Selected Topics in Heat and Mass Transfer

Selected Topics in heat and Mass
Transport
..A compilation of selected presentations
Jundika Candra Kurnia

Agus Pulung Sasmito
2011 Sachin Vinayak Jangam
Hee Joo Poh
PREFACE
This e-book consists of selected topics to be covered as part of the postgraduate

course entitled ME6203 Mass Transport in the Mechanical Engineering Department of
the National University of Singapore, given by Professor A. S. Mujumdar.
For the benefit of wider audience interested in the themes covered, this e-book is
being offered freely. It contains handouts of the PowerPoint presentations made by the
authors. We hope that this compilation will be useful to research students as well as
researchers in academia and industrial R&D. Professor Mujumdar recommended and
provided guidance to the authors of various chapters included in this e-book.
The authors would be happy to hear from readers about any related matter they
wish to discuss or seek clarification on.

Agus Pulung Sasmito
Sachin Vinayak jangam
Hee Joo Poh
Singapore
Index
Presentation Title / Author names

No
01 Heat Transfer in Square duct
Jundika C. Kurnia
02 Computational Study of Energy-Efficient Thermal Drying Using
Intermittent Impinging Jets
Jundika C. Kurnia
03 Mass transport in a micro-channel T-Junction with coiled-base
channel design
Agus P. Sasmito
04 Mass Transport Considerations in PEM Fuel Cell Modeling
Hee Joo Poh
05 Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds-An Overview
Sachin V. Jangam
06 Mass Transfer in Fluidized Beds - An Overview
Sachin V. Jangam
Heat Transfer in
Square duct
ME 6204: Convective Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Square Duct
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar

mpeasm@nus.edu.sg
Mathematical formulation
• Governing equations:
– Conservation of mass ∇ ⋅ ( ρ u) = 0
– Conservation of momentum
⎣ (
∇ ⋅ ( ρ u ⊗ u) = −∇P + ∇ ⋅ ⎡⎢ μ ∇u + ( ∇u ) ⎤⎥
Τ
⎦ )
– Conservation of energy ρ c p u ⋅∇T = k ∇ 2T
• Constitutive equation (air)

Pabs MT
– Density ρ= , μ = 2.67 ×10
−6
σΩ (T )
,
– Dynamic viscosity RspecificT
– Thermal conductivity 15 R ⎡ 4 c p M 1 ⎤ R
k= μ⎢ + ⎥ , cp = .
– Specific heat 4 M ⎣15 R 3⎦ M
• For water, properties are set

as constant
Nomenclature: Pabs = Absolute pressure

ρ = fluid density Rspecific= Specific gas constant
μ = fluid viscosity cp = specific heat
u = fluid velocity σ = Collision diameter
T = fluid temperature Ω = Collision integral
kt = fluid thermal conductivity M = molecular weight
Mathematical Formulation
• Turbulent model used in this simulation is k-ε

model
∂k ⎡⎛ ρμ ⎞ ⎤
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ uk ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎢⎜ μ + t ⎟ ∇k ⎥ + ρμt G − ρε ,
∂t ⎣⎢⎝ σ k ⎠ ⎦⎥
∂ε ⎡⎛ ρμ ⎞ ⎤ C ρμ Gε ε2
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ uε ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎢⎜ μ + t ⎟ ∇ε ⎥ + 1ε t − C2 ε ρ ,
∂t ⎢⎣⎝ σ k ⎠ ⎥⎦ k k
⎛ ⎡ ∂u ⎤ 2 ⎡ ∂v ⎤ 2 ⎡ ∂w ⎤ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞ 2
G = 2⎜ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ + ⎜ + ⎟ + ⎜ + + +
⎜ ⎣ ∂x ⎦ ⎣ ∂y ⎦ ⎣ ∂z ⎦ ⎟ ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ ∂y ∂z ⎠⎟
,
⎝ ⎠
k2
μt = Cμ ,
ε
Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity C1ε = 1.44
μt= turbulent viscosity C2ε = 1.92
k = turbulent kinetic energy Cμ = 0.09
ε = turbulent dissipation
3
σk = 1.0
G = turbulent generation rate σε = 1.0
Mathematical Formulation
• Nusselt number calculation
1
Tmean =
VAc ∫ TudA ,
Ac
c
1
V=
Ac ∫ udA ,
Ac
c
Q&
h= ,
Tsurface − Tmean
hD
Nu =
k
Nomenclature:
Tmean = mixed mean temperature Nu = Nusselt number
Tsurface = surface temperature D = Hydraulic diameter
Ac = cross-section area
h k = Conductive heat transfer 4
= convective heat transfer
Q& = heat flux
V = mixed mean velocity
Geometry
• The flow configuration considered is full tube
flow inside square duct, as illustrated in figure
Schematic representation of flow in a) square duct and b) development

of a momentum boundary layer
5
Numerics
• Finite-volume based solver: Fluent 6.3.

• Mesh independence study ~10000 cells.
• Pressure velocity coupling: SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit
Method for Pressure-Linked Equation).
• Second-order upwind discretization.
• Algebraic Multi-grid Method (AMG).
• Relative residual ~10-6.
• It took around one minute to converge in Quad-core 2.83
GHz with 8 GB RAM.
• CFD analysis was carried out by Agus Pulung Sasmito
and Jundika Candra Kurnia (ME, NUS)
6
LAMINAR FLOW
7
Boundary condition
Air Water
• Case 1: Constant heat flux at • Case 3: Constant heat flux at
wall wall
– Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T – Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;
air = 25 °C. T water = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; Q = 30 watt/m2. – Wall: no-slip; Q = 2870
– Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0. watt/m2.
– Re ≈ 1000. – Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0.
• Case 2: Constant wall – Re ≈ 1000.
temperature • Case 4: Constant wall
– Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T temperature
air = 25 °C. – Inlet: water velocity = 0.1 m/s;
– Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C. T water = 25 °C.
– Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0. – Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C.
– Re ≈ 1000.
8
Velocity in the middle channel
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
Water (Cases 3 and 4)
Temperature in the middle of the channel
Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 10

Temperature in the wall of the channel
Air (Case 1)
Water (Case 3)
11
Heat flux at the wall
Air (Case 2)
Water (Case 4)
12
Nusselt Number
Air (Cases 1 and 2) Water (Cases 3 and 4)
Nusselt number asymptotic

Case 1: 2.8
Case 2: 2.7
Case 3: 2.7 13
Case 4: 2.2
Wall and Mean temperature

TURBULENT FLOW WITH
RE=20000
15
Boundary condition
Air Water
wall wall
– Inlet: air velocity = 30 m/s; T – Inlet: water velocity = 2 m/s; T
air = 25 °C. water = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; Q = 497 watt/m2. – Wall: no-slip; Q = 170370
– Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0. watt/m2.
• Case 2: Constant wall – Re ≈ 20000.
temperature • Case 4: Constant wall
– Inlet: air velocity = 30 m/s; T temperature
air = 25 °C. – Inlet: water velocity = 2 m/s; T
– Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C. water = 25 °C.
– Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0. – Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C.
– Re ≈ 20000.
16
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
17

Air (Cases 1)
Water (Cases 3)
19
Air (Cases 2)
Water (Cases 4)
20
Nusselt Number

Case 1: 45
Case 2: 34
Case 3: 623 21
Case 4: 127

TURBULENT FLOW
WITH Re=60000
23
Boundary condition
Air Water
wall wall
air = 25 °C. water = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; Q = 1272 – Wall: no-slip; Q = 433879
watt/m2. watt/m2.
– Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0. – Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0.
– Re ≈ 60000. – Re ≈ 60000.
• Case 2: Constant wall • Case 4: Constant wall
temperature temperature
air = 25 °C. water = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C. – Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C.
– Re ≈ 60000. – Re ≈ 60000.
24
Air (Cases 1 and 2)
25

Air (Cases 1)
Water (Cases 3)
27
Air (Cases 2)
Water (Cases 4)
28
Nusselt Number

Case 1: 105
Case 2: 67
Case 3: 1700 29
Case 4: 314

Summary of heat transfer calculation
Air (Laminar) Water(Laminar)
Air (Turbulent Re 20000) Water (Turbulent Re 20000) 31
LAMINAR FLOW WITH VARIABLE T

and Q BOUNDARY condition
32
Boundary conditions-Variable T,Q
Air
• Constant heat flux at wall
– Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
air = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; Q = 30 watt/m2.
– Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0.
– Re ≈ 1000.
• Constant wall temperature
air = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C.
– Re ≈ 1000.
33
Temperature distribution
Distance from entrance: 5 cm Distance from entrance: 25 cm
34
Temperature distribution
Distance from entrance: 50 cm Distance from entrance: 100 cm
35
LAMINAR FLOW WITH

HEATING/COOLING 36
Boundary condition
• Case 1: Heating
– Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T air = 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C, 100 °C, 200 °C.
– Re ≈ 1000.
• Case 2: Cooling
– Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T air = 50 °C, 100 °C,
200 °C.
– Re ≈ 1000.
37
Nusselt number distribution in entry length
Heating Cooling
38
LAMINAR FLOW WITH BOUYANCY
39
Boundary condition
Laminar flow (Air)
• Boundary conditions
– Inlet: air velocity = 0.15 m/s;
T air = 25 °C.
– Re ≈ 100.
• Case 1: No gravity force
• Case 2: Horizontal placement
• Case 3: Tilted 45°
• Case 4: Vertical placement
• Gravity force is applied for
case 2, 3 and 4.
40
Velocity at entry region (z=2.5 cm)
Case 1 Case 2
41
Case 3 Case 4
Temperature at entry region (z=2.5 cm)
Case 1 Case 2
42
Case 3 Case 4
Velocity at z= first 10 cm
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
43
Temperature at z= first 10 cm
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
44
Nusselt number
45
TAPERED DUCT 46
Boundary condition
Laminar flow (Air)
Case 1: Divergent duct
• Inlet: air velocity = 16
m/s;
T air = 25 °C.
• Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50
°C.
• Outlet: Pout = 1 atm;
∇⋅Q=0.
• Re ≈ 1000.
Case 2: Convergent duct
• Inlet: air velocity = 0.16
m/s; T air = 25 °C.
• Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50
°C.
• Outlet: Pout = 1 atm;
∇⋅Q=0. 47
• Re ≈ 1000.
Divergent duct (Case1)
Convergent duct (Case 2)
48
Temperature in the middle channel
Divergent duct (Case1)
Convergent duct (Case 2)
49
Nusselt number
50
POWER LAW FLUID
51
Boundary condition
Power law fluid Laminar flow (Air)
⎛ ∂u ⎞
n • Case 1 (Pseudoplastic n=0.5)
τ =K⎜ ⎟ – Inlet: air velocity = 1.6 m/s; T
⎝ ∂y ⎠
air = 25 °C.
where:
K = flow consistency index (Pa s n )
∂u
= shear rate or the velocity gradient (s −1 )
∂y
• Case 2 (Dilatant n=1.5)
n = flow behaviour index
n −1
⎛ ∂u ⎞ air = 25 °C.
μeff = K ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂y ⎠ – Wall: no-slip; T wall = 50 °C.
μeff = apparent or effective viscosity (Pa s ) – Outlet: Pout = 1 atm; ∇⋅Q=0.
n Type of fluid
<1 Pseudoplastic
1 Newtonian
52
>1 Dilatant
Pseudoplastic (Case1)
Dilatant (Case 2)
53
Pseudoplastic (Case1)
Dilatant (Case 2)
54
Nusselt number
55
PULSATING FLOW
56
Boundary condition
• Case 1 (Frequency = 5 Hz) • Case 2 (Frequency = 10 Hz)

– Inlet: air velocity = Vin; T air = – Inlet: air velocity = Vin; T air =
25 °C. 25 °C.
– Wall: no-slip; T wall = 200 °C. – Wall: no-slip; T wall = 200 °C.
– Re ≈ 1000. – Re ≈ 1000.
57
0s 0.05 s
0.1 s 0.15 s
58
Case 1 (frequency 5 Hz)
0s 0.05 s
0.1 s 0.15 s
59
0s 0.01 s
0.02 s 0.03 s
60
0.04 s 0.05 s
61
0s 0.01 s
0.02 s 0.03 s
62
0.04 s 0.05 s
63
Average Nusselt number
64
Summary
• Flow inside square duct has been simulated for variety of
BCs and for buoyancy effect.
• Several cases - laminar and turbulent flow are
considered
• Cooling/heating, buoyancy effect, power law fluid,
tapered duct and pulsating inlet flow have also been
simulated; no analytical solution possible
• Heat transfer distributions are calculated
65
References
• W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, Convective

heat and mass transfer 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill,
2005.
• S. Kakac and Y. Yener, Convective Heat
Transfer, Hemisphere Pub, 1982.
• A. Bejan, Convection heat transfer, Wiley, 2004.
• F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt, Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley,
2001.
• J. H. Leinhard IV and J. H. Leinhard V, A Heat
Transfer Textbook, 3rd edition, 1980.
66
Computational Study of
Energy-Efficient Thermal
Drying Using Intermittent
Impinging Jets
ME 6203 Mass Transport
Computational Study of Energy-Efficient

Thermal Drying Using Intermittent
Impinging Jets
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar
Email: mpeasm@nus.edu.sg
Tel: +65-6516-4623, Fax: +65-6777-6235
2011
Guest lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore
Outline
• Overview of drying
• Physical model
– Problem description
– Key assumptions
• Numerical methodology
• Selected results
– Case study
– Velocity
y contours
– Temperature contours
– Drying kinetics
• Summary
• Q&A 2
1
Overview
• Drying
– Widely known as the most common way to preserve food
– Essential operation in chemical, agricultural, biotechnology, food,
polymer ceramics,
polymer, ceramics pharmaceutical,
pharmaceutical pulp and paper
paper, mineral
processing and wood processing industries
– Involves simultaneous transport process
• Transport processes in drying:
– Mass transfer
– Heat transfer
– Flow
Occur simultaneously both internally and externally
• Induces deformation:
– Shrinkage
– Cracking
(Not modeled here) 3
Impinging jet drying

• Various drying methods are available for
different material
p g g jjet drying
• One of this method is impinging y g
– Offer high transport rate (mass and energy)
– Effective for drying of continuous sheets (paper
drying); discrete flat/curved objects.
• Impinging jets, however, have several
drawbacks
– Non-uniform drying
– High energy consumption compare to parallel flow
• Further study in impinging jet drying is required
– Pulsating jet is proposed to speed up drying kinetics
4
– Not commonly used yet
2
Physical Model
An orifice nozzle is used in this study- Axisymmetric case
Substrate dried is a potato chip. It is placed in a drying chamber under one

impinging jet. Pulsating and intermittent flow is applied on the inlet 5
Physical model
The aforementioned condition can be brought into computational domain as follows
Drying chamber Inlet Substrate dimension (chip)

L  0.4 m Tin  45 C Ls  30mm
z  0.02 m Vin  fixed pulsating and intermitent H s  0.5 and 5mm
RH in  17.5% 6
3
What phenomena occur during drying?
7
Transport mechanism of mass? Energy?
Physical model
Basic mechanisms
• moisture diffusion from the inner drying
substrate towards its surface,
surface where it
evaporates
• conductive heat transfer within the drying
substrate
• evaporation and convection of the vapor
from the surface of the drying substrate
into the drying air
• convection heat transfer from drying air to
the surface of the drying substrate 8
4
Why do we need assumptions?
What are the key assumptions?
Comment on validityy of assumptions?
p
Assumptions
In developing the mathematical model, several assumptions are
made- some for simplicity
• The drying substrate is compact and homogeneous with uniform
initial temperature and moisture content.
• Within the drying substrate, the diffusivity of water vapor is 100
times larger than the diffusivity of liquid water.
• The thermophysiscal properties of the drying substrate are
temperature and moisture content-dependent and isotropic (equal in
all directions).
• Variations in dependent variables in span wise direction are
negligible since width of the drying substrate is much larger than its
negligible,
height (reduction in dimensionality from three to two dimensions).
• The shape of the drying substrate remains constant. No shrinkage
or deformation is accounted for.
• Newtonian fluid
10
5
• How to translate these physical phenomena into
mathematical model?
• What conservation equations do we need to model
th physical
the h i l phenomena?
h ?
• Do we need more information?
11
Conservation equations
For drying substrate (chip) Transient term (time dependent)
Diffusion
• Conservation of
cl
mass:      Dlbcl    Kcl ,
t
– Liquid water
cv
– Water vapor      Dvb cv   Kcl ,
t Evaporation
Diffusion
Transient term (time dependent)
• Conservation of
energy Transient term (time dependence; heat capacity)
Conduction
T
b c pb      kbT    q
Cooling due to
evaporation
t 12
6
Conservation equation
For drying air (Impinging jet) unsteady case
• Mass   u  0, For incompressible fluid

Inertia/net rate Viscous
 u
• Momentum a 
 t


 u  u   p   u -  a u ' ,


Pressure gradient
• Energy  T
 a c pa 
 t


 uT     ka T   a c pa u ' T ' ,


• Mass
M off Advection/bulk motion Conduction Turbulent
T b l t
heating
cv
water vapor      Dva cv   u cv ,
t
Convection
Transient term (storage) 13
Diffusion
What is a turbulence model?

Why do we need one?
What is Reynolds averaging?
Basic /popular turbulence models
14
7
Turbulence model
• A turbulence model is a model which is used to approximates the
physical behavior of turbulent flows*
• Turbulence model are necessary in numerical simulation due to
impracticality in computing all scales of turbulent motion. Therefore,
approximate
i t methodsth d (turbulence
(t b l models)
d l ) are introduced
i t d d to
t simplify
i lif
and reduce computational cost.
• Reynolds averaging refers to the process of averaging a variable or
an equation in time. For example, if we have time dependent
variable , we can decompose this variable into an average part
and fluctuating part in the following way:
1

TT  (t )dt ,  '    .
where T has to be long enough to phase out fluctuation part on (t).
• Aside from time averaging, Reynolds averaging also deals with
space averaging and Ensemble averaging**
*J.J. Bertin, J. Periaux, J. Ballmann, 1992, Advances in hypersonics v2: Modeling hypersonic flows, Birkhauser, Cambridge 15
**J. Sodja, 2007, Turbulence model in CFD, Ljubljana, Slovenia (http://www-f1.ijs.si/~rudi/sola/Turbulence-models-in-CFD.pdf)
Turbulence model
• Various turbulence models have been developed. They

can be categorized as*:
– Algebraic/Zero-equation models
– One equation models
– Two equation models
– Second-order closure models
• Among these models,
k-, k-, LES (Large Eddy Simulation), RSM (Reynolds
Stress Model) are among the most popular turbulence
model used in computational fluid dynamics.
• In this study, Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) is used as it
has been shown to be superior to k-ε and k-ω turbulence
models in steady impinging jets
*D. C. Wilcox, 2006, Turbulence modeling for CFD, DCW Industries, La Canada, Clifornia 16
** P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh and A. S. Mujumdar. Turbulent impinging jet heat transfer enhancement due to intermittent pulsation. International Journal of
Thermal Science, 49 (7): 1247-1252, 2010.
8
Turbulence model for impinging jet drying
Reynolds stress model (5 equations)
Rij
 Cij  Pij  Dij   ij   ij  ij
t
• Accumulation
A l ti Rij

 
 ui'u 'j
t t
• Convective 
Cij     a ui' u 'j U 
 U j U i 
• Production Pij    Rim  R jm 
 xm xm 
• Rotation 
ij  2k u 'j um' eikm  ui' um' e jkm 
  k2
• Diffusion Dij     t Rij  with  t  C , C  0.09 and  k  1.0
 k  
2
• Dissipation  ij   ij
3
 2   2 
• Pressure –strain  ij  C1  Rij  k ij   C2  Pij  P ij 
k 3   3 
interaction with C1  1.8 and C2  0.6
To solve this model, k- turbulence model is required 17
Governing equations
• k- turbulence model

k    
     uk         t  k   t G   ,
t  k  
     C  G 2
     u        t     1 t  C2   ,
t   k   k k
  u  2  v  2  w  2   u v 2  u w 2  w v 2
G  2                   ,
  x   y   z    y x   z x   y z 
 
k2
t  C ,

Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity C1 = 1.44
t= turbulent viscosity C2 = 1.92
k = turbulent kinetic energy C = 0.09 18
 = turbulent dissipation k = 1.0
G = turbulent generation rate  = 1.0
9
Constitutive relations
• Density air  air  1.076 105 Tair2  1.039 102 Tair  3.326
• Dynamic viscosity of air air  5.211015 Tair3  4.077 1011Tair2  7.039 108 Tair  9.19 107
• Conductivity of air kair  4.084 1010 Tair3  4.519 107 Tair2  2.35 104 Tair  0.0147
• Specific heat of air c p , air  4.647 106 Tair3  4.837 103 Tair2  1.599Tair  1175
• Heat evaporation h fg  1000  2.394(T  273.15)  2502.1

b ,ref 1  X 
• Density of substrate b 
1  SbX
0.049
0 049  47  1 1   0.611
0 611X
X
• Conductivity
C d ti it off substrate
b t t kb  exp   3 
  
1 X  8.3143 10  Ts  273.15 335.15   1  X
• Specific heat of substrate c  1750  2345  X 
p ,b  
 1 X 
• Diffusivity of water vapor and  0.0725   2044 
Dvb  Dlb  1.29 106 exp   exp  
liquid water inside substrate  X   Ts  273.15 
19
• Heat of wetting (heat to evaporate H w  8.207 106 X 4  4.000 106 X 3  6.161105 X 2
bound water) 2.368 104 X  1163 for 0.01  X  0.2
• Total heat of evaporation hevap  h fg  H w
• Moisture content mass of water 

X  l
mass of dry product  s
 Dry basis
mass of water l  X
W   l 
 Wet basis mass of wet product  s  l b 1  X
X mCKAw
• Equilibrium moisture content Xe  ,
1  KAw   KAw  CKAw 
(GAB model) X m  0.0209, K  0.976, C  4.416
• Free moisture content X free  X  X e (free to be removed)
• Cooling rate due to evaporation q  hevap M l Kcl
• Rate of water evaporation  Ea

K  K 0 e RT
• Diffusivity of water vapor in air 20
Dva  2.775 106  4.479 108 T  1.656 1010 T 2
10
• Relation of moisture content to concentration of water inside substrate
 w  W  b ,
X b ,ref 1  X 
w   ,
1 X 1  SbX
b ,ref  X  X 2 
M w cw  ,
1  SbX  X  SbX 2
b,ref
SbX 2   Sb  1 X  1 
M w cw
 X  X ,
2
 b,ref  2  b ,ref 
 Sb   X   Sb  1   X  1  0,
 M w cw   M wcw 
can be solved analytically for X and by neglecting wrong root the solution is
b  b 2  4ac
X ,
2a
where
 b ,ref 
a   Sb  ,
 M wcw 
 b,ref 
b   Sb  1  ,
 M w cw  21
c  1.
Correlations
Calculation of h, Nu, Nu distributions in impinging jets
• Local Nusselt number hx D jet
Nu ( x, t ) 
k fluid
along the target surface
• Local heat transfer qx

hx 
 jet  Twall 
T
coefficient
T ( x)
qx  k fluid
• Local heat transfer flux y y 0
• Time
Ti averaged
d llocall 1
t
t 0
Nuavg ( x)  Nu ( x, t )dt
Nusselt number
x t
1 1
x 0 t 0
• Time averaged Nusselt Nuavg  Nu ( x, t )dtdx
number 22
11
Nomenclature
cl concentration of liquid water [mol m-3] p Pressure [Pa]
cv concentration of water vapor [mol m-3] Dva diffusivity of vapor on the drying air [m2 s]
Dlb diffusivity of liquid inside the drying substrate [m2 s] μ dynamic viscosity of the drying air [Pa s]
Dvb diffusivity of vapor inside the drying substrate [m2 s] ρa density of the drying air [kg m-3]
T temperature [K] cpa specific heat of the drying air [J kg-1 K-1]
q cooling rate due to evaporation [W m-3] ka thermal conductivity of the drying air [W m-2 K-1]
K production of water vapor mass per unit volume Ea activation energy [kJ mol-1]
-3
ρb density of the drying substrate [kg m ] R universal gas constant [J K−1 mol−1]
cpb specific heat of the drying substrate [J kg-1 K-1] Ml molecular weight of water [kg kmol-1]
kb thermal
h l conductivity
d i i off the
h drying
d i substrate
b [W m-22 K-11] Δhhevap totall heat
h off evaporation k -11]
i [J kg
-1
u mean velocity [m s ] X moisture content (dry basis) [kg kg-1]
u’ fluctuate velocity [m s-1] W moisture content (wet basis) [kg kg-1]
23
Initial and boundary conditions

Initial conditions: where
• Substrate W b ,0
T  T0 , cl  cl 0,b , cv  cv 0,b ,
cl 0.b  ,
Ml
• Drying air cv 0,b  0,
0
T  T0 , cl  cl 0, a , cv  c v 0, a , u  v  0,
cl 0.a  0,
Boundary conditions: RH  a ,0
cv 0,a  1000 .
• Drying chamber inlet
1  RH  M l
u  0, v  vin , T  Tin , RH  RH in , cv  cv 0,,a .
• Drying chamber outlet
p  pout , n    Dcv   0, n   k T   0.
• Drying chamber wall
u  v  0, n    Dcv  cv u   0, n  (k T )  0.
24
12
Boundary conditions and parameters
Inlet velocity for various cases • Parameters needed to solve
• Steady laminar jet the model are
– vin = 2 m s-1 b ,ref  1420 kg m 3 ,
• Pulsating
g laminar jjet Tin  45C ,
– vin = 1+1sin(2ft) m s-1
Ml  0.018 kg mol 1 ,
• Intermitent laminar jet
X0  4.6,
– vin= 2 m s-1(on),0 m s-1(off)
• Steady turbulent jet  a ,45C  1.110 kg m 3 ,
– vin = 20 m s-1 a ,45C  1.934 105 kg m 1 s 1
• Pulsating turbulent jet
R  8.314 J K 1 mol 1 ,
– vin = 10+10sin(2ft)
10+10 i (2 ft) m s-11
• Intermitent laminar jet Ea  48.7 kJ mol 1 ,
– vin= 2 m s-1(on),0 m s-1(off) Sb  1.4
1
f  Hz
120
25
Numerics
• Gambit: creating geometry, meshing,
labeling boundary condition
• Fluent: solver based on finite volume
method
– Domain is discretized onto a finite set of
control volumes (or cells).
– General conservation (transport)equations
for mass, momentum, energy, species, etc.
are solved on this set of control volumes.

t V
 dV   V  dA     dA   S dV
  A
 
 A

  V
Unsteady Convection Diffusion Generation
– Partial differential equations are discretized

into a system of algebraic equations.
– All algebraic equations are then solved
numerically to render the solution field.
26
13
Numerics
Flow chart of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)*
27
*http://progdata.umflint.edu/MAZUMDER/Fluent/Intro%20Training/L-1%20Introduction%20to%20CFD.pdf
Numerics
• User Defined Scalars: solving for water liquid and vapor

• User Defined Functions Macros
– DEFINE_SOURCE, DEFINE_DIFUSIVITY, DEFINE_FLUX,
DEFINE UNSTEADY DEFINE
DEFINE_UNSTEADY, DEFINE_PROFILE,
PROFILE ETC
• Three different mesh sizes of 2000, 4000, 8000 elements
were implemented and compared in terms of velocity,
temperature and moisture content to ensure a mesh-
independent. We found that the result from the mesh
size 2000 deviates 5% and 4000 deviates 1% from 8000
elements Therefore
elements. Therefore, a mesh of around 4000 was
chosen.
• Relative residual 10-6 for all dependent variable.
• It took around 30-50 min to converge in Quadcore 1.8
GHz with 8 GB RAM for 5 to 8 h drying time 28
14
SELECTED RESULTS
29
Contours of velocity
Laminar steady jet
Turbulent steady jet
30
15
Contours of temperature
Laminar steady jet
Turbulent steady jet
31
Temperature contours in substrate
32
16
Moisture profile in substrate
33
Drying kinetics (0.5 mm substrate)
• Impinging jet is not recomended

especially when drying cost is
considered (energy cost).
• Effect of the pulsating and
intermittent flow can be seen on this
case
• Frequency and velocity have no
effect on this case, most likely due
to the thin substrate 34
17
Drying kinetics (5 mm substrate)
• Velocity slightly affect drying

kinetics. It is clearer compare to
that for thin substrate.
• Effect of the pulsating and
intermittent flow can be seen in this
case
• Frequency has no effect
35
Conclusion
• Simple physical model to show how one

can use a math model consisting of
conservation equations and relevant
boundary conditions
• For gas-side, we use continuity,
momentum, energy and species equations
• On drying material side we consider
simple diffusion model for both water and
vapor. For low temperature only liquid
diffusion model is adequate.
36
18
References
[1] M. V. De Bonis, G. Ruocco, 2008, A Generalized Conjugate Model for

Forced Convection Drying Based on An Evaporative Kinetics, Journal of
Food Engineering, Vol. 89, pp: 232-240
[[2]] M. R. Islam,
s a , J.
J C
C. Ho,o, A. S
S. Mujumdar,
uju da , 2003,
003, Convective
Co ect e Drying
y g with
t Time-
e
Varying Heat Input, Drying Technology, Vol. 21(7), pp: 1333-1356
[3] J. Srikiatden a, J. S. Roberts, 2008, Predicting moisture profiles in potato
and carrot during convective hot air drying using isothermally measured
effective diffusivity, Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 84, pp: 516-525
[4] W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, 2005, Convective Heat and Mass
Transfer 4th ed., McGraw Hill, Singapore
[5] F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt , 2001, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Edition, Wiley
Transfer 5th Edition
Transfer,
[6] P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh, A. S. Mujumdar, 2010, Turbulent Impinging
Jet Heat Transfer Enhancement Due to Intermittent Pulsation, International
Journal of Thermal Sciences. doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2010.01.020
[7] H. J. Poh, K. Kumar, A. S. Mujumdar, 2005, Heat transfer from a pulsed
laminar impinging jet, International Communications in Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol. 32, pp:1317–1324 37
For Self-Study
• How would you model

– Case where jet temperature is 200 C?
– The jet is superheated steam at atmospheric
pressure and 200 C?
– The drying chamber is at very low (but finite)
pressure and dried by superheated steam
– Will drying time be reduced if the slab is
flipped after some time? Why?
38
19
Mass transport in a micro-
channel T-Junction with
coiled-base channel design
ME 6203 Mass Transport Guest Lecture
Mass transport in a micro-channel

T-Junction with coiled-base channel design
Prof. Arun S. MUJUMDAR

Email: mpeasm@nus.edu.sg
Tel: +65-6516-4623, Fax: +65-6777-6235
Guest lecturer
Agus Pulung SASMITO
Minerals Metals Materials Technology Center
National University of Singapore
2011
Outline
• Overview of micro-channel T-Junction
• Physical model
– Problem description
– Key assumptions
• Numerical methodology
• Selected results
• Mass transport enhancement
• Concluding remarks
2
Overview
• Micro-channel T-Junction
– Widely used in industry, especially pharmaceutical, for mixing
and reaction processes
– Relatively easy to control the reactions, especially for highly
exothermic reaction
– Involves simultaneous transport process
• Transport process in T-Junction:
– Momentum transfer
– Mass transfer
– Heat transfer
Occur simultaneously
• Main phenomena:
– Mixing
– Surface reactions
Micro-Channel T-Junction
• Passive mixing for various chemical reaction; it
does not require additional energy for mixing
processes
• Micro-channel T-Junction, however, has several
drawbacks
– Poor mixing, especially at short channel and high
Reynolds number
– High pressure drop due to impingement effect
• Various innovative designs are proposed to
improve mixing and reactions
– Coiled channel
– Channel with fins
4
– Impinging jet channel
Typical geometry
Example case of mixing and reaction of A typical micro-channel T-
methane oxidation in platinum surface junction is used to mix methane
and air; the channel surface is
O2 coated with catalyst (platinum)
N2 Inlet
T = 300K
Tin = 300 K
Vin ≈ Re 500
Pt surface; T 1290K
Micro-channel T-junction
CO L = 120 mm
h CO2
H2O h = 1 mm
Pt surface; T 1290K
Gas species: CH 4 , O 2 , H 2 , H 2 O,
CO 2 , HO 2 , N 2
Surface species: Pt(s), H(s), O(s),
CH4
H2 OH(s), H 2 O(s), H3 (s),
T = 300K CH 2 (s), CH(s), C(s),
L
CO(s), CO 2 (s)
Solid species: Pt(b) 5
Innovative coiled-base design

• Coiled-base channel design is
proposed to enhance heat and
mass transfer.
• Coiled-base channel design
has been widely used in
industrial applications due to
compact structure, ease of
manufacture, higher heat and
mass transfer. Typical straight T-junction
Conical T-junction
• The presence of secondary
flow induced by coil curvature
and complex temperature and
concentration profiles caused
by curvature-induced torsion
are among significant
phenomena observed in
coiled-base channel.
• Length is kept constant for
comparison purpose. Helical T-junction
In-plane spiral T-junction
6
Physical model
Basic mechanisms
• Convective heat and mass transfer
• Mixing in the opposing jet at T junction
• Surface reactions at the channel wall which include
– mass consumptions and generation,
– heat release due surface reaction,
– multi-step surface reactions including adsorption
reaction, surface reaction, and desorption reaction.
• Surface species are calculated from site balance
equations
• Surface reactions create sources of bulk phase, which
determines its deposition rate on a surface.
Assumptions
In developing the mathematical model, several assumptions are
taken:
• The flow is steady-state, laminar, newtonian flow and
species mixture is follows ideal gas law.
• There are three types of species: gas, surface (site) and
solid species. The model treats chemical species
deposited on surfaces as distinct from the same
chemical species in the gas
• Thermo-physical properties of species mixture follows
mixing law of ideal gas with temperature dependent
effect.
• Gas phase reaction are closely coupled with surface
reactions.
8
• How to translate this physical phenomena into a
mathematical model?
• What conservation equations do we need to interpret
the physical phenomena?
Conservation equations
• Mass ∇ ⋅ ρu = 0
Compressible
flow
• Momentum viscous Effect of volume
dillatation
⎛
( ⎞
)
Inertia/net rate
2
∇ ⋅ ρ u ⊗ u = −∇p + ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ⎡ μ ∇u + ( ∇u ) ⎤ − μ ( ∇ ⋅ u ) I ⎟
T
Pressure ⎝⎣ ⎦ 3 ⎠
• Species gradient
∇ ⋅ ( ρ uωi ) = −∇ ⋅ ( ρ Di∇ωi ) + Ri
convective diffusive reaction
i: CH 4 , O 2 , H 2 , H 2 O, CO 2 , HO 2
• Energy
∇ ⋅ ( ρ cpuT ) = ∇ ⋅ ( keff ∇T ) + S temp
convective conductive Heat due to
reactions
Detailed reactions
• Theory: consider the rth wall surface reaction written in general forms
Ng Nb Ns Ng Nb Ns
∑ g Gi + ∑ b Bi + ∑ s Gi ←⎯
⎯⎯ → ∑ gi'',r Gi + ∑ bi'', r Bi + ∑ si'',r Gi
' Kr ' '
i ,r ⎯i ,r i ,r
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
where Gi, Bi, and Si represents the gas phase species, the solid species, and the
surface-adsorbed (or site) species, respectively. g’, b’, s’ are the stoichiometric
coefficients for each reactant species; g’’, b’’, and s’’ are the stoichiometric coefficients
for each product species; and Kr is the overallNreaction rate constant.
g
ℜr = k f ,r ∏ [Gi ]wall [ Si ]wall

i ,r g'
i ,r s'
• The rate of rth reaction is
i =1
• The net molar rate of production or consumption of each species i is
N
given by
∑( )
rxn
Rˆ = g '' − g ' ℜ
i ,gas i = 1, 2,3,..., N
i ,r i ,r r g
r =1
N rxn
Rî ,bulk = ∑ ( bi'',r − bi',r )ℜr i = 1, 2,3,..., N b
r =1
N rxn
Rî ,site = ∑ ( si'',r − si' ,r )ℜr i = 1, 2,3,..., N s
r =1
• Reaction rate constant is computed using Arrhenius expresion
k f , r = Ar T β r e − Er / RT
Wall surface reaction boundary conditions

• It is assumed that, on the reacting surface, the mass flux of each gas
species is balanced with its rate of production/consumption
∂ωi ,wall
ρ wall Di − m depωi,wall = M w,i Rî,gas i = 1, 2,3,..., N g
∂n
∂ [ Si ]wall
= Rî,site i = 1, 2,3,..., N s
∂t
• The mass fraction at the wall is related to concentration by
ρ wallωi,wall
[Gi ]wall =
M w ,i
• mdep is the net rate of mass deposition or etching as a result of surface
reaction Nb
m dep = ∑ M w,i Rî ,bulk
i =1
• [Si]wall is the site species concentration at the wall, and defined as
[ Si ]wall = ρsite zi
where ρsite is the site density and zi is the site coverage of species i
Multi-step reaction mechanism
No Reaction Ar βr Er (J/kmol)
1 H2 + 2Pt(s) => 2H(s) 4.36e7 0.5 0
2 2H(s) => H2 + 2Pt(s) 3.7e20 0 6.74e7
3 O2 + 2Pt(s) => 2O(s) 1.8e17 -0.5 0
4 O2 + 2PT(s) => 2O(s) 2.01e14 0.5 0
5 2O(s) => O2 + 2Pt(s) 3.7e20 0 2.13e8
6 H2O + Pt(s) => H2O(s) 2.37e8 0.5 0
7 H2O(s) => H2O + Pt(s) 1e13 0 4.03e7
8 OH + Pt(s) => OH(s) 3.25e8 0.5 0
9 OH(s) => OH + Pt(s) 1e13 0 1.93e8
10 H(s) + O(s) => OH(s) + Pt(s) 3.7e20 0 1.15e7
11 H(s) + OH(s) => H2O(s) + Pt(s) 3.7e20 0 1.74e7
12 OH(s) + OH(s) => H2O(s) + O(s) 3.7e20 0 4.82e7
13 CO + Pt(s) => CO(s) 7.85e15 0.5 0
14 CO(s) => CO + Pt(s) 1e13 0 1.25e8
15 CO2(s) => CO2 + Pt(s) 1e13 0 2.05e7
16 CO(s) + O(s) => CO2(s) + Pt(s) 3.7e20 0 1.05e8
17 CH4 + 2Pt(s) => CH3(s) + H(s) 2.3e16 0.5 0
18 CH3(s) + Pt(s) => CH2(s) + H(s) 3.7e20 0 2e7
19 CH2(s) + Pt(s) => CH(s) + H(s) 3.7e20 0 2e7
20 CH(s) + Pt(s) => C(s) + H(s) 3.7e20 0 2e7
21 C(s) + O(s) => CO(s) + Pt(s) 3.7e20 0 6.28e7
22 CO(s) + Pt(s) => C(s) + O(s) 1e17 0 1.84e8
23 OH(s) + Pt(s) => H(s) + O(s) 1.56e18 0 1.15e7
24 H2O(s) + Pt(s) => H(s) + OH(s) 1.88e18 0 1.74e7
25 H2O(s) + O(s) => OH(s) + OH(s) 4.45e20 0 4.82e7
• Mixture density
ρ = pM / RT
• Mean molecular mass
( )
−1
M = ωCH4 / M CH4 + ωH2 / M H2 + ωO2 / M O2 + ωH2O / M H2O + ωOH / M OH + ωCO2 / M CO2 + ωCO / M CO + ωN2 / M N2
• Mixture viscosity
xα μα
μ =∑ with α , β = CH 4 , H 2 , O 2 , H 2 O, OH, CO, CO 2 , N 2
α ∑ xα Φ α,β
β
2
−1/ 2 ⎡ 1 1
⎤
1 ⎛ Mα ⎞ ⎢1 + ⎛ μα ⎞ ⎛ M β ⎞ 4 ⎥
(g) 2
Φ α,β = ⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎜⎜ μ (g) ⎟⎟ ⎜ M ⎟ ⎥
8 ⎜⎝ M β ⎠ ⎝ β ⎠ ⎝ α⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦
• Effective thermal conductivity; heat capacity
keff = ∑ ki ωi cp = ∑ ωi cp,i
i
Constitutive relations (Cont’d)
• Figure of Merit is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the

mixing and reaction rate in the micro-channel T-Junction. It
defined as reactant conversion rate over pumping power
required. Since the mass flow rate is kept constant; hence
ωin − ωout
FoM =
Δp
1
• Mean velocity V=
Ac ∫ udA ,
Ac
c
1
∫ TudA ,
• Mixed-mean temperature
Tmean = c
VAc Ac
1
• Mixed-mean mass fraction ωi ,mean =
VAc ∫ ω udA
Ac
i c
Boundary conditions
• At the air inlet • At the walls

– Uin = 5 m/s (Re~500) – No-slip condition
– Tin = 300K – No species flux
– ωO2 = 0.21 – Twall = 1290 K
– ωN2 = 1- ωO2
• At the outlet
• At the methane – Pout = 101325
inlet – ∇T = ∇ωi = 0
– Uin = 5 m/s (Re~500)
– Tin = 300K
– ωCH4 = 0.9
– ωH2 = 0.1
Numerics
• AutoCad for creating geometries

• Gambit for meshing and labeling boundary conditions:
– fine structured mesh near wall to resolve boundary layer;
increasingly coarser mesh to the middle of the channel to reduce
computational cost
– Mesh independence test were carried out for three different
mesh size—coarse, medium, fine—in terms of velocity, pressure,
temperature and species.
• Fluent for discretization and solving dependent variables
– Based on finite volume discretization method
– Pressure-velocity coupling is solved by well-known SIMPLE
method
– Overall, it requires ~300 MB memory and 2 h solving time on
workstation with Quadcore 2.63 GHz processor for convergence
criteria 10-6 for all dependent variables.
• ChemKIN for reaction kinetics
– To set up details multi-step reaction mechanism and thermo-
physical properties of gas species.
Flow chart for numerical solver

Results and discussion
Velocity profiles at channel length 50mm
• Fully developed
flow exists in
the straight
channel
• Secondary flow
is developed in
the coiled base
channel.
• Higher velocity
intensity exists
m/s
in the outer wall
of the coiled
base channel
Oxygen mass fraction at channel length 50mm
• Straight channel has

higher oxygen mass
fraction means that
lesser oxygen is
consumed for
reactions.
• Among the coiled
base channel design,
helical coil gives
better conversion
rate.
• Secondary flow
enhance mass
transport in the
surface reaction
Methane mass fraction at channel length 50 mm
• At straight channel, the

methane concentration
is higher at the right
side of the wall, it
means that the
methane is not mixed
well with air.
• Helical coil yields the
best mixing and
reaction among others
• The presence of
secondary flow
improve the mixing rate
of reactant species
Oxygen mass fraction along channel

0.18
helical
straight
0.16
in plane spiral
conical
Oxygen mass fraction
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Length / mm
• Helical coil gives the best conversion rate among other designs.
• Straight T-junction yields the lowest conversion rate due to poor
mixing.
Mixed mean temperature along channel
1300
1200
1100
1000
Temperature / K
900
800
700
conical
600 in plane spiral
500 helical
straight
400
300
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Length / mm
• Coiled base channel also gives higher heat transfer rate as

compared to straight channel
• Coiled base channel is suitable for highly exothermic/endothermic
reaction to control the desired environment/temperature.
Effect of Reynolds number

0.17 Re 100
Re 500
0.15 Re increasing Re 1000
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Length / mm
• Lower mass flow rate performs better conversion rate
• This is due to longer residence time of the species
Effect of coil diameter
0.18
r4
r3
0.16
r5
0.14
diameter increasing
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Length / mm
• Smaller coil diameter produces slightly better conversion rate.

• This is due to higher secondary flow produced in smaller coil
diameter.
Pressure drop
20000
straight
18000
conical
16000 in-plane
14000 helical
12000
p / pa
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Reynolds
• Straight channel requires the lowest pressure drop;

whereas, the helical coil has the highest pressure drop
• Pressure drop increses as the mass flow increasing
Figure of Merit
3.50E-04
straight
3.00E-04 conical
in-plane
helical
2.50E-04
Figure of Merit
2.00E-04
1.50E-04
1.00E-04
5.00E-05
0.00E+00
100 500 1000
Reynolds
• Straight channel has the highest figure of merit among other
designs; however, for industrial application where space is limited
and pumping power is not an issue, such as in pharmaceutical
industry, coiled base channel design can be a desirable choice
Concluding remarks
• Coiled base channel design can improve heat

and mass transfer as compare to straight T-
junction channel.
• This improvement is due to the presence of
secondary flow.
• However, higher pressure drop is required for
coiled base channel design.
• For industrial application where space is limited,
conversion rate is the most important, and
pumping power is not an issue, coiled base
channel design can be a desirable choice
Nomenclature
ρ = density, kgm −3 ℜ = rate of rth reaction
u = velocity, ms −1 k f ,r = reaction rate constant using Arrhenius expression
p = pressure, pa Ar = pre-exponential factor
μ = dynamic viscosity, Pas β r = temperature exponent
ωi = mass fraction of species i Er = activation energy for the reaction, Jkgmol
−2 R = universal gas constant, Jkg -1mol-1K -1
Di = diffusivity of species i, ms
M = mean molecular mass
Ri = reaction rate of species i, kgm −3
m dep = net rate of mass deposition, kg
c p = specific heat, Jkg −1K −1
x = mol fraction
T = temperature, K
keff = effective thermal conductivity, WmK −1
S temp = heat release due to reactions, Wm -3
Gi = gas species, mol
Bi = bulk/solid species, mol
Si = surface-adsorbed/site species, mol
gi' , gi'' = stoichiometric coefficient for gas reactant, and product
bi' , bi'' = stoichiometric coefficient for bulk reactant, and product
si' , si'' = stoichiometric coefficient for site reactant, and product
References
[1] O. Deutschmann, L.i. Maier, U. Riedel, A.H. Stroemman, R.W. Dibble,
Hydrogen Assisted Catalytic Combustion of Methane on Platinum,
Catalysis Today 59,141--150 (2000).
[2] V. Kumar, M. Paraschivoiu, K.D.P. Nigam, Single phase fluid flow and
mixing in microchannel, Chemical Engineering Science, 2011, in press.
[3] S. Vatisth, V. Kumar, K.D.P. Nigam, A review on the potential application
of curved geometries in process industry, Industrial Engineering Chemistry
Research 47, 3291-3337 (2008).
[4] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Evaluation of heat transfer
performance of helical coils of non-circular tubes, J. Zhejiang University
Science: A, 2011, in press.
[5] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Laminar convective heat
transfer in coils of non-circular cross-section tube: a computational fluid
dynamics study, Thermal Science, 2011, accepted.
[6] J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, A.S. Mujumdar, Numerical investigation of
laminar heat transfer performance of various cooling channel designs,
Applied Thermal Engineering, 2011, in press.
[7] Fluent user guide documentation, http://www.fluent.com
30
For Self Study
• How can one reduce pressure drop in the coiled

base channel design?
• What happens if the channel is not in square
cross-section, e.g. circular, triangle, star-shape
etc?
• Will reaction and mixing rate improve if we add
fins inside the channel?
• What if the reactant species are in different
phase, e.g. gas and liquid? Is the model
presented still valid?
Mass Transport
Considerations in PEM
Fuel Cell Modeling
ME6203 Mass Transport
Mass Transport Considerations
in PEM Fuel Cell Modeling
Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar, ME, NUS

Dr. Poh Hee Joo, IHPC
March 2010
1
Outline - Part 1 (Handout)

• Fuel Cell Introduction
• Fuel cell Mass Transport
– Diffusive transport in electrode
– Convective transport in flow structures
• Analytical Modeling with MATLAB
• Summary
1
Why PEMFC Modeling in Mass
Transport course?
• Fuel cells are becoming important in academic
and industrial R&D. Some already
commercialized. Much more development is
needed to enhance performance cost-effectively
• Excellent industrial illustration of a case where
math modeling of transport phenomena-
including mass transport is critically important
• It is an excellent illustration of how very complex
transport processes can be modeled and what
are the different levels of math models which are
possible
3
Why PEMFC model?

• In ME6203 one objective is to look at advanced mass
transport problems of real interest and examine how a
model can be developed based on fundamentals
• It is also an example of complex interaction between

various transport phenomena. Illustrates need for
significant information needed for such a model
• Due to time limitation, different levels of modeling e.g.

1D, 2D,2.5D, 3D steady/unsteady, single phase/ two
phase models etc are not discussed. Model is only as
good as assumptions made- they must be realistic.
2
Mass Transport and PEMFC
• Whenever there is species movement causing
concentration changes –there is mass transport
• Mechanisms are: diffusion, convection, electro-osmosis
etc
• PEMFC includes flow in channels, flow in porous media
• Involves proton and electron transfer, catalytic chemical
reactions, heat transfer etc
• An excellent-but complex-example for study of transport
phenomena
• Here, please focus on the technique of math modeling
rather than the complex details which are beyond the
scope of this course.
• Suitable for Term Paper Projects e.g. 1D analytical
modeling of different types of fuel cells
5
Preamble
• With this preamble , let us proceed to fuel cells..
• Numerous resources are available on the web for
self-study
• Advanced models are being worked on at hundreds
of labs around the world-useful for innovation!
• Several excellent textbooks available as well
• No need to go beyond what is in this PPT-except for
those who choose to work on term papers on this
subject.
• Poh Hee Joo will be happy to provide relevant
resources and ideas to those interested
• Caution: Some aspects are complex and are
included only for completeness of coverage. You do
not need to get into those details.
6
3
What is a Fuel Cell ?
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical
reaction taking place at two electrodes (anode and cathode)
Backing layer Backing layer
Physical Description of a PEMFC

PEMFC – Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
Anode bipolar plate

Anode gas channel MEA -
Membrane
Anode gas diffusion layer Electrode
Anode catalyst layer Assembly
Membrane
Cathode catalyst layer

Cathode gas diffusion layer
Cathode gas channel

Cathode bipolar plate
8
4
Basic Fuel Cell Operation
1. Reactant transport
•Efficient delivery of reactants by using flow field plates in
combination with porous electrode structures.
2. Electrochemical reaction
•Choosing right catalyst and carefully designing reaction
zones
3. Ionic (and Electronic) Conduction
•Thin electrolyte for ionic conduction, without fuel cross over
4. Product Removal
•“Flooding” by product water can be major issue in PEMFC
9
Applications of fuel cells
• Transportation
• Stationary Power Generation
• Residential
• Portable Power Generation
• Space and Defense
10
5
Fuel Cells: Classification
PEM fuel cell Solid oxide fuel cell
Polymer membrane Ceramic membrane
800C 600 – 10000C
At Anode At Cathode
Characterized by
PEM Fuel Cell 2H2 → 4H+ + 4e O2 + 4e + 4H+ → 2H2O
•Electrolyte materials H2 + O2-→CO2 + H2O + 2e ½ O2 + 2e → O2-
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
•Operating temperature Direct Methanol Fuel Cell CH3OH + H2O →CO2 + 6H+ + 6e 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e →3H2O
•Fuel used 11
Fuel Cells: Some Advantages

• Replacement for IC Engines in
transportation
– Higher energy efficiency
– Zero or ultra-low emission
• Replacement for batteries in portable
electronics
– Higher energy density
– Nearly zero recharge time
– Independent scaling between power
(determined by fuel cell size) and capacity
(determined by fuel cell reservoir)
12
6
Fuel Cells: Some Limitations
• High cost of fuel cell
• Low volumetric power density comparing to I.C.
engines and batteries
• Safety, Availability, Storage and Distribution of
pure hydrogen fuel
• Alternative fuels (e.g. methanol, gasoline)
difficult to use directly and require reforming
• Susceptibility to environmental poisons
• Operational temperature compatibility concerns
13
Challenges to Fuel Cell Commercialization
• Simple question, but difficult answer

– Prototype developed by SERC-PEMFC for
2W portable battery charger fuel cell of
NOKIA mobile phone cost about $300
14
7
Fuel cells: Interdisciplinary field of
science and engineering:
• Thermodynamics
• Electrochemistry
• Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
• Fluid Mechanics
• Heat and Mass Transfer
• Material Science (metallurgy) and materials engineering
• Polymer Science and specifically ionomer chemistry
• Design, manufacturing and engineering optimization
• Solid mechanics and mechanical engineering
• Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
• Etc etc
15
PEMFC (Interdisciplinary!)
Catalysis Thermofluids
Membrane Science and and System Integration
Electrochemistry Component Design
Alternative catalyst
High temperature Transport phenomena System design & configuration
(reduce cost)
cation membrane (molecular diffusion, (reduce cost, improved efficient)
Reduce CO poisoning ion migration,
High catalyst utilization
of catalyst) convection) Interconnection
(reduce catalyst loading)
(increase power o/p)
Membrane for DMFC Multi-phase physics
Improved performance
(prevent methanol crossover) (water management) Heat and water management
(electro-oxidation/Reduction)
(operational stability)
Anion membrane Heat transfer
Measurement and
(use of low cost catalyst) (performance stability)
Characterization
(relate performance to
Fluid dynamics
electrochemical processes)
(flow channel design)
Courtesy of SERC Fuel Cell Project 16
8
Schematic of a cross sectional view of PEM
Fuel Cell unit
Load
e-
Cathode Anode
Catalyst Catalyst
Cathode Cathode Membrane Anode Anode
Bipolar Plate Electrode Electrode Bipolar Plate
(GDL) (GDL)
Air O2 H+ H2 H2
channel channel
½O2 + 2H+ + 2e → H2O H2 → 2H+ + 2e
17
Role of Each Component

1. Cathode/Anode Bipolar plate
• Electronic Conduction
• Heat Transport
2. Air/H2 channel
• Reactant Transport & Product Removal (Mass Transfer)
• Heat Transport
3. Cathode/Anode GDL
• Ionic and Electronic Conduction
• Reactant Transport & Product Removal (Mass Transfer)
• Heat Transport
4. Cathode/Anode Catalyst
• Electrochemical reaction (Mass Transfer – reactant consumption and
product generation)
• Ionic and Electronic Conduction
5. Membrane
• Ionic conduction
• Water transport
18
9
Water Management in PEMFC
Electrolyte
Cathode Anode
membrane
Water produced
within cathode
Water is dragged from

anode to cathode sides by
protons moving through
electrolyte (electro-osmotic
drag)
Water is back diffused from
cathode to anode, if cathode side
holds more water
Water is supplied by Water is supplied by
externally humidifying externally humidifying
air/O2 supply hydrogen supply
Water is removed by
Water is removed by
O2 depleted air
circulating hydrogen
leaving the fuel cell
19
Why Mass Transfer is Important in PEMFC

Component Mass Transport Implication Where mass transport
limitation exists
Air/H2 channel To provide homogenous distribution Reactant depletion for

of reactants across an electrode downstream channel
surface while minimizing pressure Impurity contamination, e.g.
drop and maximizing water removal N2
capability
Cathode/Anode GDL Porous electrode support to Liquid water flooding block the
reinforce catalyst, allow easy gas pores for gas diffusion into
access to catalyst layer, and catalyst layer
enhances electrical conductivity
Cathode/Anode Catalyst Electrochemical reaction takes Poor total reaction surface
place at the catalyst layer, area (catalyst loading) for
consume reactant (H2 and O2) and optimal electrochemical
generate product (H2O) performance
Membrane To separate the air and H2 while Membrane dry-out at high
allowing liquid water and ionic temperature, and loss of its
transport across membrane proton conducting capability
20
10
Fuel Cell : Mass Transport
• To produce electricity, fuel cell must be continually
supplied with fuel and oxidant. At the same time,
products must be continuously removed so as to
avoid “strangling” the cell. The process of
supplying reactants and removing products is
termed fuel cell mass transport.
• Why is it important? Poor mass transport can lead

to significant fuel cell performance loss, as the
reactant depletion and/or product accumulation
within catalyst layer (not at the fuel cell inlet) will
adversely affect performance. This is called
concentration or mass transport loss, and can be
minimized by careful optimization of mass
transport in the fuel cell electrodes and fuel cell
flow structures 21
Transport in Electrode vs. Flow

Structure
• Difference between mass transport in fuel cell electrode and fuel
cell flow structures in one of length scale, and this lead to
difference in transport mechanism
• For fuel cell flow structures, dimensions are generally on the

millimeter or centimeters scale. Flow pattern typically consisted of
well-defined channel arrays. Gas transport in the channel is
dominated by fluid flow and convection.
• For fuel cell electrodes, it exhibit structure and porosity on the

micrometer and nanometer length scale. The tortuous geometry
of electrodes insulated gas molecules from convective forces
present in flow channel. Gas transport within electrodes is
dominated by diffusion.
Velocity scale could also affect transport

*
22
mechanism
11
Transport in Electrodes: Diffusive
Transport
Flow Flow Anode Catalyst Electrolyte
Structure channel Electrode Layer
Reactants (R) In
An electrochemical JR
reaction on catalyst layer jrxn
JP
side of an electrode and Products (P) Out
convective mixing on the

other flow channel side of c *P
c Ro Reaction in catalyst
layer consumes R,
the electrode set up Concentration
generates P
concentration gradients,
leading to diffusive
transport across the c Po c R*
electrode.
Schematic of mass transport situation within
typical fuel cell electrode
23
Faraday’s Law
• From Faraday’s Law : current i evolved by an
electrochemical reaction is a direct measure of
the rate of electrochemical reaction i = dQ = nF dN
dt dt
– n is the number of electrons transferred,

– F is Faradays constant, 96,485 C/mol,
dN
– dt
is the rate of electrochemical reaction, mol/s.
i  1 dN 
• *The current density j=
A
= nF   = nFJ
 A dt 
– J is the molar flux, mol/cm2s.

24
12
Transport in Electrode: Diffusive Transport
• At steady state, the diffusion flux of reactants and
products down the concentration gradient across the
electrode (diffusion layer) will exactly match the
consumption/production rate of reactants and products
at the catalyst layer.
• Diffusion flux (kmol/m2s) of reactants to the catalyst
layer may be described by dc J = − D eff c *R − c Ro
J diff = − D
dx
diff
δ
eff c R − c R
* o
• From Faraday’s Law j = − nFD

δ
• Using the flux balance equation, one can solve for
reactant concentration in the catalyst layer
jδ
*
cR = cR −
0
25
nFD eff
Transport in Electrode: Diffusive

Transport
cR0
jL = nFD eff
• Limiting Current Density, jL δ
• Limiting current density of fuel cell will be encountered
when reactant concentration in the catalyst layer drops
all the way to zero.
• Fuel cell mass transport design strategies focus on
increasing the limiting current density by:
1. Ensuring a high reactant concentration at flow channel by
designing good flow structures that even distribute reactants
2. Ensuring that effective diffusivity is large and diffusion layer
thickness is small by carefully optimizing fuel cell operating
conditions, electrode structure, and diffusion layer thickness.
• Theoretical typical jL are on the order of 1-10A/cm2
26
13
Question 1
1. Discuss the factors that determine jL,
limiting current density. List three ways to
increase jL.
27
Answer for Question 1

•Answer 0
c
The limiting current density is given by j = nFD δ
eff R
L
Factors determining the jL are reactant concentration at flow

channel, effective diffusivity and diffusion layer thickness. We
could increase jL by
– Ensuring a high reactant concentration at flow
channel by designing good flow structures that
even distribute reactants
– Ensuring effective diffusivity is large;
– Ensuring diffusion layer thickness is small
• by carefully optimizing fuel cell operating
conditions, electrode structure, and diffusion
layer thickness
28
14
Typical process of reactant
transport to reactant sites
• If considering the convection mass transfer across electrode surface,
how is the limiting current density being derived?
x=H
Diffusion and
Convection, hm Diffusion reaction
o
c R
c Rs
Flow channel Reactant molar

flux, JR c *R
x HE
x=0
Gas Diffusion Catalyst Layer

Layer (porous) (porous)
29
Process of reactant transport to reactant sites

Convection mass transfer at the electrode surface
(
J = hm c Ro − c Rs ) (1)
Diffusion mass transport through the Gas Diffusion Layer

 c s − c R* 
J = D eff  R  (2)
 HE 
Combining Equation 1 & 2
c Ro − c R* 1 H
J= ∑R = + effE (3)
∑ Rm
m
hm D
From Faraday’s Law, current density is proportional to the rate of

electrochemical reaction
 1 H 
i  1 dN 
j = = nF   = nFJ j = nF  + effE (C Ro − C R* ) (4)
A  A dt   m D 
h
−1
 1 H  o
Limiting current density jL = nF  + effE  CR (5) 30
 hm D 
15
Transport in Electrode: Diffusive
Transport
• Concentration affects fuel cell performance through reaction
kinetics.
• This is because reaction kinetics also depend on the reactant and
product concentration at the reaction sites.
• Reactant depletion/product accumulation in the catalyst layers
lead to fuel cell performance loss.
• This is called fuel cell concentration (or mass transport) loss.
RT  1  jL
ηconc = 1 + 
nF  α  jL − j
• ηconc - Voltage loss due to reactant depletion in the catalyst layer
• Increasing jL can greatly extend a fuel cell’s potential operating
range; therefore mass transport design is an active area of
current fuel cell research.
31
Question 2
2. Using the limiting current density equation, calculate
the limiting current density for a fuel cell cathode
running on air at 1 Atm and 25°C. Assume only O2 and
N2 and ignore the presence of water vapor. Mass
fraction of O2 in air is 0.23. Assume the diffusion layer
is 500µm and has a porosity of 40%.
• Hint* : Using Chapman-Enskog theory (Chp 5, Cussler)

to find the binary diffusion coefficient, and
Bruggemann correction to account for the effective
diffusivity in porous structure. Molar concentration for
O2 can be obtained by mole fraction of O2 multiply by
the total molar concentration for the air mixture. n is
the number of electrons consumed per mole of the
reactant consumed. Molecular weight for N2 and O2
are 28 and 32, respectively
32
16
Answer for Question 2
• In the H2-O2 fuel cell, the electrochemical reaction at
the cathode is given by O2 + 4H+ + 4e → H2O. Hence
n = 4. F is the Faraday constant, 96,485 C/mol. The
binary diffusion coefficient is given by Chapman-
Enskog theory.σO2 = 3.467. σN2 = 3.798. σO2-N2 =
3.6325. From the necessary calculation, Ω = 0.9186.
Therefore, Dij = 2x10-5 m2/s. From Bruggemann
correction Dij,eff = 5.06 x 10-6 m2/s. From the ideal gas
equation, total molar concentration for the mixture is =
40.9 mol/m3. Molecular weight for the mixture O2-N2 is
= 28.92. Mole faction of O2 = = 0.20786. Therefore,
molar concentration of O2 = 8.5015 mol/m3. Limiting
current density = 33,204 A/m2 = 3.32A/cm2
33
Transport in Flow Structure:

Convective Transport
• Fuel cell flow structures are designed to distribute
reactants across fuel cell
• One could possibly use single-chamber structure, and
encapsulate the entire fuel cell collector in a single
compartment. Unfortunately, this would make reactants
tend to stagnant inside the chamber, leading to poor
reactant distribution and high mass transport losses;
hence poor fuel cell performance
• Conversely, employing intricate flow structure containing
many small flow channels keeps the reactants constantly
flowing across fuel cell, encouraging uniform convection,
mixing and homogenous reactant distribution.
34
17
Convective Transport Contd
• Analyzing convective gas transport in the
complex real world flow structures is only really
possible with numerical methods. A common
technique is to use CFD modeling
• However, basic analysis of simple flow scenarios

is still possible with the principle of fluid
mechanics, which can still yield great insight into
fuel cell mass transport and flow structure
design
35

Inlet Outlet
u
x Dh
y JC
Convection transfer at surface
JD
Diffusion Electrode
Membrane
• Pressure difference between inlet and outlet drives the fluid flow.
• Although gas flowing in stream-wise direction along flow channel,
convective mass transport can also occur in transverse direction from
flow channel into (or out of) electrode. This happens when
concentration of species i is different at the electrode surface versus
the flow channel bulk.
36
18
• Mass flux (kg/m2s) due to convective mass transfer
may be estimated by
(
J C ,i = hm ρi , s − ρi )
• Mass transfer convection coefficient, hm, is dependent
on the channel geometry, the physical properties of
species i and j, and the wall conditions. It can be found
from the nondimensional Sherwood number
Dij
hm = Sh
Dh
37

• Gas is depleted along flow channel
• As hydrogen or air is consumed continuously along
a flow channel, the reactants tend to become
depleted, especially near the outlet. Depletion poses
adverse effect on fuel cell performance, since
concentration losses increase as reactant
concentrations decrease.
• A simple 2D mass transport model for fuel cell
cathode is developed. This is to determine how the
oxygen concentration decreases along flow channel
using macro-scale mass flux balance.
• Refer to Note 1 for O2 mass concentration profile
*
along cathode catalyst layer.
* important 38
19
Transport in Flow Structure: Convective
Transport
y Gas is depleted along flow channel
To find oxygen concentration profile along the catalyst

layer
Electrolyte
RXN
J O2
y =C Cathode catalyst layer
C
DIFF
J O2
y=E Gas diffusion layer HE
E CONV
uin J O2
y=E
ρO ρO HC
2 2
Cathode flow channel x
Schematic of a 2D fuel cell transport model including diffusion and convection
39
Convective Transport in Flow Structure :

Assumptions
1. Steady state and isothermal operation
2. Flow channel has a square cross section.
3. The catalyst layer is infinitely thin.
4. Water exists only in vapor form.
5. Diffusive mass transport dominates in
the diffusion layer. Furthermore, only y-
direction diffusion is considered.
6. Convection mass transport dominates in
the flow channel
40
20
From Faraday’s Law, if fuel cell is producing a current density at location X,
then the O2 mass flux (kg/cm2s) that is consuming is given by
j( X )
^ rxn
J O2 = M O2 (1)
x = X , y =C 4F
The O2 flux consumed by the electrochemical reaction must be provided by
diffusion in the gas diffusion layer, described by Fick’s law
^ diff ρO x = X , y =C
− ρ O2
x= X , y=E
= − DOeff2
2
J O2 (2)
x= X , y=E HE
O2 mass flux due to mass transport through the gas diffusion layer is provided
by convective mass transport between the flow channel and gas diffusion layer
conv
= − hm  ρ O2 
^
J O2 − ρ O2
x= X , y=E  x= X , y=E x = X , y = channel  (3)
41
Mass flux balance between convective transport in flow

structure and diffusion transport in GDL
1. O2 mass flux consumed by the

electrochemical reaction at the catalyst
layer
2. O2 mass flux due to diffusion mass
transport through the gas diffusion layer
3. O2 mass flux provided by convective
mass transport between the flow channel
and gas diffusion layer surface.
Mass flux 1 = Mass flux 2 = Mass flux 342
21
To maintain the flux balance, O2 mass flux in equations 1, 2 & 3 must be same
^ rxn ^ diff ^ conv
J O2 = J O2 = J O2 (4)
x = X , y =C x= X , y= E x= X , y= E
The following relations can be derived

j(X )
^ diff
J O2 = M O2 (5)
x= X , y=E 4F
j( X ) H E
ρO x = X , y =C
= ρO2
x= X , y=E
− M O2 (6)
2
4 F DOeff2
j(X ) 1
ρO = ρ O2 − M O2 (7)
2 x= X , y=E x = X , y = channel 4 F hm 43

Couple y direction O2 mass transport in the diffusion layer to the x direction O2
mass transport in the flow channel by considering the overall flux balance in
the control volume (dotted box)
^ conv
X
u in H C ρ O2 − u in H C ρ O2 = ∫ J O2 dx (8)
x = 0 , y = channel x = X , y = channel 0
y=E
O2 leaving out of the top of the control volume can be related to the current
density produced by fuel cell.
j (x )
conv
^
∫
X
dx = ∫ M O2
X
J O2 dx (9)
0
y=E
0 4F
Combining equations 6, 7, 8 & 9
M O2  j ( X ) H E j ( X ) X j (x ) 
ρO = ρ O2 −  + +∫ dx  (10)
2 x = X , y =C x = X , y = channel 
4 F  hm eff
DO2 0 u in H C  44
22
Assume current density is constant along the x direction
j  1 H X 

ρO = ρ O2 − M O2 + E +
2 x = X , y =C x = X , y = channel 4 F  hm DOeff2 u in H C 

(11)
hm can be determined based on constant-flux Sherwood number
ShF DO2
hm =
HC (12)
Final expression for oxygen concentration profile along the catalyst layer
j  H C H X 

ρO = ρ O2 − M O2 + E +
2 x = X , y =C x = X , y = channel 4 F  ShF DO2 DOeff2 u in H C 

(13)
45
Linear profile

Three terms that affect O2 concentration profile at the
reaction site for fuel cell are
1.Inlet flow velocity, uin
– Supplying more O2 improves mass transport, thus
increasing O2 concentration at the catalyst layer
2.Diffusion layer thickness, HE
– Decreasing diffusion layer thickness also increases the
O2 concentration at the catalyst layer.
3.Channel size, HC
– A little tricky as HC appears in both numerator of the
first term and denominator of third term in the
parentheses. However, with constant volume flow rate,
uinHC is constant. Therefore, decreasing channel size
will increase the O2 concentration.
46
23
• Flow Structure Pattern
• Flow plate typically contain dozen or even
hundreds of fine channels (or groves) to
homogenously distribute gas flow over the fuel
cell surface. The shape, size and pattern of
flow channels can significantly affect fuel cell
performance.
• In PEMFCs, flow field design effort often focus
on the water removal capability of cathode
side.
47

•
Three basic flow structure patterns are Outlet
1. Parallel flow
 Low overall pressure drop between gas inlet and
outlet
 However, when the width of the flow field is relatively
large, flow distribution in each channel may not be
uniform Inlet
Outlet
2. Serpentine flow
 Excellent water removal capability, as only one flow
path exists in the pattern and liquid water is forced to
exit the channel
 However, in large area cell, serpentine design leads
to large pressure drop Inlet
3. Interdigitated flow Outlet

 Promotes forced convection of the reactant gases
through the gas diffusion layer.
 Far better water management, leading to improved
mass transport
 Significant pressure drop, but possible to be
overcome by employing extremely small rib spacing. Inlet 48
24
Analytical Modelling with MATLAB
• Motivation
• Shorter turnaround time
• Accessibility
• Working with basics: enhancing understanding
Issues:
• Oversimplification
• Disregard for physical factors
• Incapable of complex reality simulations
Way out:
• Compare results with numerical methods
49
Analytical Modelling with MATLAB

• Working directly with equations :
parametric study
• Basics:
• Conservation of Momentum
• Conservation of Mass
• Conservation of Energy
• Conservation of Species
• Conservation of Charge
50
25
Modelling different components
• Cathode gas flow field

– Cathode: rate determining reaction
– Falls first in the flow of events taking place in
the fuel cell
– Can define the inlet conditions and assess the
resulting effects without considering other
components
– Single channel flow field for simplicity
51
Cathode Gas flow channel
(b)
(c)
Charge Conductor Gas Diffusion Layer
(a) Flow Channel
Figure 6 (a): PEM Fuel Cell Structure; (b): GDL and Current Conductor assembly;
(c): Flow Channel dimensions – w=width, d=depth, L=length
52
26
Limiting current density
• theoretical maximum value of the current density

• calculated by assuming zero concentration of oxygen at
the GDL/cathode catalyst layer interface
(C m ,in − C m ,out ) C m,out − hm L
i L = nFhm [ ] = exp
C m ,in
ln( ) C m ,in vm d
C m ,out
Di , j 4⋅d ⋅w
hm = Sh Dh = [ ]
Dh 2( d + w)
53
Assumptions
• The fuel cell system is assumed to be operating at a constant temperature
• Fuel cell operating pressure is assumed to be constant
• Velocity in the gas flow channel is assumed to be constant
• The cell is in steady state operation
• The current density is assumed to be constant on the electrode surface
• Chamber gases are assumed to be of uniform composition
• Ideal gas properties are observed by all gases
• Incompressible and laminar flow in flow channel
• Isotropic and homogeneous membrane and electrode structures
• Negligible ohmic potential drop in solid components
• The mass and energy transport is modeled from macro-perspective using volume-
averaged conservation equations
Any model is only as good as the assumptions it is based upon are valid – Franco Barbir
54
27
(Analytical) Procedure
(C m ,in − C m ,out )
• Eqn in question: i L = nFhm [ C m ,in
]
ln( )
C m ,out
• Two cases: Square and Rectangular cross section
• Range: L – 10cm-30cm; w – 1mm-5mm; d – 1mm-5mm
• ‘for’ loop and data point for iL for every 10μm of channel
depth/width, and for every 100μmm of channel length
for i=100:500 for i=100:500 for i=1000:3000

d(i) = i/100000; w(i) = i/100000; channel_length(i) = i/10000;
*Refer to Appendix for MATLAB code
55
Square cross section
56
28
Square cross section
Channel Lenght/Channel Depth (L/d) 90 10
Maximum Limiting Current Density

85 9.5
9
80
8.5
(iLmax) / Acm-2
75
8
70
7.5
65
7
60
6.5
55
6
50 5.5
45 5 L/d
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Channel Length (L) / m (iLmax)
57
Rectangular cross section: iL v. d
w=1mm w=3mm w=5mm
58
29
Rectangular cross section
14 80
13
Maximum Limiting Current Density
70
Channel Lenght/Channel Depth (L/d)

12
60
11
(iLmax) / Acm-2
50
10
iLmax (w=3mm)
40
9
30
iLmax (w=5mm)
8
20
7 L/d (w=3mm)
6 10
L/d (w=5mm)
5 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Channel Length (L)/ m
59
Rectangular cross section: iL v. w
d=1.5mm d=3mm d=5mm
60
30
Rectangular cross section: iL v. L
d=1 mm d=3mm d=5mm
61
Analytical Approach - Discussion

• Square cross section: There exist optimum channel depths (widths)
• Rectangular cross section:
o channel length iL
o channel width iL for lower depths (d< ~ 1-2.5mm depending upon L),
channel width iL for higher channel depths
o channel depth iL for a very narrow channel,
There exist optimum channel depths for channels wider than ~ 1.5mm
62
31
Closing Remarks
• Mass transport is critical for enhanced fuel

cell performance – solution could be
obtained through simple analytical or more
complicated computational fuel cell
dynamics simulation
• All fuel cell model necessarily incorporates
assumptions - accuracy is strongly
dependent on validity of assumptions
63
Analytical Approach - Conclusion

• Establish the relation between geometric parameters and corresponding
performance of the fuel cell (in terms of current density)
• Analytical and numerical studies did not coincide, mainly due to the
assumptions with which the analytical study is carried out
• Numerical trend for change in values for current density v. channel depth
was similar to the analytical one – a big positive!
64
32
Acknowledgements
• Erik Birgersson, Department of Chemical
and Bio-molecular Engineering, NUS
• Rina Lum, IHPC
• Agus Pulung Sasmito, NUS
• Narissara Bussayajarn, SIMTech
• Xing Xiuqing & Wu Yanling, IHPC
• Gaurav Pundir, NUS
65
33
APPNDIX B: MATLAB CODE [SQ CS – LCD v CD]
% Square cross section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff lengths
T=25; % Fuel Cell operating temperature in degrees

C
air_velocity = 2; % Air velocity (m/s)
temperature = T+273; % Temperature in K
reference_temperature = 273; % Reference Temperature
meu = 15.89e-6; % Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
D_O2_N2_at_reference = 1.84e-5; % Diffusion coefficient
Sh=4.86; % Sherwood no (uniform surface concentration)
X_O2 = 0.21; % Mole fraction of
Oxygen
R=8.314; % Ideal Gas Constant
P=101.325; % Pressure (kPa)
n=4; % Number of electrons transferred per mol of
reactant consumed
F=96487; % Faraday's constant
% Define different channel lengths

channel_length1=0.1;
% Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient

D_o2_n2 = D_O2_N2_at_reference*(temperature/reference_temperature)^1.5;
% The concentration of oxygen at channel inlet

C_O2_in = 1000*X_O2*P/(R*temperature);
for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;
% Hydraullic diameter equal to 2LW/(L+W)

D_k(i) = d(i);
% Calculate Reynold's number
RE(i) = air_velocity*D_k(i)/meu;
% Binary diffusivity coefficient

h_m(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k(i);
% Channel outlet O2 concentration and limiting current density for different
channel lengths
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m(i)*(C_O2_in -
C_O2_out1(i))/log(C_O2_in/C_O2_out1(i))/10000;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel depth

plot(d(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), d(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
d(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), d(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', d(100:500),
limitng_current_density21(100:500), '--')
APPNDIX C: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS – LCD v CD (W = ?mm)]

% Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff lengths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel width (in mm) before running the
code
T=25; % Fuel Cell operating temperature in

degrees C
Sh=4.86; % Sherwood number
(uniform surface concentration)
Oxygen
w=?e-3; % Channel width (m)
reactant consumed



for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;

D_k(i) = 2*w*d(i)/(w+d(i));

% The concentration of oxygen at channel outlet

end

APPNDIX D: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS – LCD v CD (L = ?m)]
%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel depth for diff widths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel length (in m) before running the
code
T=25; % Fuel Cell operating

temperature in degrees C
Oxygen
reactant consumed
channel_length=?; % Channel Length (m)
% Define different channel widths

w1=1e-3;
w2=1.5e-3;
w3=2e-3;
w4=2.5e-3;
w5=3e-3;
w6=3.5e-3;
w7=4e-3;
w8=4.5e-3;
w9=5e-3


for i=100:500
d(i) = i/100000;

D_k1(i) = 2*w1*d(i)/(w1+d(i));

RE1(i) = air_velocity*D_k1(i)/meu;

h_m1(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1(i);

C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1(i)*channel_length/(d(i)*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1(i)*(C_O2_in -
D_k2(i) = 2*w2*d(i)/(w2+d(i));
h_m2(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2(i);
D_k3(i) = 2*w3*d(i)/(w3+d(i));
h_m3(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3(i);
D_k4(i) = 2*w4*d(i)/(w4+d(i));
h_m4(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4(i);
D_k5(i) = 2*w5*d(i)/(w5+d(i));
h_m5(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5(i);
D_k6(i) = 2*w6*d(i)/(w6+d(i));
h_m6(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6(i);
D_k7(i) = 2*w7*d(i)/(w7+d(i));
h_m7(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7(i);
D_k8(i) = 2*w8*d(i)/(w8+d(i));
h_m8(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8(i);
D_k9(i) = 2*w9*d(i)/(w9+d(i));
h_m9(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9(i);
end

APPNDIX E: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS – LCD v CW (D = ?mm)]
%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel width for diff lengths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel depth (in mm) before running the
code

C
Oxygen
d=?e-3; % Channel depth (m)
reactant consumed



for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;

D_k(i) = 2*w(i)*d/(w(i)+d);



C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m(i)*channel_length1/(d*air_velocity));
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel width

plot(w(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density2(100:500), w(100:500), limitng_current_density3(100:500),
w(100:500), limitng_current_density4(100:500), w(100:500),
limitng_current_density8(100:500), ':', w(100:500),
limitng_current_density15(100:500), '--', w(100:500),
APPNDIX F: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS – LCD v CW (L = ?m)]

%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel width for diff depths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel length (in m) before running the
code

C
Oxygen
reactant consumed
channel_length=?; % Channel Length (m)
% Define different channel depths

d1=1e-3;
d2=1.5e-3;
d3=2e-3;
d4=2.5e-3;
d5=3e-3;
d6=3.5e-3;
d7=4e-3;
d8=4.5e-3;
d9=5e-3

for i=100:500
w(i) = i/100000;

D_k1(i) = 2*w(i)*d1/(w(i)+d1);


h_m1(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1(i);

C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1(i)*channel_length/(d1*air_velocity));
D_k2(i) = 2*w(i)*d2/(w(i)+d2);
h_m2(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2(i);
D_k3(i) = 2*w(i)*d3/(w(i)+d3);
h_m3(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3(i);
D_k4(i) = 2*w(i)*d4/(w(i)+d4);
h_m4(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4(i);
D_k5(i) = 2*w(i)*d5/(w(i)+d5);
h_m5(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5(i);
D_k6(i) = 2*w(i)*d6/(w(i)+d6);
h_m6(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6(i);
D_k7(i) = 2*w(i)*d7/(w(i)+d7);
h_m7(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7(i);
D_k8(i) = 2*w(i)*d8/(w(i)+d8);
h_m8(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8(i);
D_k9(i) = 2*w(i)*d9/(w(i)+d9);
h_m9(i) = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9(i);
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel width

plot(w(100:500), limitng_current_density1(100:500), w(100:500),
APPNDIX G: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS – LCD v CL (d = ?m)]
%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel length for diff widths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel depth (in mm) before running the
code

degrees C
Oxygen
d=?e-3; % Channel width (m)
reactant consumed
% Define different channel width

w1=1e-3;
w2=1.5e-3;
w3=2e-3;
w4=2.5e-3;
w5=3e-3;
w6=3.5e-3;
w7=4e-3;
w8=4.5e-3;
w9=5e-3;


for i=1000:3000
channel_length(i) = i/10000;

D_k1 = 2*w1*d/(w1+d);

RE1 = air_velocity*D_k1/meu;

h_m1 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1;

C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1*channel_length(i)/(d*air_velocity));
limitng_current_density1(i) = n*F*h_m1*(C_O2_in -
D_k2 = 2*w2*d/(w2+d);
h_m2 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2;
D_k3 = 2*w3*d/(w3+d);
h_m3 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3;
D_k4 = 2*w4*d/(w4+d);
h_m4 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4;
D_k5 = 2*w5*d/(w5+d);
h_m5 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5;
D_k6 = 2*w6*d/(w6+d);
h_m6 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6;
D_k7 = 2*w7*d/(w7+d);
h_m7 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7;
D_k8 = 2*w8*d/(w8+d);
h_m8 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8;
D_k9 = 2*w9*d/(w9+d);
h_m9 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel length

plot(channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density1(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density2(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density8(1000:3000), ':',
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density9(1000:3000), ':')
APPNDIX H: MATLAB CODE [RCT CS – LCD v CL (w = ?m)]
%Rectangular x-section, limiting current density v channel length for diff depths
% Replace highlighted ? with relevant channel width (in mm) before running the
code

degrees C
Oxygen
w=?e-3; % Channel width (m)
n=4; % Number of electrons transferred per mol of reactant
consumed
% Define different channel depth

d1=1e-3;
d2=1.5e-3;
d3=2e-3;
d4=2.5e-3;
d5=3e-3;
d6=3.5e-3;
d7=4e-3;
d8=4.5e-3;
d9=5e-3;


for i=1000:3000
channel_length(i) = i/10000;

D_k1 = 2*w*d1/(w+d1);


h_m1 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k1;
C_O2_out1(i) = C_O2_in*exp(-h_m1*channel_length(i)/(d1*air_velocity));
D_k2 = 2*w*d2/(w+d2);
h_m2 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k2;
D_k3 = 2*w*d3/(w+d3);
h_m3 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k3;
D_k4 = 2*w*d4/(w+d4);
h_m4 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k4;
D_k5 = 2*w*d5/(w+d5);
h_m5 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k5;
D_k6 = 2*w*d6/(w+d6);
h_m6 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k6;
D_k7 = 2*w*d7/(w+d7);
h_m7 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k7;
D_k8 = 2*w*d8/(w+d8);
h_m8 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k8;
D_k9 = 2*w*d9/(w+d9);
h_m9 = Sh*D_o2_n2/D_k9;
end
% Plot limiting current density v channel length

plot(channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density1(1000:3000),
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density8(1000:3000), ':',
channel_length(1000:3000), limitng_current_density9(1000:3000), ':')
Heat Transfer in Fluidized
Beds-An Overview
1/13/2011
Special Topic in ME6204 Convective Heat

Transfer:
Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds-An Overview
Professor A. S. Mujumdar
ME Department, NUS, 2011
Contents
Introduction
Particle Characterization
Flow past spheres, non-spheres
Heat transfer from spheres under large Re range
Fluid Beds – Concept and modifications
Geldart’s Classification
Heat Transfer
Bed to Immersed Surface Heat Transfer – Correlations
Sample Calculations
FB Drying – Plug flow vs Well-mixed
Fluid be combustion (Simple Model)
Example of Fluid Bed Calculation
Closing Remarks
1
1/11/2011
Introduction
• fluidized bed describes a finely granulated layer of solid material (referred to as “the
mass”) that is loosened by fluid flowing through to such an extent that the particles
of solid material are free to move to a certain degree
• It is called “fluidized” because the solid material takes on properties similar to those
of a fluid (liquid)
• Fluidized beds are used widely in engineering for applications such as combustion,
reactors, drying, gasification of coal/biomass, thermal treatments of metal and
powder coating, granulation, heat transfer etc ……
• Gas-solid fluidized systems are characterized by temperature uniformity and high

heat transfer coefficients, due to the intense mixture of the solid material by the
presence of gas bubbles
• Liquid- solid fluidized beds have also been used for wide applications
• Heat transfer in fluid beds can be from Fluid – Particle, Particle – Fluid, Wall – Fluid
and to immersed surfaces, if any- care needed in calculation method used!
2
1/11/2011
Particle Characterization
Particle Size
6Vp 1⁄3
Volume Diameter (dV) dv = �
π
�
S p 1 ⁄2
Surface Diameter (dS) d S =� �
π
6V p d 3v
Surface-Volume Diameter (dSV) dSv = =
S p d 2s
Sieve Diameter
18μU t
Stokes Diameter (dst) d st =�
�ρ p −ρ s �g
Free Falling Diameter

Drag Diameter
Projected Area Diameter
Feret Diameter
Martin Diameter ….etc
Commonly used for applications in packed and fluid bed

VP – Volume of the particle; SP – Surface area of the particle;
Ut – terminal settling velocity of the particle
Particle Characterization contd……
Shape Equivalent particle diameter, dp = dsv = 6/as
Sphere dp = diameter of sphere
Cylinder with length (ly) equal to dp = dy , the diameter of cylinder

diameter (dy)
Cylinder dy ≠ ly 6dy
dp = � �
4 + 2 dy ⁄ly
Ring with outside diameter of do, and dp = 1.5�do − di �
inside diameter of di
Mixed sizes 1
dp =
∑i �xi ⁄dpi �
Irregular shapes with ф = 0.5 to 0.7 dp = ф dv ; dv ≈ dA
Table: Suggested equivalent particle diameters for catalysts in catalytic reactor application
3
1/11/2011
Particle Characterization contd……
Particle Shape
Sphericity (ф)
Surface area of volume equivalent sphere
ф=
Surface area of particle
Circularity (⊄)
Circumference of a circle having same
cross − sectional area as the particle
⊄=
Actual Perim eter of the cross −section
Operational Sphericity and Circularity

Heywood Shape Factor
Vp
k= 3 d a =�4A p ⁄π
da
Particle Density
da – Projected area diameter; AP – Projected area; Vp – Volume of particle
Methods for Direct Characterization

Sieve Analysis
In U.S. – Taylor sieve size and U.S. Sieve size
In Europe – British standard and German DIN sieve size
Mesh Number – number of parallel wires per inch
Imaging Techniques: Direct measurements using enlarged photographic or electronic images
of microscope
Optical microscope (1µm to 150 µm)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM, 5µm to 0.01 µm)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM , 5µm to 0.01 µm)
Gravity and Centrifugal Sedimentation
Characterization by Elutriation
Cascade Impaction Technique
Resistivity and Optical Zone Sensing Techniques
Coulter Counter
4
1/11/2011
Particle size ranges for various methods
Particle sizing method Applicable particle Measured Dimension

size (mm)
Sieving
Dry >10 Sieve diameter
Wet 2 – 500
Microscopic examination
Optical 1.0 – 100 Length, Projected Area
Electronic 0.01 – 500 Statistical diameter
Zone Sensing
Resistivity 0.6 – 1200 Volume
Optical 1.0 – 800
Elutriation
Laminar Flow 3 – 75 Stokes diameter
Cyclone 8 – 50
Gravity Sedimentation
Pipette and hydrometer 1 – 100 Stokes diameter
Photoextinction 0.5 – 100
X-ray 0.1 – 130
Mechanical Properties of Particles
Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI)

Higher the HGI higher the grindability of material
Attrition Index
Important in fluidization, can affect entrainment and elutriation
Solids impaction on plate
Abrasiveness Index
factor used to determine the effective rate of wear of the
aforementioned consumables
Erosiveness Index
5
1/11/2011
Dimensionless numbers
Dimensionless numbers of interest
Significance For FB Heat Transfer
Flow passed over a single particle

Drag force resisting very slow steady relative motion between a
rigid particle (sphere) of diameter dP and a fluid of infinite extent of
viscosity µ is composed of two components
Total drag force resisting motion
Where ur is the relative velocity
This is known as the stokes law and is valid mainly for
This also hold true up to with some error
ReP = Ur dP ρf / μ
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1/11/2011
Flow passed over a single particle
Particle Drag Coefficient

Ratio of force on the particle and the fluid dynamic
pressure caused by the fluid times the projected
Ur AP F
area of the particle
F 1
C D =� � F = CD ρf Ur2 AP
�1⁄2�ρ f U 2r A P 2
Drag Coefficient CD is a function of particle’s Reynolds number
Three different regimes based on the magnitude of ReP
For the Stokes Regime
0.3 < (Re)P
The Intermediate Regime CD = ��ReP � 0.3 < (Re)P < 500

Dallavalle (1948)
Schiller & Naumann 1933

The Newton’s Law Regime CD = 0.44 (Re)P > 500
Drag coefficient for different shapes
Drag Coefficient against Reynolds Number (Re)
7
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Particle falling under gravity through a fluid
The general force acting on particle are gravity, buoyancy, drag
Gravity - Buoyancy - Drag = Acceleration Flow
For spherical particle (for acceleration = 0)

Fb
Now
So equation becomes
Ut is called as terminal settling velocity of the particle

On solving for CD
Particle falling under gravity through a fluid
For Stokes law Regime
Hence
In stokes law regime the terminal settling velocity is proportional to the squere of the
particle diameter
In the Newton’s Law Regime CD = 0.44
In the Newton’s law regime the terminal settling velocity is proportional to the square
root of particle diameter and independent of viscocity
8
1/11/2011
Multiple particle system

The motion of each particle is affected by the presence of others
Simple analysis for the fluid particle interaction is not valid but can be adopted to
model the multiple particle system
For suspension of particles the stokes law is assumed to apply but an effective
suspension viscosity and effective average suspension density is assumed
Effective suspension viscosity µe = µ / f(ε)
Average suspension density = ρave = ε ρf + (1-ε) ρP

where ε is the voidage or volume fraction occupied by fluid
For suspension of particles the drag coefficient in stokes law regime becomes
where
And Ur is the relative velocity of particle

Under terminal velocity condition for a particle falling under gravity in a suspension the
force balance
Substituting µe and ρave
Urel,t is known as the particle settling velocity in presence of other particles or Hindered
Settling Velocity
9
1/11/2011

f(ε) was shown theoretically by Einstein to be
For uniform sphere forming a suspension of solid column fraction less than 0.1
Or (1-ε) < 0.1,
Richardson and Zaki have given the values of f(ε)
for stokes regime to be
For Newton’s Regime
Characterization of Multiple Particle System
Different definitions of average particle diameter

∑� ��
Arithmetic Mean �� =
∑� � �
2
∑� ��
Surface Mean �� = �
∑� ��
Volume Mean 3 ∑ � �3
� � ��
�� = �
∑� ��
Volume Surface Mean 3

∑� ��
�� = 2
∑� ��
3
Weight Mean 4
∑� ��
�� = � �� = Where �� = ∑ 3
� ��
3
∑� ��
�
Length Mean 2
∑� ��
�� =
∑� ��
10
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Fluid Beds - Basics
Fluidized beds: Particle

suspended in an upward gas
stream
11
1/11/2011
Pressure drop in fixed beds
Pressure drop through packed bed / fixed bed of uniform

sized solids is correlated by Ergun equation
It has two factors, viscous force and the kinetic energy force
At low Reynolds number only viscous losses predominate
At high Reynolds number only kinetic energy losses need to be considered
Pressure drop & Minimum Fluidization Velocity
At the onset of fluidization, the gravity force on the particles in the bed must be
balanced by the drag, buoyancy, and pressure forces.
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1/11/2011
The umf, the superficial velocity at minimum fluidizing condition is found by using
expression for ∆p/L
In a simplified form
For small particles (ReP < 20)
Or
for larger particles the simplified form is
or
Wen and Yu have found for variety of systems

and
for small particles the simplified form is
For larger particles (ReP > 20)
For whole range of Reynolds number
13
1/11/2011
Geldart’s Classification
A: Aeratable (Umb > Umf) Material has significant deaeration time (FCC Catalyst)
B: Bubbles Above (Umb = Umf) 500 micron sand
C: Cohesive (Flour, Fly Ash)
D: Spoutable (wheat, 2000 micron polyethylene pellets)
Geldart’s Classification contd…
Group Characteristics and Properties

• Good fluidization quality, aeratable, easily fluidized, smooth at low
velocity and bubbling at higher velocity and slug at high velocity, bed
A expands, Good solids mixing
• Small mean particle size, low density, typically 30< dp <100μm and
ρ<1400 kgm-3.
• Good fluidization quality, sand-like particles, vigorous bubbling, slug

B at high velocity, small bed expansion, good solids mixing in bubbling
• Typically 40μm<dp<500μm, 1400kgm-3<ρ<4000kgm-3
• Bad fluidization quality, cohesive due to strong interparticle force,
C severe slugging and agglomeration, may generates electrostatic
charges, poor solids mixing.
• Fine and ultra-fine particles
• Poor fluidization quality, spoutable, difficult to fluidize in deep bed

D depth, large bubbles, severe channeling, relatively poor solids mixing
• Large and/or dense particles, typically dp >500μm, ρ>1400kgm-3
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15
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Fluidization Regimes
Velocity Increasing
Fluidization Regimes: Description
Velocity range Regime Fluidization Features and Appearance
0 ≤ U ≤ Umf Fixed Bed Particles are quiescent; gas flows through interstices
Umf ≤ U ≤ Umb Particulate Bed expands smoothly and homogeneously with small-scale particle
Regime motion; bed surface is well defined
Umb ≤ U ≤ Ums Bubbling Regime Gas bubbles form above distributor, coalesce and grow; gas bubbles
promote solids mixing during rise to surface and breakthrough
Ums ≤ U ≤ UC Slug flow Regime Bubble size approaches bed cross section; bed surface rises and falls
with regular frequency with corresponding pressure fluctuation
UC ≤ U ≤ Uk Transition to Pressure fluctuation decrease gradually until turbulent fluidization
turbulent regime is reached
Fluidization
Uk ≤ U ≤ Utr Turbulent Regime Small gas voids and particle clusters and streamers dart to and fro;
bed surface is diffused and difficult to distinguish
U ≥ Utr Fast Fluidization Particles are transported out of the bed and need to be replaced and
recycled; normally has a dense phase region at bottom coexisting
with a dilute phase region on top; no bed surface
U » Utr Pneumatic Usually a once-through operation; all particles fed are transported
Conveying out in dilute phase with concentration varying along the column
height; no bed surface
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Fluidization Regimes: Description
Transition between regimes

Equations have been published for transition lines
between various regimes. This map can be used to
identify the type of flow regime that will exist for a
given particle under specific flow conditions.
Smooth or particulate fluidization
Bubbling or aggregative fluidization
Slugging criteria
Design of distributor in fluidized beds
 Uniform gas sparging is govern by the effective design of gas distribution

system and is very important to have uniform heat transfer
 Parameter affecting performance of Gas distribution system comprise of;

 Gas Sparger geometry
 Gas chamber geometry
 Pressure drop across the gas distribution system
 A good distributor should;

 Obtain a spatially uniform gas distribution, without stagnant zones
 Prevent solids loss by leakage
 Minimize solid erosion
 Avoid choking of the distributor
 Have a definite and non-changing (with time) pressure drop for the gas
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Pressure Drop across the Distributor
The pressure drop across the distributor ΔPd is used as the criterion for
design, and ΔPd, values varying from 0.01 to 1.0 times the pressure drop
across the bed ΔPb have been suggested.
Siegel (1986):
ΔPd/ΔPb = 0.14 - 0.22 [Galileo number (1 - 10,000)]
Kunii & Levenspiel (1991):

ΔPd/ΔPb = 0.1 – 0.3
 Siegel, M. H., Merchuk, J.C., Schugerl, K., 1986. Air-Lift Reactor Analysis: Interrelationships between Riser,
Downcomer and Gas-Liquid Separator Behavior, including Gas Recirculation Effects. AIChE Journal 32(10),
1585-1595
 Kunni, D., Levenspiel, O., 1991. Fluidization Engineering, 2nd Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.
Nozzle Position (Litz, 1972)

Side entry:
H = 0.2D + 0.5D noz , when D noz > D 100
H = 18D noz , when Dnoz < D 100

Bottom entry:
H = 3(D − D noz ) , when D noz > D 36

H = 100D noz , when D noz < D 36
Where, D - diameter of gas distribution chamber

Dnoz - diameter of the nozzle
H - distance between the nozzle centerline and the
distributor plate
 Litz, W. J., 1972. Design of gas distributors. Chemical Engineering 13, 162-166.
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Different types of fluid beds / modifications
Example
A packed bed is composed of cubes 0.02 m on a side. The bulk density

of the packed bed, with air, is 980 kg/m3. The density of the solid cubes is
1500 kg/m3.
• Calculate the void fraction (ε) of the bed.

• Calculate the effective diameter (Dp) where Dp is the diameter of a sphere
having the equivalent volume.
• Determine the sphericity of the cubes.
• Estimate the minimum fluidization velocity using water at 38 C and a tower
diameter of 0.15 m.
Void Fraction
We know : Vbed = V fluid + Vsolids and Wbed = W fluid + Wsolids
ρ bedVbed = ρ fluidV fluid + ρ solidsVsolids
ρ solidsVsolids >> ρ fluid V fluid
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Example contd…..
ρbedVbed
Vbed −
ρ solids
∴ ρbedVbed ≅ ρ solidsVsolids and ε =
Vbed
kg
980 3
ρbed m
ε = 1− = 1− = 0.35
ρ solids kg
1500 3
m
Effective diameter Sphericity
π 6
3
a = D 3
p
Φs =
(6 π )1 3 a =  π 1 3 = 0.81
6  
6 6
(0.02)3 = π D 3p
a
∴ D p = 0.025m
6
Mimimum Fluidization Velocity
ρ f umf2
150(1 − ε mf )µ 
(ρ p − ρ f )g = 3 
+ 1.75
Φ s D p ε mf  Φ s D p umf ρ f 
 kg kg  m kg
1500 − 994  ∗ 9.80 2 = 4959 2 2
 m3 m3  s m s
Example contd…..
1
Φ sε mf
3
= ∴ ε mf = 0.445
14
kg 2
1.75 ∗ ρ f umf
2 1.75 ∗ 994 ∗ umf
m3 kg
= = 9.748 ×105 2 2 ∗ umf
2
Φ s D p ε mf
3
0.81∗ 0.025 ∗ (0.445)3 m s
 kg 
150 ∗ (1 − 0.445) ∗ (0.693 cp ) ∗  0.001  ∗ u mf
150 ∗ (1 − ε mf )µ ∗ umf  m s 
=
2 2
Φ s D p ε mf
3
(0.81) ∗ (0.025 m ) ∗ (0.445)
2 2 3
kg
= 1597 ∗ umf
m2s 2
kg kg kg
0 = 9.748 ×105 2
∗ u mf + 1597 2 2 ∗ u mf − 4959 2 2
m2 s 2 m s m s
m
umf = 0.071
s
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Heat Transfer in fixed and Fluidized beds
• Main advantage of fluidized beds is the extremely large area of solid surface
exposed to the fluidizing media
• High solid surface area greatly facilitates solid-to-gas heat transfer
• Because of the solids mixing generated within the bulk of a bubbling gas
fluidized bed, temperature gradients are reduced to negligible proportions
• High rates of heat transfer are obtainable between the fluidizing solids and
the immersed transfer surface
Particle-to-gas heat transfer
Bed-to-surface heat transfer
Use of immersed surfaces
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Heat Transfer in Fixed Beds

Heat transfer in fixed bed consists of following mechanisms
(1) conduction heat transfer between particles,
(2) convective heat transfer between particles and fluid,
(3) interaction of both (1) and (2),
(4) Radiative heat transfer between particles and the flowing gas
(5) Heat transfer between bed wall and bed particles
(1) Particle to fluid heat transfer
Heat transfer to single particle can be expressed as
Heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated as
(2) Heat transfer through wall (one dimensional model)
For homogeneous model, temperature of fluid and of bed are assumed identical
for and
Heat Transfer in Fixed Beds
(3) Heat transfer through wall (two dimensional model)
For homogeneous model,

temperature of fluid and of bed are assumed identical
for and
(4) Effective radial thermal conductivity
for and
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Heat Transfer in Fluid beds
Heat transfer in a bubbling fluidized bed

• Gas to particle heat transfer coefficients are typically small, of the order of 5 - 20 W/m2K
• However, because of the very large heat transfer surface area provided by a mass of small
particles, the heat transfer between gas and particles is rarely limiting in fluid bed heat
transfer
• One of the most commonly used correlations for gas-particle heat transfer coefficient is that
of Kunii and Levenspiel (only for low particle Reynolds numbers)
for
• Gas to particle heat transfer is relevant where a hot fluidized bed is fluidized by cold gas
• While following are the correlation suggested based on experimental data*
for
for
*Chen, J.C., Heat Transfer in handbook of fluidization and fluid systems, 2003
Analysis of Gas-particle heat transfer
The energy balance across the element gives
Integrating with boundary conditions Tg = Tg0 at L = 0
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The distance Ln, in which the gas-to-particle temperature falls by a factor
Is given by,
The distance over which the temperature distance is reduced to half its initial value,
L0.5 is then
A bed of 450µm particles is operating at 150˚C. The temperature and superficial velocity
of the incoming gas are 550˚C and 0.4 m/s, respectively. Approximately how far will
the incoming gas have penetrated into the bed before it is cooled to 350˚C
Gas physical properties can be estimated at average temperature over the specified
range. In this particular case the average temperature is 450˚C. Hence the physical
properties of air
Gas velocity at 450˚C for an inlet velocity of 0.4m/s at 550˚C will be 0.35m/s
24
1/11/2011
Bed to surface heat transfer

In a bubbling fluidized bed the coefficient of heat transfer between bed and immersed
surfaces (vertical bed walls or tubes) can be considered to be made up of three additive
components
The particle convective component hcp, which is dependent upon heat transfer
through particle exchange between the bulk of the bed and the region adjacent to
the transfer surface (heat transfer due to the motion of packets of solids carrying heat
to and from the surface)
The interphase gas convective component hgc, by which heat transfer between
particle and surface is augmented by interphase gas convective heat transfer
The radiant component of heat transfer hr
Thus,
Approximate range 40µm 1mm > 800 µm and at Higher temperatures

of significance higher static (> 900 K) and
pressure difference

Particle convective heat transfer
On a volumetric basis the solids in the fluidized bed have about one thousand times the
heat capacity of the gas and so, since the solids are continuously circulating within the
bed, they transport the heat around the bed. For heat transfer between the bed and a
surface the limiting factor is the gas conductivity, since all the heat must be transferred
through a gas film between the particles and the surface
Heat transfer from bed particles to an immersed surface
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1/11/2011

The particle-to-surface contact area is too small to allow significant heat transfer.
Factors affecting the gas film thickness or the gas conductivity will therefore influence
the heat transfer under particle convective conditions.
Decreasing particle size, for example, decreases the mean gas film thickness and so
improves hpc. However, reducing particle size into the Group C range will reduce
particle mobility and so reduce particle convective heat transfer. Increasing gas
temperature increases gas conductivity and so improves hpc.
Particle convective heat transfer is dominant in Group A and B powders. Increasing

gas velocity beyond minimum fluidization improves particle circulation and so
increases particle convective heat transfer.
The heat transfer coefficient increases with fluidizing velocity up to a broad maximum
hmax and then declines as the heat transfer surface becomes blanketed by bubbles.
Range of fluidized bed-to-surface heat transfer coefficients
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Effect of fluidizing gas velocity on bed – surface heat transfer coefficient

The maximum in hpc occurs relatively closer to Umf for Group B and D powders
since these powders give rise to bubbles at Umf and the size of these bubbles
increase with increasing gas velocity
Group A powders exhibit a non-bubbling fluidization between Umf and Umb and
achieve a maximum stable bubble size.
Zabrodsky (1966) has given correlation for hmax for group B particles
Khan (1978) has given correlation for hmax for group A particles
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Gas convective heat transfer
Gas convective heat transfer is not important in Group A and B powders where the flow of
interstitial gas is laminar but becomes significant in Group D powders, which fluidize at
higher velocities and give rise to transitional or turbulent flow of interstitial gas
In gas convective heat transfer the gas specific heat capacity is important as the gas
transports the heat around.
Gas specific heat capacity increases with increasing pressure and in conditions where gas
convective heat transfer is dominant, increasing operating pressure gives rise to an improved
heat transfer coefficient hgc.
Baskakov and Suprun (1972) has given correlation for hgc
where Um is the superficial velocity corresponding to the maximum overall bed heat transfer
coefficient

Gas convective heat transfer to immersed surfaces
Several approaches have been used to estimate hc
The most common approach assigns thermal resistance to a gaseous boundary layer at the
heat transfer surface, the enhancement of heat transfer is then attributed to the scouring
action of the solid particles on the gas film, decreasing the effective film thickness
Lava’s correlation (1952) for vertical surfaces, for larger particles, is
Wender and Cooper’s correlation (1958) for vertical tubes,
for
Where
Where r is the radial position of the heat transfer tube and Rb is the radius of the bed
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Gas convective heat transfer to immersed surfaces
Vreedenberg’s correlation (1958) for horizontal tubes,
Changed
Equation
for
and
for
Where

Radiative heat transfer
For temperatures beyond 600oC radiative heat transfer plays an increasing role
and must be accounted for in calculations
For rule of thumb estimate, the radiative heat transfer component can be
estimated using absolute temperatures and an adaptation of the stefen -
Boltzman equation in the form
where εr is the reduced emissivity to take into account the different emissivity properties of
surface εs and bed εb and is given by
An alternative correlation given by Panov et al. (1978) for approximate estimate is
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Application of Fluidized Beds
Industrial Processes
Physical Chemical
Heat and/or Heat and/or mass Heat transfer Gas/gas reactions Gas/solid reactions
Dominating mass transfer transfer between between in which solid acts in which solids are
Mechanism between particle/particle bed/surface as catalyst or a transformed
gas/particles or particle/surface heat sink
Applications • Solids Drying • Plastic coating of • Heat treatment of • Oil cracking, • Coal combustion
• Absorption of surfaces textile fibres, reforming • Coal gasification
solvents • Coating of wires, rubber, manufacturing of • Roasting of nickel and
• Cooling of pharmaceutical tablets glass, metal • Acrylonitrile zinc sulphides
fertilizer prills • Granulation components • Phthalic Anhydride • Incineration of liquid
• Food Freezing • Mixing of solids • Constant • Polyethylene and solid waste
• Dust Filtration temperature baths • Chlorinated • Catalyst Regeneration
hydrocarbons • Decomposition of
limestone
More about applications in Mass Transport PPT
30
Mass Transfer in Fluidized
Beds - An Overview
1/13/2011
Special topics in ME6203 MASS TRANSPORT

Mass Transfer in Fluidized Beds‐An Overview
Professor A. S. Mujumdar
ME Department, NUS
E‐mail ‐ mpeasm@nus.edu.sg

Guest Lecturer
Sachin V. Jangam
Minerals, Metals and Material Technology Centre
NUS, Singapore (2011)
Contents
• Introduction‐Applications Why M T is important, reactions etc

• Approaches in mass transfer in Fluidized beds
• Homogeneous bed Approach‐limitations
• Mass transfer to single particles, fixed beds and fluidized
beds Empirical correlations
• Bubbling bed approach
• Kunii Levenspiel Model
• An example calculation
• Modeling a fluid bed dryer
• Key references (given at the end)
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Introduction
• Main applications of fluidized beds – Fluidized catalytic cracking; Combustion and
Gasification; Drying; Granulation;

• The performance of fluidized beds in all the above processes is affected by the
interface mass transfer

• Many times the mass transfer in fluidized beds is a potential rate controlling step in
fluidized bed reactors

• Depending on the type gas‐solid interactions, the rate controlling mechanism can be

1. Particle – gas mass transfer (Gas film diffusion) control
2. Pore diffusion control
3. Surface phenomenon control
Various Industrial Applications
Fluidized bed reactor Fluid bed dryer
Fluid bed catalytic cracker
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Mass transfer in fluidized beds
There are two approaches that can be used for prediction of mass
transfer rates in fluidized beds

• Homogeneous bed approach – considers fluidized bed behaving
as a fixed bed reactor and correlate the mass transfer coefficient
in fluidized bed in similar manner to that in a fixed bed based on
plug‐flow model

• Bubbling bed approach – Considers fluidized bed to consist of
two phases, a bubble and an emulsion phase, the gas interchange
between the two phases constitutes the rate of mass transfer

Useful Dimensionless Numbers
Sherwood Number – ratio of convective to diffusive mass transport

Convective mass transfer coefficient k L
Sh
Diffusive mass transfer coefficient
Sh

Schmidt Number – ratio of momentum to mass diffusivity
Momentum diffusivity μ
Sc Sc
Mass Diffusivity ρ

Reynolds Number – Comparison of Inertial force to viscous force

Reynolds Number – Comparison of gravitational and viscous force

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Homogeneous Bed Approach
Transfer between single sphere and surrounding gas

• Rate of mass transfer between well‐dispersed sphere and surrounding air can be
written as
Concentration of
A in the bulk gas
stream
Transfer rate of Mass transfer Concentration of
A from particle coefficient of A at particle‐gas
to gas single particle interphase
• The single particle mass transfer coefficient can be obtained from well established
correlation (Froessling, 1938)

• Eq (2)
where particle Reynolds number and Schmidt number can be defined as
The mass transfer coefficient is proportional to diffusion coefficient of gas and inversly
proportional to diameter of particle
Transfer between single sphere and surrounding gas

For non‐spherical particle the sieve diameter (dp) will replace the diameter of
the particle and the equation becomes
where particle Reynolds number is
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Transfer between fixed bed particles and flowing gas

Rate of mass transfer between fixed bed of particles and surrounding gas can be written
in the same fashion as the one for single particle
Concentration of
Combined mass A in the bulk gas
transfer rate stream
Average mass Concentration of
from all the
transfer Total exterior A at particle‐gas
particles
coefficient of surface of all interphase
particles individual
particles
Transfer between fixed bed particles and flowing gas

The correlation for the average mass transfer coefficient kg,bed was given by Ranz (1952)

Total particle exterior surfaces Sex,particles Volume of bes
segment Bed voidage

Method of Kunni Levenspiel
Particle surface to
particle volume ratio
Hence the equation for total exterior particle
surfaces becomes
Sphericity of bed
particles
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Transfer between fluidized bed particles and fluidizing gas

The rate of particle to gas mass transfer in the differential segment of fluidized bed can
be written as
Average mass Total exterior
transfer coefficient surfaces of the
associated with fluidized particles in
fluidizing particles the segment of bed
Kg,bed for fluidized beds is always higher than that for fixed beds
Average mass transfer coefficient for fluidizing particles

The mass transfer coefficient for fluidized bed particles can be lower or higher than that
of single particles
Generally for low Reynolds numbers the mass transfer coefficient for single particles is
higher than for fluidizing particles however, reverse is true for higher particle
Reynolds numbers (>80)

Resnick and White (1949) reported the average mass transfer coefficient for the
fluidizing particles (for air system with Sc = 2.35)
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Average mass transfer coefficient for fluidizing particles

Particle – gas mass transfer coefficient for fluidized bed particles

Using Sh equation for
single particle Eq (2) Using Sh equation for
single particle Eq (2)
particle‐gas mass transfer coefficient for Comparison of mass transfer coefficient for
fluidized bed particles fluidized bed and fixed bed
• It should be noted that the same correlations can be used for fluidized beds and fixed beds…
• “Sh” for same group of particles continues to increase with the particle Reynolds number even
during the transition from fixed bed to fluidized bed operations
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Limitations of Homogeneous bed approach
The experimentally measured coefficient values for the bed particles under fixed bed or
fluidized bed conditions can be lower or higher than the theoretically estimated
values
For fine particles the mass transfer coefficients were found to be well below the
estimated values from correlations
The measured mass transfer coefficient by this approach should be treated as empirical
in nature
Using Sh equation
for single particle
Eq (2)
Summary of particle‐gas mass
transfer coefficient
Bubbling Bed Approach
Takes in to account existence of a two phases: bubble phase and
emulsion phase

Bubble phase – considered as spherical bubbles surrounded by spherical clouds

Bubble
Cloud

There are three different models available based on this approach
Kunni and Levenspiel (bubble – emulsion transfer)
Partridge and Rowe (cloud – emulsion transfer)
Chavarie and Grace (Empirical correlation for bubble‐ emulsion transfer)
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Model of Kunni and Levenspiel
Model for vaporization or sublimation of A from all particles in bed

Assumptions:
Fresh gas enters the bed only as bubbles
Equilibrium is established rapidly between CA at gas‐particle interphase and
its surroundings

These assumptions lead to the following equation in terms of bubble‐emulsion mass
transfer coefficient (KGB)as follows

In this approach both cloud and the emulsion phases are assumed perfectly mixed
Relation between KGB and Kg,bed

The equation reported in last slide for mass transfer by Kunni and Levenspiel can be
derived using the mass transfer rate equation for homogeneous bed approach

With the assumption that fresh gas enters the
bed only as bubbles the above equation
becomes

Where CA,b is the concentration of A in
bubble phase
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Relation between KGB and Kg,bed

The solutions of the previous equations finaly results in the following relation between
KGB and kg,bed

The definition of Sherwoods Number becomes
KGB for Nonporous and Nonadsorbing Particles
The particles dispersed in bubble phase will not contribute to any additional mass
transfer and hence; hence transfer across the bubble‐cloud boundary therefore is the
only source of mass transfer

Hence

Where Kbc is the bubble‐cloud interchange coefficient derived by Davidson and Harrison
as

KGB for highly adsorbing particles
For single particle
So the KGB equation becomes
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1/13/2011
KGB for highly adsorbing particles
For highly adsorbing particles, both particles dispersed in bubble and the bubble‐cloud
gas interchange can contribute to the particle‐gas mass transfer and the expression
for KGB becomes

For single particle

So the KGB equation becomes

Hence the Sherwood number for bed becomes

KGB for Porous or Partially Adsorbing Particles
For porous or partially adsorbing particles, Kunni and Levenspiel derived the following
equation

Where,

And

m is the adsorption equilibrium constant defined as

CAs is the concentration of tracer A within the particle in equilibrium with the
concentration CiA of tracer gas at the gas‐particle interphase.
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Model of Partidge and Rowe
The cloud surrounding the bubble is considered as the primary mass transfer boundary
and the bubble and the clod phases are considered as perfectly mixed single phase
as shown in the following figure

The mass transfer equation is

Volume of gas Cloud
in the bubble‐ emulsion mass Cloud exterior
transfer surface
cloud phase
coefficient
Model of Partidge and Rowe
Partidge and Rowe have given a correlation for mass transfer coefficient in terms of
Sherwood number as follows

where Sc is the Schmidt number as defined earlier while Rec is defined as

Relative velocity Diameter of
sphere with
between rising
the same
cloud and
emulsion volume as the
cloud
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Model of Chavarie and Grace
Measurement of mass transfer rates for bubble containing ozone injected into an air‐
fluidized two dimensional bed and proposed following empirical equation,

Table shows the models for kgc given by various researchers

Model of Chavarie and Grace
Table showing some more models for kgc given by various researchers

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Relation between mass and heat transfer coefficient
The correlations for particle to gas mass and heat transfer coefficient are closely related
when the Sherwood number (Sh) is equivalent to Nusselt number (Nu) and the
Schmidt number (Sc) is equivalent to Prandtl number (Pr)

For example, the correlation for Nusselt number for particles in a fixed bed is expressed
as

The corresponding correlation equation for the Sherwood number has the form

Hence the correlations obtained for Nu (heat transfer) can be converted to Sherwood
number to obtain mass transfer coefficient, provided ‐‐‐ Sh  Nu and Sc  Pr

Some Concluding Remarks on Mass Transfer in FB
Fluidized beds are very important for solid‐fluid contact for various important
industrial applications

Heat as well as mass transfer is important for design considerations

When kinetic processes such as mass transfer are carried out with fluidized
beds the particles dispersed in bubble phase should be taken in to account

Mass transfer coefficient measured for the bed as a whole (kgbed) is model
dependent

For large particles (cloudless bubble bed) the plug flow model closely matches
the bed conditions in the bed and the mass transfer coefficient for bed should
be equal to single particle mass transfer coefficient

For fine particles kgbed << kgsingle
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Application of Fluidized Beds
Industrial Processes
Physical Chemical
Heat and/or Heat and/or mass Heat transfer Gas/gas reactions Gas/solid reactions

Dominating mass transfer transfer between between in which solid acts in which solids are
Mechanism between particle/particle bed/surface as catalyst or a transformed
gas/particles or particle/surface heat sink
Applications • Solids Drying • Plastic coating of • Heat treatment of • Oil cracking, • Coal combustion

• Absorption of surfaces textile fibres, reforming • Coal gasification
solvents • Coating of wires, rubber, manufacturing of • Roasting of nickel and
• Cooling of pharmaceutical tablets glass, metal • Acrylonitrile zinc sulphides
fertilizer prills • Granulation components • Phthalic Anhydride • Incineration of liquid
• Food Freezing • Mixing of solids • Constant • Polyethylene and solid waste
• Dust Filtration temperature baths • Chlorinated • Catalyst Regeneration
hydrocarbons • Decomposition of
limestone
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Applications
Fluidized bed drying
Fluidizing with hot air is an attractive means for drying many moist powders and
granular products

The technique has been used industrially for drying crushed minerals, sand,
polymers, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, crystalline materials and many other
products.

The main reason for its popularity is
Efficient gas‐solids contacting leads to compact units and relatively low capital cost
combined with high thermal efficiency

Very high heat and mass transfer and hence reduced drying times

The absense of moving parts, low maintenance cost and possibility of using
continuous mode
The main limitation is the material to be dried should be fluidizable and should
have narrow particle size distribution

Fluid Bed Dryer
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Fluidized Bed Drying
Different designs of fluid bed dryers
Well mixed fluid bed dryer • common FBD used in industry.
• bed temperature uniform, equal to the
product and exhaust gas temperatures.
• particle residence time distribution is
wide
• wide range of product moisture content.
• feed is continuously charged into FB of
relatively dry particles, this enhances
fluidization quality.
• a series of well‐mixed continuous dryers
may be used with variable operating
parameters.

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Plug flow fluid bed dryer • vertical baffles are inserted to

create a narrow particle flow path.
• narrow particle residence time
distribution.
• nearly equal residence time for all
particles regardless of their size
• uniform product moisture content.
• length‐to‐width ratio from 5:1 to
30:1.
• inlet region may be agitated or
apply back‐mixing, or use a flash
dryer to remove the surface
moisture.
Modeling ‐ Fluid Bed Dryer
Diffusion model
This model assumes that the drying of single particle in the fluidized bed is controlled
by the diffusion of moisture inside the particle

Empirical model
• In this approach the drying process is divided into different periods where drying
mechanisms in each drying period are different;
• The solution of Fick’s law of diffusion expresses the moisture content in terms of
drying time by exponential function;
• Experimental data obtained from fluid bed drying experiments can be correlated
using exponential function

Kinetic model

Single phase model ‐ Explained later

Two‐phase model ‐ Explained later

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Single phase model

The fluidized bed is regarded essentially as a continuum

Heat and mass balances are applied over the fluidized bed

Assumption ‐ particles in the bed are perfectly mixed

Mass balance

Energy balance

Two phase model

Two‐phase model of fluidized bed drying treats the fluidized bed to be composed of a
bubble phase (dilute phase) and an emulsion phase (dense phase)

gas in excess of minimum fluidization velocity, umf, flows through the bed as bubbles
whereas the emulsion phase stays stagnant at the minimum fluidization conditions
Mass balance

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Two phase model
Mass balance of liquid in the bubble phase

M ass balance of liquid in the interstitial gas in the dense phase gives the following ng
equation

Mass balance of liquid in the dense‐phase particles

The coupled mass and energy balance in dense phase that consists of particles and
interstitial gas phases
Fluidized bed combustion boilers
• Fluidized bed combustion systems use a heated bed of sand‐like material suspended (fluidized)
within a rising column of air to burn many types and classes of fuel.

• This technique results in a vast improvement in combustion efficiency of high moisture content
fuels, and is adaptable to a variety of "waste type fuels.

• The scrubbing action of the bed material on the fuel particle enhances the combustion process
by stripping away the carbon dioxide and char layers that normally form around the fuel
particle.

• This allows oxygen to reach the combustible material much more readily and increases the rate
and efficiency of the combustion process

• Particles (e.g. sand) are suspended in high velocity air stream: bubbling fluidized bed

• Combustion at 840° – 950°C

• Capacity range 0,5 T/hr to 100 T/hr

• Fuels: coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse and agricultural wastes

• Benefits: compactness, fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency, reduced SOx & NOx
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Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler
• Most common FBC boiler that uses preheated atmospheric air as fluidization and
combustion air
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) Boiler
• Compressor supplies the forced draft and combustor is a pressure vessel
• Used for cogeneration or combined cycle power generation
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Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion units
• A “Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler” commonly
abbreviated as CFB is a device for generating
steam by burning fossil fuels (coal) in a furnace
operated under a special hydrodynamics
conditions.
• Bed material is heated upto the ignition
temperature of the coal with the help of natural
gas burner. Coal and limestone are injected at the
bottom of the combustor.
• Total air required for combustion is split in to
primary air and secondary air.
• Circulating solids are transported in the combustor
at a velocity exceeding the terminal velocity of
average particles.
• Recirculation of solids creating uniformity in the
temperature makes the combustor as an efficient
combustion system
Visit us at
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun/
http://www.mujumdar.net78.net/
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Key References
• Yang, W.C.; Handbook of Fluidization and Fluid –Particle Systems, Marcel Dekker, USA,
2003

• Kunni, D.; Levenspiel, O. Fluidization Engineering, 1969

• Mujumdar, A.S. Handbook of Industrial Drying, 3rd Ed; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL,
2006

Some questions for self study
For drying of certain product, the ambient air of 80% relative humidity is heated
to 70°C before entering the fluid bed dryer of uniform particle size.
• Discuss qualitatively, what will be the effect if the air is cooled down to 5°C
and reheated back to same temperature of 70°C before entering the dryer.
During which drying rate period will this be more useful
• Discuss what will be the effect on performance if the bed particles have wide
size distribution, Suggest improvements to tackle this situation.
• What will be the effect on drying if heated inert spherical particles of same
size are added in a bed of particles to be dried?
• How can one enhance the drying of a non‐spherical particles in a fluidized
bed?

For combustion of a single particle
• Discuss what would be the combustion behavior of a single coal particle of
same mass with different shapes such as Sphere, Cylinder (D=L), cube
• Discuss qualitatively the difference in combustion of a coal particle one with
20% porosity and another with 60% porosity
23

Selected Topics in Heat and Mass Transfer

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Jundika Candra Kurnia

This e-book consists of selected topics to be covered as part of the postgraduate

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Presentation Title / Author names

Heat Transfer in Square Duct

Prof. Arun S. Mujumdar

• Constitutive equation (air)

• For water, properties are set

Nomenclature: Pabs = Absolute pressure

• Turbulent model used in this simulation is k-ε

Schematic representation of flow in a) square duct and b) development

• Finite-volume based solver: Fluent 6.3.

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 10

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 1 and 2) Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Wall and Mean temperature

Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 14

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 18

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 1 and 2) Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Wall and Mean temperature

Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 22

Air (Cases 1 and 2)

Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Temperature in the middle of the channel

Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 26

Heat flux at the wall

Air (Cases 1 and 2) Water (Cases 3 and 4)

Nusselt number asymptotic

Wall and Mean temperature

Air (Case 1) Air (Case 2)

Water (Case 3) Water (Case 4) 30

Air (Laminar) Water(Laminar)

Air (Turbulent Re 20000) Water (Turbulent Re 20000) 31

LAMINAR FLOW WITH VARIABLE T

Distance from entrance: 5 cm Distance from entrance: 25 cm

Distance from entrance: 50 cm Distance from entrance: 100 cm

LAMINAR FLOW WITH

Nusselt number distribution in entry length

Temperature at entry region (z=2.5 cm)

Velocity in the middle channel

Divergent duct (Case1)

Convergent duct (Case 2)

Divergent duct (Case1)

Convergent duct (Case 2)

Temperature in the middle channel

• Case 1 (Frequency = 5 Hz) • Case 2 (Frequency = 10 Hz)

Velocity in the middle channel

Velocity in the middle channel

Temperature in the middle channel