Opatija,

11th IFACCroatia, September

Conference 10-12,Applications
on Control 2018 in
Opatija, Croatia, September 10-12, 2018
11th IFAC Conference on Control Applications in
Marine Systems, Robotics, and Vehicles
Marine Systems, Robotics, and Vehicles
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Opatija, Croatia, September 10-12, 2018
Opatija,
11th IFACCroatia, September
Conference 10-12,Applications
on Control 2018 in
Marine Systems, Robotics, and Vehicles
Opatija, Croatia, September 10-12, 2018 ScienceDirect
Selection
Selection of
of Size
Size ofof Battery
Battery for for Solar
Solar Powered
Powered Aircraft
Aircraft
IFAC PapersOnLine 51-29 (2018) 424–430
Selection
Selection of
of Size
Size ofof Battery
Battery for for Solar
Solar Powered
Powered Aircraft
Aircraft
* * ** **
Vijay Shankar Dwivedi
Selection
Vijay Shankar of Size*,, of
Dwivedi Prashant
Prashant Kumar
Battery *, Ajoy Kanti Ghosh **, G. M. Kamath**
Kumarfor Solar
, Ajoy Kanti Powered Aircraft
Ghosh , G. M. Kamath
Vijay [vijayd@iitk.ac.in,
Shankar prash@iitk.ac.in,
* akg@iitk.ac.in,
* gmkamath@iitk.ac.in]
** **
Vijay Shankar Dwivedi
[vijayd@iitk.ac.in, *, Prashant Kumar
Dwivediprash@iitk.ac.in, *, Ajoy Kanti Ghosh
, Prashant Kumarakg@iitk.ac.in,
, Ajoy Kanti Ghosh **, G. M. Kamath**
gmkamath@iitk.ac.in]
, G. M. Kamath
*Research scholar,
*Research scholar,
Department
Vijay
Department[vijayd@iitk.ac.in,
Shankarof Dwivediprash@iitk.ac.in,
of Aerospace
Aerospace
[vijayd@iitk.ac.in,
*Engineering, Indian
, Prashant Kumar
Engineering,
prash@iitk.ac.in, akg@iitk.ac.in,
Indian , Ajoy Kanti
Institute
akg@iitk.ac.in, gmkamath@iitk.ac.in]
* Institute of Technology,
of Ghosh **
Technology, , G. M.
gmkamath@iitk.ac.in] Kanpur,
Kamath
Kanpur, India.
**
India.
**
*Research scholar,
**Professor
*ResearchProfessor
scholar,
Department
Department of
of Aerospace
[vijayd@iitk.ac.in, Engineering,
Aerospaceprash@iitk.ac.in,
Engineering, Indian Institute
Institute of
akg@iitk.ac.in,
Indian of Technology,
gmkamath@iitk.ac.in]
Technology, Kanpur,
Kanpur, India.India.
**
**Professor
*Research scholar,
Professor
Department
Department of of Aerospace
Aerospace Engineering,
Engineering, Indian
Indian Institute
Institute of of Technology,
Technology, Kanpur, Kanpur, India.India.
**
Professor
Abstract: Department
This research
research of work
Aerospace
proposes Engineering, Indian Institute
the methodology
methodology for the of Technology,
the selection
selection of battery
batteryKanpur, India. trajectory
and flight
flight
Abstract: This work proposes the for of and trajectory
for
for a solar powered aircraft to achieve the maximum endurance. A mathematical model is developed
a solar powered aircraft to achieve the maximum endurance. A mathematical model is developed for for
Abstract:
the
the availability
availability This research
of
of irradiance
irradiance work at
at proposes
a
a particular
particular the methodology
geographical
geographical for
location
location the
Abstract: This research work proposes the methodology for the selection of battery and flight trajectory selection
on
on a
a given
given of battery
date
date and
and and
time.
time. flight
This
This trajectory
work
work also
also
for
for aa solar
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the
the detailed
detailed
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to achieve
analysis
analysis
aircraft of
of variationthe
the maximum
variation
achieve in
in endurance
endurance
maximum endurance.
with
with the
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Ageographical
mathematicallocation
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location is
is developed
of flight, timefor
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developed of
of
for
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Abstract:
flight (relative
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Earth
of Earth a particular
with
proposes
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respect
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to Sun),
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takeoff
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aircraft
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altitude,
analysis aerodynamic in
in endurance
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of battery and the flight pattern for the operation to be performed. Thecan to
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© 2018,
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during IFAC
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aircraft. Irradiance; Numerical simulation; Prolonged flight. Endurance to be performed. The
Keywords:
objective ofSolar
Keywords: this paper Battery
UAV;isBattery selection;
selection;
to estimate Irradiance;
the battery Numerical
capacity simulation;
to be installed andProlonged
selection of flight. Endurance
altitude profile
of
of solarflight
solar
during UAV,forEnergy
UAV, Energy management,
a solarmanagement,
powered aircraft. Robotics, Flight
Robotics, Flight dynamics,
dynamics, AltitudeAltitude profile,
profile, SolarSolar modelling.
modelling.
Keywords: Solar
Keywords: Solar UAV;
UAV; BatteryBattery selection;
selection; Irradiance;
Irradiance; Numerical
Numerical simulation;
simulation; Prolonged
Prolonged flight. flight. Endurance
Endurance
 dynamics,
of solar UAV, Energy management, Robotics, Flight Altitude profile, Solar modelling.
of solar UAV, Energy management, Robotics, Flight  dynamics, Altitude profile, Solar modelling.
Keywords: Solar UAV; Battery selection; Irradiance;  Numerical simulation; Prolonged flight. Endurance


of solar UAV, Energy management, Robotics, Flight  dynamics,
In Altitude profile, Solar modelling.
1. 
 In most
most of of the
the parts
parts ofof the
the world
world the the solar
solar energy
energy is is available
available
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION  all
 all the seasons. Even in cloudy seasons the solar irradiance is
the seasons. Even in cloudy seasons the solar irradiance is
The
The use
use ofof UAVs
UAVs is is growing
growing day day byby dayday and
and gaining
gaining popularity
popularity In most
most of
available
available
In the
the parts
ofabove
above of
of the
aa certain
certain
parts world
thealtitude
world all
altitude the
the the
all solar
the
solardayenergy
day time.
energy is
is available
time. Though
Though
availablethe
the
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
in
in both
both civil
civil and
and military
military applications.
applications. In In conventional
conventional UAVs UAVs all the
the seasons.
installation
installation
all seasons.of Even
of solar
solar
Even in
in cloudy
cells
cells on
on aa UAV
cloudy UAVseasons
seasonsaddsthe
adds extra
extra
the solar irradiance
weight
weight
solar to
to it,
irradiance is
it, yet
yet
is
The
the use of
endurance
theINTRODUCTION
endurance UAVs is is growing
limited
is limited by day
the
by the by
energy day and
carried gaining
with popularity
the aircraft available
it
In will
most be of
it will be aboveabove
the a
beneficial certain
parts
beneficial in
of terms
the
in terms altitude
of
world all
the
of endurance the
endurancesolarday if time.
power
energy
all the dayiftime. Though
is harvested
powerThoughavailable
harvested the
The
1. use of UAVs is growing dayenergy
by daycarried with the
and gaining aircraft available
popularity a certain altitude the
in the from installation
thesolar of
of solar
cells is cells
is more on
on aa UAV
than the adds
power extra
requiredweight
to to
to it,
to carry yet
it,this
in both
at
at the
the time
both civil
time and
civil of
of military
andtakeoff.
takeoff. applications.
militaryUsually
Usually this
applications. In
In conventional
this energy
energy is carried UAVs
is carried
conventional in
in the
UAVs all
from seasons.
solar
installation cells Even
solar morein cloudy
cells than theseasons
UAV addsthe
power solar
required
extra irradiance
weight carry is
this
yet
the
The endurance
battery
use
battery or
of
or in
UAVs
in is
the
the limited
form
is
form of
growing
ofby the
fuel.
day
fuel. energy
In
In by day carried
battery
battery and with
powered
gaining
powered the
UAVsaircraft
popularity
UAVs the
the it will
extra
available
extra
it will be
weight
weight
be beneficial
above(solar
a
(solar
beneficial in
cell,
certain
cell,
in terms of
encapsulation,
altitude
encapsulation,
terms of endurance
all the
endurance MPPT
day
MPPT if
if power
and
time.
and
power harvested
wiring).
Though
wiring).
harvested the
the endurance is limited by the energy carried with the aircraft
at the
power
in both
power time
civil of
the drains
drains intakeoff.
in
and aa military
very
very shortUsually
short time this
applications.
time energy
because
because there
In there is iscarried
conventional
is is no supply
no in
in the
supply
UAVs of from
of solar cells
installation
from is
is more
of solar cells than
on the
thetopower
a UAV adds required
extra to
to carry
weight to it,this
yet
at time of takeoff. Usually this energy carried the For
For aa solar
fully
fully
cells
solar
solar
more
powered
powered
than
aircraft
aircraft
power
to meet
meet
required
the
the complete
complete
carry
demand
demand
this
battery
power or
and
the endurance in
thethe whole
iswholeform
limited of fuel.
operation In battery
depends powered
upon battery UAVs the
carried extra
it will weight
be (solar
beneficial cell,
in encapsulation,
terms of endurance MPPT if and
power wiring).
harvested
power
battery and
or inthethe ofbyfuel.
formoperation the energy
Independs carried
battery upon with
poweredbattery the
UAVsaircraft
carried
the extra of weight (solar cell, encapsulation, MPPT and wiring).
power drains ofin aa very of power
power supply
supply from solar
is from solar cells
cellspoweraa very
very large
large wingspan
wingspan is
is
with
at thethe
with
power the UAV,
time
UAV,
drains there
intakeoff.
there veryisisshort
always
Usually
always
short time
time because
structural
this
structural energy
because thereis is
limitation
limitation
there no
iscarriedsupply
nothat
that limits
in of
of from
the
limits
supply For a
required. solar
fully cells powered
solar
Wingspan moreof than the
aircraft
different to meet
solar required
the complete
aircrafts to shown
is carry
demand this
in
power
the
battery and
amountor the
inofthe whole
battery
form operation
that
of can
fuel. In depends
be carried
battery upon
with
poweredbattery
the carried
UAV.
UAVs In
the required.
For a fully
extra weight Wingspan
solar powered
(solar of
cell, different
encapsulation, solar
aircraft to meetMPPT aircrafts
the complete
and is shown
demand
wiring). in
the
poweramount
and theof whole
batteryoperation
that can be carriedupon
depends withbattery
the UAV. carriedIn Table of
with of Table of power
power1. This
1. supply
This wingspan
wingspan
supply from
from is issolar
largecells
large
solar because
because
cells aa verythe
very large
large wingspan
the power
power need
need is
wingspan is high
highis
is
with the
fuel-based
power
fuel-based
the UAV,
UAVs
drains
UAVs
UAV, in there
there the is
the
a very is always
endurance
short
endurance
always timestructural
depends
becauseupon
depends
structural limitation
therefuel
upon fuel
limitation that
is nocarried limits
supply
carried
that and
and
limits required.
to
For
to carry
a
carry the
fully
theWingspan
battery
solar powered
battery of
weight
weight different
that
aircraft
that is
is to solar
used
used meet aircrafts
during
the
during is
nights.
complete
nights. shown
The wing
demand
The wingin
the required. Wingspan of different solar aircrafts is shown in
moreamount
more
power
the fuel
and the
fuel
amount of
adds battery
of whole
adds more that
weight
moreoperation
battery weight
that can be
can where carried
depends
where
be with
payload
upon the
has
withbattery
payload
carried has UAV.
the always
carried
always
UAV. In
Inaa span Table 1.
fuel-based
limitation.
with the UAVs
In
UAV, recent
there the endurance
past
is as
always the depends
efficiency
structural upon offuel
limitation carried
solar cells
that and
limitsis of
span
Table power1. This
can
can be
This wingspan
besupply
reduced
reduced
wingspanfrom is large
significantly
issolar because
largecells
significantly if athe
if
because the
the power
thevery
sizing
sizing
powerof the
large
of theneed
need is
is high
battery
wingspan
battery highis
is
limitation. UAVs
fuel-based In recent past as thedepends
the endurance efficiencyuponoffuel solar cellsand
carried is done to carry
required. in the
a battery
well
Wingspan weight
calculatedof that
manner.
different is usedApart
solar during
from nights.
aircrafts this,
is The
in a
shown wing
solar
in
more fuel
increasing
the
increasing
more adds
fuel and
amount of cost
and
adds cost more
battery
moreis weight
is decreasing
that
decreasing
weight can where
it
it has
be
where payload
become
carried
has becomewithaahas
payload the always
viable
viable
has UAV.source
source
always Inaa done to carry
span
assisted
in the
can
a well
be
calculated
battery
reduced
UAVs
weight manner.
also
that is used
significantly
the if
endurance
Apart
the
from
during
sizing
can
this, in
nights.
of the
be
The a wing
battery
solar
enhanced is
limitation.
of power In
supply recentduring pastthe as the
flight. efficiency
A trend of of solar
improvement cells is
in Table
assisted
span 1. This
can beUAVs wingspan
reduced also isthelargeendurance
significantly because
if the thecan
power
sizing ofbe
theneed is high
enhanced
battery is
fuel-based
of power supply
limitation. UAVs
In recent the endurance
during past thedepends
theasflight. A trend
efficiencyupon
of offuel carried
improvement
solar cellsand in
is significantly
done in
significantly a well if calculated
the battery manner.
is Apart
selected from
dependingthis, in
upona solar
the
increasing
the efficiencyand iscost shownis decreasing
in Fig. 1 it
andhas become
reduction a viable
in the source
price is to
done carryin the
a battery
well if the weight
battery
calculated that
is
manner.is used
selected
Apart during nights.
depending
from this, The
upon
in a wing
the
solar
more fuel and
the efficiency
increasing addsiscost more
shown weight
in Fig. 1where
is decreasing itand payload ain
hasreduction
become has thealways
viable price
source isa irradiance
assisted UAVs also the siteendurance can
span can be pattern
reduced atsignificantly
the onif thegiven time
sizing ofbe
andenhanced
the date of
battery of
is
of power
shown
shown
of power in supply
in Fig.
limitation. In 2.
Fig.
supply recent
2. during
during pastthe
theasflight. A
A trend
trend of
the efficiency
flight. improvement
of of solar cells in
improvement is irradiance
in
assisted
significantly
operation
pattern
UAVs
and ifthethe
at
also the
battery
aircraft
thesite
is
on
endurance
selected
characteristics.
given time
can
depending
and
be date
enhanced
upon the
the done
operation in a well
and calculated
the aircraft manner. Apart
characteristics.
significantly if the battery is selected depending upon the from this, in a solar
the efficiency
increasing
efficiencyand is
iscost shown
aa is
shown in Fig.
decreasing
incell
Fig.has11 itand
andhasreduction
become
reduction ain the
the price
viable
in source
price is
is irradiance pattern at
Apart
Apart
shown
of power
from
from
in Fig.
this
this
supply 2.
solar
solarthe
during cellflight.
has A zero
zero
trend
carbon
carbon
of
emission
emission that
improvement that
in
assisted UAVs
irradiance pattern also at the
the thesite on
on given
siteendurance given can time
time beand date
date of
andenhanced of
shown this
makes in Fig.
a 2.
promising power source for future and therefore operation
significantly and the aircraft
ifthethe battery characteristics.
is selected depending upon the
makes
the this
efficiency a promising
is shown power
in focus source
Fig.has 1 and for future
reduction and
in therefore
the price is operation and aircraft characteristics.
Apart
this
this is
Apart from
is an
an area
area
from this
thataaneeds
that
this solar
solar aacell
needs focus
cell hasononzero
its carbon
its efficient
zero emission
emission that
carbon utilization.
efficient utilization. that irradiance pattern at the site on given time and date of
shown
makes in Fig.
this a 2.
promising power source for future and therefore
makes this a promising power source for future and therefore operation and the aircraft characteristics.
this
this is
Apart is an area
from
an that
thataneeds
areathis solar aacell
needs focus
focushason its
its efficient
onzero carbon utilization.
efficient emission that
utilization.
makes this a promising power source for future and therefore
this is an area that needs a focus on its efficient utilization.
Copyright © 2018 IFAC 424
Copyright © 2018 IFAC 424

2405-8963 ©
Copyright © 2018, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control)
2018 IFAC 424Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright
Peer review©under
2018 responsibility
IFAC 424Control.
of International Federation of Automatic
10.1016/j.ifacol.2018.09.450
Copyright © 2018 IFAC 424
 IFAC CAMS 2018
Opatija, Croatia, September 10-12, 2018
Vijay Shankar Dwivedi et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 51-29 (2018) 424–430 425

Table 2 MARAAL specifications

Parameter Value
Wing span 5.35 m
Wing area 2.04 m2
Aspect ratio 14
Empty weight 12 Kg
Solar cells used Sunpower C60

Fig. 1. Solar cell efficiency with time.*

Fig 3. MARAAL Solar UAV

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
Fig. 2. Solar cell cost with time.*
2.1 Availability of Irradiance
Table 1. Wingspan of different aircrafts
Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit whose
Aircraft Wing-span eccentricity is such that the distance between the sun and the
Solar Impulse 63.4 m earth varies by 3.4 % above the sea. The mean distance
Qinetiq Zephyr 22.5 m between earth and sun is 1.495 x 1011 m, i.e. one astronomical
Helios HP03 75.3 m unit (AU) (Duffie, John A., 1980).
NASA Centurion 62 m
NASA Pathfinder 36.3 m

Sun light is available only for limited number of hours

therefore the utilization of this power should be done in an
efficient way. Power consumed by UAV depends upon many
factors such as speed at which we are flying, CL of UAV,
duration of flight, rate of climb, how long we cruise at a
particular altitude, payload etc. In a UAV there are two basic
energy storing elements, the first battery and second the
altitude i.e. the potential energy that we can trade for gliding.
We dissipate energy during the flight. In solar UAV we have
a supply of energy in form of solar energy. For a solar UAV to Fig. 4. Sun, Earth and Solar constant
achieve maximum time of flight we need to focus aerodynamic
aspects of flight in addition with the pattern we control the The solar constant (𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) is the power obtained from the sun on
energy flow. Also depending upon the solar power availability a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of
we can optimize the endurance by selecting the optimal weight propagation of the radiation at mean earth-sun distance (1 AU)
of battery and the cruise altitude where we charge our battery. outside the atmosphere. It is measured directly with the help
In this paper an effort is made to find the best battery size and of very high altitude aircraft, balloons, and spacecraft, which
the flight pattern for maximum endurance. All study is done records the measurements of solar radiation outside the earth’s
on solar UAV MARAAL, designed at UAV laboratory IIT atmosphere. Resultant value of the solar constant Gsc was
Kanpur. Table 2 is representing the parameters associated with found to be 1367 W/m2 with an estimated error of 1.5%.
MARAAL and a visual of its flight is shown in Fig. 3. (Duffie, John A., 1980; Jemaa, A BEN, 2013).
𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1367 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 (1)
*https://sites.lafayette.edu/egrs352-sp14-pv/technology/history-of-pv-
technology/
Since the distance between earth and sun is not constant, there
is the periodic variation in extraterrestrial radiation flux.

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Variation is in the range of ±3.3 %. This change can be

calculated using (2)
(https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme811/node/637).

𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (1.00011 + 0.034221 cos 𝐵𝐵 +

0.00128 sin 𝐵𝐵 + 0.000719 cos 2𝐵𝐵 +
0.000077 sin 2𝐵𝐵) (2)
360
Where 𝐵𝐵 = (𝑛𝑛 − 1) (3)
365

Where 𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 is the extraterrestrial radiation incident on the plane

normal to the radiation on the nth day of the year and this is
Fig. 6. Declination angle
shown in Fig. 5.
 Latitude (ϕ): For Kanpur latitude is 26.5 N
ΦKanpur = 26.50
 Hour angle (ω): This is angular displacement of the
sun either east or west of the local meridian because
of the rotation of the earth on its axis at 150 per hour.
Morning is considered to be negative and evenings
positive *.
cos ω = −tan ϕ tan δ (7)
2
𝑁𝑁 = cos −1 (−tan ϕ tan δ) (8)
15
N is the number of daylight hours. Quantities ω and
cos −1 (−tan ϕ tan δ) are in degree.
Fig. 5. Extraterrestrial radiation incident on the plane normal For (7) beyond ϕ = ±66.55 deg:
to radiation (tan δ − tan ϕ ) ≥ 1 there is no sunset, i.e. 24 hour daylight
(tan δ − tan ϕ ) ≤ 1 there is no sunset, i.e. 24 hour darkness
To describe the hour-angle the local solar time (LST) is used,
because the hour angle is zero at solar noon (LST: 12:00h),
when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky. Using (4) the
LST can be calculated from the local civil time (LCT) with the
help of quantity called equation of time (EOT) (Rajendra, P.,
2016; Keller, B. 2011).
LST = LCT+EOT (4)
EOT = 229.2(0.000075 + 0.001868cos(N) – 0.032077 sin(N)
– 0.014615cos(2N) – 0.04089sin(2N)) (5)
360
Where, 𝑁𝑁 = (𝑛𝑛 − 1) , in deg
365
n = day number of the year
The geometric relationships between a horizontal plane
relative to the earth and the incoming beam solar radiation, that
is, the position of the sun with respect to that plane, can be Fig. 7. Number of daylight hours
represented in terms of several angles.
 Declination(δ): It ranges from −23.45 degrees to
The solar radiation that fills our sky are of three types:
+23.45 degrees with north to be positive (Keller, B.
o Direct radiation,
2011).
o Diffused radiation
An approximate equation to find the declination is given in (6)
o Reflected radiation.
(ElMghouchi Y., 2014).
δ = 23.45 sin(A) (6)
284+n "Direct radiation" also called as "beam radiation" or "direct
Where A = 360 ( ) in degrees beam radiation". It is used to describe solar radiation traveling
365
on a straight line from the sun down to the surface of the earth.

* http://www.itacanet.org/the-sun-as-a-source-of-energy/part- "Diffused radiation", is the sunlight that has been scattered by

3-calculating-solar-angles/#3.2.-The-Hour-Angle molecules and particles in the atmosphere but that has still
made it down to the surface of the earth.

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Total radiation received (𝐺𝐺) is the summation of both, beam

and diffused radiation (16) (ElMghouchi Y., 2014).
𝐺𝐺 = 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 (16)
Direct and diffused irradiance on March 15 is shown in Fig 9.

Fig. 8. Types of radiation: Direct, diffused and reflected *.

"Reflected radiation" On ground this has a contribution about

2% but for UAV at altitude this is negligible.
Direct radiation is around 85% of the total insolation hitting
the ground and diffuse radiation is about 15%. As the sun goes
lower in the sky, the percent of diffuse radiation keeps going
up until it reaches 40% when the sun is 10° above the horizon.
Atmospheric conditions like clouds and pollution also
increase the percentage of diffuse radiation. On an extremely
overcast day, 100% of the solar radiation is diffuse radiation. Fig. 9. Direct and diffused irradiance on a horizontal surface
The percentage of the sky's radiation that is diffuse is much
greater in higher latitude, cloudier places than in lower
2.2 Solar Cell
latitude, sunnier places. Moreover, the percentage of the
In a solar UAV, solar cells are primary source of power. They
diffuse radiation tends to be higher in the winter than the
convert photonic energy of available irradiance into electric
summer in the higher latitude, cloudier places (Michele De
energy. Their performance depends upon the materials used in
Carli, 2012).
the fabrication of it. In Table 4 the efficiency of different solar
Both of the radiations are considered and calculate the total
cells is given
amount of energy we receive. Hottel’s method is used to
estimating the beam radiation transmitted through clear Table 4. Different types of solar cells with their maximum
atmospheres which takes into account zenith angle (θz ) and efficiencies available in market (Green, 2015)
altitude (Duffie, John A., 1980).
Atmospheric transmittance for beam radiation is given by (9) Type of solar cells Maximum efficiency achieved
−𝑘𝑘
( ) Si Monocrystalline 22.9 ± 0.6
𝜏𝜏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑒𝑒cos 𝜃𝜃𝑧𝑧 (9)
Si Polycrystalline 18.5 ± 0.4
The constants 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 , 𝑎𝑎1 and 𝑘𝑘 for the standard atmosphere with
Si Thin film 8.2 ± 0.2
23 km visibility are found from 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 ∗ , 𝑎𝑎1 ∗ and 𝑘𝑘 ∗ using (10),
GaAs thin film 28.9 ± 1.0
(11) and (12).
CIGS 15.7 ± 0.5
. 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 ∗ = 0.4237 − 0.00821(6 − 𝐴𝐴)2 (10)
CdTe 17.5 ± 0.7
𝑎𝑎1 ∗ = 0.5055 − 0.00595(6.5 − 𝐴𝐴)2 (11)
𝑘𝑘 ∗ = 0.2711 − 0.01858(2.5 − 𝐴𝐴)2 (12)
Where A is altitude of the observer in kilometers.
For solar UAV the GaAs is the best for performance point of
Correction factors are applied to 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 ∗ , 𝑎𝑎1 ∗ and 𝑘𝑘 ∗ to allow for view but due to the cost constrains Si monocrystalline
change in climate types. The correction factors 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 = 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 /𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 ∗ , (Sunpower C60) is used in MARAAL. Claimed efficiency by
𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑎1 /𝑎𝑎1 ∗ and 𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 = 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 /𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 ∗ are given in Table 3 (Duffie, manufacturer of C60 is 23% but the achieved efficiency after
John A., 1980). installation on solar UAV was recorded about 20%.
An ideal solar cell can be modelled by a current source (𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ) in
Table 3. Correction factors for climate types
parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so
Climate Type 𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐨 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 𝐫𝐫𝐤𝐤 a shunt resistance (𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ) and a series resistance (𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 )
Tropical 0.95 0.98 1.02 component are added to the model (Lorenzo E, 1994). An
Midlatitude summer 0.97 0.99 1.02 equivalent circuit of solar cell is shown in Fig. 10 (Nishioka,
Subarctic summer 0.99 0.99 1.01 K., 2007).
Midlatitude winter 1.03 1.01 1.00

*
http://bembook.ibpsa.us/index.php?title=Ground_Reflectance
Clear sky beam radiation (𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ) can be calculated using (13)
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜏𝜏𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑧𝑧 (13)
Fig. 10. Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
Clear sky diffuse radiation can be calculated using (14).
𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 = 𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺0 (14)
Where 𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 = 0.271 − 0.294 𝜏𝜏𝑏𝑏 (15)
And 𝐺𝐺0 is extraterrestrial beam radiation on horizontal plane.

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2.4 Propeller

Propeller used in MARAAL is 30.5”x9.7 triple blade.

Fig. 11. V-I characteristic of a solar cell
When a solar cell is short circuited the current is maximum
(𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) but the voltage is zero, resulting in zero power. As the
load impedance increases the current remains almost constant
and then starts decreasing (from 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ), and voltage keeps
increasing till (𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ). At open circuit the voltage is maximum
(𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ) but the current is zero.
The power that is delivered by solar cell to the load is the
product of voltage and current and this pattern is shown in Fig.
11. The load impedance has always a value for which the
power extracted is maximum, this maximum keeps changing
with the irradiance, load and temperature. To utilize the solar
cell most efficiently we need to operate about this maximum
power point and the circuitry used for tracking the maximum
power point is called MPPT (maximum power point tracking).
The typical efficiency of MPPT is about 94 % to 98 %
(Ezinwanne O., 2017; Karami N., 2017).
Solar cells installed in MARAAL is Sunpower C60.
Characteristics of Sunpower C60 is shown in Table 5.
The efficiency of a propeller is measured with respect to
advance ratio (𝑗𝑗) (John B. Brandt, 2011).
𝑉𝑉
𝑗𝑗 = (17)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Where V = velocity
n = rpm
D = diameter
A wind tunnel test was performed for the characterization of
the propeller and an efficiency was recorded about 70 % for
the advance ratio of 0.6 that is the condition of cruise. During
climb the advance ratio drops to 0.4 and for this advance ratio
the efficiency was recorded 58 %.
2.5 Electronic Speed Control (ESC) and Motor
ESC is used for the rpm control of the motor. It receives a pulse
width modulated signal and changes the rpm of motor
depending upon the duty cycle of received pulses. When the
input and output voltages are very close to each other the
efficiency of ESC is maximum and typically about 98 %, but
this may drop up to 80 % when the input output voltage
difference is more. In our operation the 6-cell battery is used
so that the input voltage is close to operating voltage of motor
and the efficiency of ESC is above 94 %.
2.6 Power Required

Table 5. Sunpower C60 specifications

Parameter Value
Peak Power 3.42 Watt
Fig. 12. Force balance of an aircraft
Efficiency 22.5 %
Peak Voltage 0.582 Volt The calculation of power required for steady climb starts from
the force balance equation of an aircraft (18) and (19)
Peak Current 5.93 Amp (Anderson, John D., 2010).
Open-circuit Voltage 0.687 Volt T − D − mg sin γ = 0 (18)
L − mg cos γ = 0 (19)
Short-circuit Current 6.28 Amp Rate of climb can be given by (20)
T−D
Length 12.5 mm γ = sin−1 mg
(20)
Width 12.5 mm
Lift coefficient during climb is given by (21) (Perkins, 1949).
Thickness 0.165 mm mg cos γ
CL climb = 1 2 (21)
ρV S
2
1 2
2.3 Energy Model Drag D = ρV SCD (22)
2
CD = CD0 + kCL2 (23)
The power generated by solar cell is given by (16)

𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗ 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝐺𝐺 (16) Where CD is drag coefficient, CD0 is drag coefficient at zero lift,
CL is lift coefficient and k is given by (24) (Etkin, 1996).
1
where 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the efficiency of solar cells used, 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is k= (24)
π.AR.e
the efficiency of MPPT, 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the total area of the solar AR is the aspect ratio of the wing and e is the span efficiency
cells installed, G is the available irradiance and P is the factor.
power generated (Manuel H., 2013). Multiplying (18) by flight velocity V, gives
d
TV = DV + mgV sin γ = DV + (mgh) (25)
dt

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d
In (25) the term ‘TV’, ‘DV’ and ‘ (mgh)’ represents to cruise. After the sunset we start gliding with minimum sink
dt rate and reach the altitude where power required to cruise is
respectively, the power available, the energy dissipated in
minimum. In Fig. 13 this is about 7:00 PM. Now the aircraft is
overcoming the drag and the rate of increase of potential
at cruise altitude and the battery is fully charged and no solar
energy. Thus while climbing the potential energy increases and
power is available. This is the time to start the propeller and
a part of the propeller output is utilized for this gain of potential
cruise until the battery is drained (about 11:PM). Now we have
energy (Napolitano, 2012).
only the potential energy of the aircraft and this is the time to
Theoretically the energy required to climb from one altitude to
glide with minimum descend rate and land.
another altitude is same for all velocities, but the propeller
efficiency changes with advance ratio. Therefore, for initial The altitude pattern, Power required, solar power available,
climb the climb angle is kept about 2 degrees so that the battery energy label and the flight path angle is shown in Fig.
advance ratio is about 65 % and the propeller is not losing 14.
efficiency.

3. PATH PLANNING
In the path planning it is assumed that the battery is fully
charged at the time of takeoff.
Through out the flight the battery energy (𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) at given
time t can be calculated using (26)
𝑡𝑡 𝐷𝐷.𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡
𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝐸𝐸0 − ∫𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑊𝑊(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + ∫𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 0

(26)
Where
𝐸𝐸0 = Initial battery energy
D = Drag
V = Velocity
Fig. 14. Altitude, power required, collected solar power,
W = Weight of aircraft
battery energy and flight path angle for a typical flight pattern.
ℎ1 = Takeoff Altitude
ℎ2 = Altitude at time t
𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = Propeller efficiency
5. RESULTS
The takeoff time is decided in such a way that at the time when
solar energy is sufficient for cruise, the battery is drained. 5.1 Irradiance
First we climb to the altitude (cruise altitude) where power
requires to cruise is minimum for the given velocity and then A mathematical model was developed for the availability of
we keep cruising until the the solar power is more than the solar irradiance at Kanpur. This can be utilized for the study of
power required to cruise. many other performances related study of solar powered
After sunrise when the battery is about to drain the solar power aircrafts at Kanpur and other places.
is more than the power required to cruise and now the charging Month wise available solar irradiance for MARAAL is shown
of the battery starts keeping the altitude same. It is always in Fig. 15 assuming aircraft cruising less than 5 deg of angle
advantageous to charge the battery at the altitude where power of attack and no roll.
required to cruise is minimum. A typical flight path is shown
in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13. A typical flight path

Fig. 15 Global solar irradiance

When the battery is fully charged, the climb starts till the time
the solar power is available more than than the power required

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5.2 Battery Charging Altitude
In Fig. 16 the effect of altitude on power required is shown for
different velocities. In the curve for a given velocity where the
power required is minimum is the best altitude for battery
charging and cruising. Minimum altitude for cruise that can be
used for operations is 1000m from sea level.
Fig. 16 Power required at different altitude for different
velocities
In Table 6 the charging as well as cruise altitude is given for
different velocities
Table 6. Velocity and charging altitude
Velocity (m/sec) Charging Altitude (m)
12 1000
14 1000
16 3000
18 5000
20 8000
The cruise speed of an aircraft can’t be less than the stall speed,
therefore the power required for lesser speed is not calculated.
Usually for aircrafts having larger aspect ratio the speed for
power required minimum is less than the stall speed.
5.3 Endurance and Battery Size
This was the main objective of this work and the results of the
simulation are very useful for deciding the size of the battery
of a solar powered aircraft.
How the endurance is changing with the size of battery is
shown in Fig 17. The endurance is maximum for 30 amp-hour
battery and the takeoff time for this endurance will be 3 AM.
And the endurance is 20 hours and 30 minutes.
Fig. 17. Battery capacity and endurance
430
In above study for a given aircraft and irradiance conditions
the size of battery is determined and for this battery the takeoff
time is fixed. A future study is planned to determine the battery
size is the takeoff time is given, how the endurance can be
maximized for a takeoff time of our choice and what will be
the corresponding battery size.
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