellectual conditions.

How did it emerge?

As a result of the economic, political, social, and political conditions in Europe at a particular period in its
history

Economic Conditions-

Commercial Revolution- A series of events between 1450 and 1800 (15th to 18th centuries)

Discovery of sea route, adventurous navigation and exploration, Vasco Da Gama landed on Indian coast,
accidental discovery of America by Columbus, colonial expansion, growth of trade and commerce, new
markets-filled with items from the East, growth of banking, colonial expansion, formation of ‘regulated’
and joint stock companies- eg, British East India company, Dutch East India Company. Rise of a new
middle class- merchants, bankers, ship owners, etc, Europeanization of the world- economic expansion
by Europe- Portugal and Spain were initially prominent (Later prominence of England, France and
Holland), strengthening of monarchy, decline of church.

(Called commercial revolution because these changes happened in a large-scale, organized manner)

Industrial Revolution -18th -19th century (1780-1830s or 40s)

New production processes- Transition from hand production methods to machines, new chemical
manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power, the development of
machine tools and the rise of the factory system.

Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution and the first to use modern production
methods. Average income and standard of living for the general population increased. There was a
change in economy from feudal to capitalist system of production.

Impact of Industrial Revolution on society

With the change in the economy of society several social changes followed. As capitalism became more
and more complex, the developments of banks, insurance companies, and finance corporations took
place. A new class of capitalists, industrial workers, and managers emerged.

With the increase in production, population started increasing. Rise of population led to the increased
rate of urbanization. There was rapid growth of industrial cities, characterized by wide socio-economic
disparities. The factory workers were living in misery. Workers got alienated from the process of
production, in Marxian terms. Life in the cities became altogether different. These changes influenced
both conservative and radical thinkers. The conservatives feared that such conditions would lead to
chaos and disorder. The radicals thought that the factory workers would initiate social transformation.

Political

French Revolution (1789) (18th century)

The French Revolution in 1789 marked a turning point in the history of human struggle for freedom and
equality. It put an end to the age of feudalism and ushered in a new order of society, resulting in far-
reaching changes throughout Europe.

French society

Social situation –Society was highly stratified with three estates (clergy-first estate, nobility -big
landlords, magistrates and judges), third estate-peasants, merchants, artisans, and middle classes
(emerged as the result of commercial revolution.)

First two estates- Held most of the land, no taxes were imposed on them, comprised a very small
percentage of population. The King was on the side of clergy and nobility, exploiting the peasants and
poor belonging to the third estate.

Political situation- Divine right of theory of king was prevalent

Economic situation- Economy in ruin after various wars

Intellectual condition- Montesquieu- Theory of separation of powers, Locke- talked about right to live,
property and personal freedom that cannot be taken away by the government, Voltaire -religious
freedom and freedom of thought and expression, Rousseau- in the book Social Contract talked about
the right of people to choose their sovereign.

Events in French Revolution

Oath of the Tennis Court, storming of the Bastille, Declaration of Rights of Man by the Constituent
Assembly, “Reign of Terror,” Establishment of the Directorate in 1795 and overthrow of the Directorate
in 1799 by Napoleon Bonaparte.

French Revolution changed the political structure of European society and replaced the age of feudalism
by heralding the arrival of democracy- A new class of power holders emerged – the bourgeoisie.
Social Conditions

Old Europe was traditional. Land was central to its economic system. There were owners of land, the
feudal lords and the peasants who worked on the lands. The classes were distinct and clearly
demarcated. Religion formed the cornerstone of society. The religious heads decided what was moral,
what was not. Family and kinship were central to the lives of the people. Monarchy was firmly rooted in
society. The king was believed to be divinely ordained to rule over his people.

The New Europe ushered in by the two Revolutions, the French and the industrial, challenged each and
every central feature of old Europe. Old classes were overthrown. New classes arose. Religion was
questioned. Religion lost its important position. Family loyalties gave way to ideological commitments.
The position of women changed. And finally monarchy was overthrown. Democracy was heralded in.
The central concepts of society, namely, religion, community, power, wealth, etc. were all taking on new
implications.

Intellectual Conditions

Scientific revolution in the Renaissance period from 14th to 16th centuries

Renaissance period - A period in European history, covering the span between the 14th and 17th
centuries. It is an extension of the Middle Ages and is bridged by the Age of Enlightenment to modern
history. In the medieval period, church was the epicenter of learning. Learning was mostly religious and
nothing could question the dogmas of the church. In the Renaissance period, there was the revival of
art, literature, music, sculpture, science and so on. Europe also produced a “scientific revolution” in this
period. Its impact was crucial not just in changing material life, but also people’s ideas about Nature and
Society. There was the growth of a scientific approach to the study of nature and human body. Growth
in medicine, chemistry, astronomy, Theory of Copernicus (Earth moved around a fixed sun), and
generally a new approach towards human beings and nature

Intellectual

Enlightenment (1685- 1815) long 18th century-late 17th and early 18th century- Age of Reason

New ways of thinking in European society, a radical change from traditional thinking of European
society, spirit of questioning- nothing from the church to the state and the authority of monarch was
considered sacrosanct. Everything was questioned.

Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reason, the power by which humans
understand the universe and improve their own condition. The goals of rational humanity were
considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness. There was the centrality of freedom, democracy,
and reason as primary values of society and a belief in progress too. There was the development of
critical judgment. People were now advised to try and solve their problems on their own rather than
wait for God to provide a solution for them. This new way of thinking was a big factor in economic
growth.
 The most popular Enlightenment thinkers were: Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755), Jacques Turgot
(1729-1781) and Jean Condorcet (1743-1794). They managed to challenge the traditional and existing
conceptions of the world. Scientific principles of analysis were applied to the study of human beings and
their nature and society. Reason was upheld as a measure to judge social institutions and their
suitability for human nature and human beings were considered essentially rational.

Post- Enlightenment Period

Three other intellectual influences in the post- Enlightenment period were:

1. The Philosophy of History- In the early part of the nineteenth century the philosophy of history
became an important intellectual influence. The basic assumption of this philosophy was that society
must have progressed through a series of steps from a simple to complex stage.

2 The Biological Theories of Evolution- The influence of the philosophy of history was further reinforced
by the biological theory of evolution. Sociology moved towards an evolutionary approach, seeking to
identify and account for the principal stages in social evolution. Was influenced by Darwinian theory of
evolution.

3. Surveys of social conditions- Social survey forms an important element in modern sociology. It
emerged due to two reasons, one was the growing conviction that the methods of the natural sciences
should and could be extended to the study of human affairs; that human phenomenon could be
classified and measured. The other was the concern with poverty (‘the social problem’), following the
recognition that poverty was not natural but social.

The chief intellectual antecedents of sociology are summed up by Ginsberg , a British sociologist, in the
following words: “Broadly it may be said that sociology has had a fourfold origin in political philosophy,
the philosophy of history, biological theories of evolution and the movements for social and political
reform which found it necessary to undertake survey of social conditions.”

According to Karl Polanyi, the Austro-Hungarian philosopher, who wrote the book Great Transformation
(the social and political upheavals that took place in England during the rise of the market economy one
of the results of this 'great transformation' was the emergence of the science of sociology.

Conclusion

The social changes brought out by both the French and industrial revolutions that destructed the
traditional society of Europe brought in positive changes were not without the negative aspects. They
resulted in chaos and disorder in the society and also issues associated with the factory system, factory
workers, urbanization, etc.

This led thinkers to the study of social problems and to find new bases of order in societies. The interest
in the issue of social order was one of the major concerns of the thinkers of that time. They wanted to
develop a new discipline that would help them understand society and restore peace, order and stability
in society. Thus, the social, political, and economic conditions in Europe paved the way for the study of
society as the subject of the new discipline and the intellectual conditions provided the new discipline
with the scientific method. Thus, sociology emerged.

(Based mostly on IGNOU notes)