Ethics

1
Morality

Module 4 Morality

At the end of this module, you are expected t0:

1. To know the Two Fundamental Questions
2. To understand the Norms of Morality
3. To learn what are Defective Moralities

The Two Fundamental Questions

Two important questions are raised one is “What is Morality” and “What is the meaning of
life?”. The first question pertains to the rightness or wrongfulness of an act and what is the basis of
the judge concerned. These are ethical questions that up to this time, baffled sages and peons alike
and remain unanswered. The second is about the summum bonum (ultimate good) of human
existence, what is the very reason why man exists on this world?
In a nutshell, those two questions are related – Ethics is about morality which is the basis of
good, evreytime we decide on dilemmas using morality men experienced happiness and that is
“good”. The more we attain happiness by being good – the closer we are to the Ultimate Good. To
sum it up, both questions boil down to two words “goodness” and “purpose”, a thing that is of use
is good for it has served its purpose. For example, a politician is good if he has fulfilled his promise
to the people after serving his term of office in doing so by being useful to his constituent, he felt
that he lived a worthy life. This will then be a step to reaching his ultimate goal – the ultimate
good. A good life will ultimately lead to ultimate happiness.

The Norms of Morality

Rationally speaking man acts in accordance to his nature, that human nature quantify as
justification as to why an act be it good or bad is performed. In doing so it conflicts with the higher
intelligence endowed to men. Is man basically good? We can say yes but of what context of
goodness is man supposed to follow? The morality of man follows a proximate norm and an
ultimate norm so where does human nature come in? As mentioned earlier man has baser
tendencies that is human nature equivalent to brutes that may come in the form of stimuli. The
proximate norm there is to follow human nature which is the low end of a human being. On the
other hand, the ultimate norm is to follow divine nature which are decisions that are based on
morality. For example the stimulus of hunger based on proximate norm simply means to eat the
food regardless as to whether it is for somebody else, spoilt or poisonous. Human nature dictates
that man has to satiate his hunger no matter what and may be considered moral if we are to
consider human nature. If man decides to study the situation by not initially grabbing the
“opportunity”, then he acted in relation to the ultimate norm.
However, we are not discarding human nature as a basis of human existence, man is a
social animal which is the nature of man’s need for association. In truth we can never reach divine
status but we must keep in mind that there is no conflict with the Natural law and the Eternal law

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(the Law of God). The Natural is patterned after the Eternal Law, man must adhere to his nature of
man which is using his intellect unlike human nature that is only to follow his passions.
Defective Norms of Morality
Human Nature is a simple foundation of man but there are philosophies and they are:
1. Hedonism – this is also known as the Philosophy of Pleasure that pleasure alone is the
primary purpose of man’s existence. It is true man desires for happiness but a happy
life need not be composed of pleasure alone. True happiness is seeking good but
wallowing in pleasure made man’s life baser than brutes.
2. Utilitarianism – is simply the ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action
is unjustified. From the word “utility” it means that anything that is of use to the agent is
moral. There are two types of utilitarianism and they are individual utilitarianism and
social utilitarianism – the first is known as egoism which is the definition given – the
agent is the one who will gain. Altruism is the other term for social utilitarianism but
the receiving factor is the society where the agent belongs.
3. Moral Rationalism – simply states that human reason is the only foundation of morality
as postulated by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant which he dubbed as “Categorical
Imperative”. However as Kant further explained we have to do good because we ought
to be good in doing so he is implying blind obedience. In his philosophy “autonomy of
reason”, inasmuch as reason creates the law, it is “reasonable” for men to obey it
without question nor ambiguity. The general rule is that everyone thinks the same for
men are reasonable so conflict is a remote possibility.
4. Moral Positivism – states that morality is adherence to State Laws as philosophizes by
the English sage Thomas Hobbes. The State is the foundation of morality since laws are
geared for the common good apparently, an act is moral if he obeys the law and evil if
he disobeys it. Comparing to Moral Rationalism where reason is the law, Moral
Positivism only has the State Law as its source of morality.
5. Moral Evolutionism – In relation to Sociologist Herbert Spencer, morality just like
evolution is ever-changing until it reached its perfect form. Friedrich Nietsche added
that man was born withj hardly any basis for right and wrong and their collective lives
is a never-ending struggle for change until they reach perfection.
6. Moral Sensism – Contrary to Moral Evolutionism men are born with a special moral
sense (not reason) that is comparable to the five senses. For example, man can easily
differentiate noise from music, salty from sweet as well as pleasant and unpleasant that
may also serve as means to moral judgment.
7. Communism - Although this is more of an economic theory its social implication cannot
be denied and is geared for a classless society. They believed in the philosophy of
material dialectics that means two material things are the only ingredients necessary
for change. They deny the existence of God, the free will and immortality for they do not
matter being immaterial. Ergo, anything that will lead to a classless society is good and
moral and any thing otherwise is evil and immoral.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
 Ethics
3
Morality

1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National
Book Store Inc.
2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book
Store
3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book
Store

Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus

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