Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of solar chimney integrated systems for space heating and cooling
application
⁎
Nima Monghasemi , Amir Vadiee
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Shiraz University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The conventional indoor climate comfort systems have a major share of energy consumption in residential
Solar chimney sectors. Passive design is an approach that can reduce building energy demand by minimizing mechanical
Earth-air heat exchanger systems power consumption. Solar chimneys as natural draught components that utilize solar energy to build up
Phase change material (PCM) stack pressure are an innovative passive design. Solar chimney contributes to an increase in efficiency for
Cooling cavity
residential space heating and cooling in addition to a considerable reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. This
Water spraying system
Trombe wall
article presents an overview of recent progresses in solar chimney research. The construction industry has a
tendency in utilization of integrated solar chimney configurations to improve the level of thermal comfort. In
this paper, common integrated configurations based on solar chimneys were summarized. Besides, the
challenging aspects and recommendations of each system were mentioned. Combined energy systems based
on solar chimney have been regarded as efficient strategies toward green building architecture. Each system has
its own pros and cons and there is not a general guideline that can arrange these systems in descending order
according to their performance. It is necessary to carry out more experiments to solve forthcoming problems in
their commercial applications. Further studies are suggested in developing optimization strategies and control
systems. A desirable control system responds to inhabitants needs unobtrusively and allows them to change a
condition if it is perceived thermally uncomfortable, with prompt feedback.

1. Introduction maximize ventilation effect by inducing a sufficient temperature rise in

Energy use in buildings has a large part of global and regional
energy demand. The share of heating and cooling in total building
energy demand is very diverse varying between 18% and 73% world-
wide [1]. A few decades ago, researchers were concerned about
innovative strategies reducing energy consumption in building design.
For instance, bioclimatic design involves the application of energy
conservation techniques in building construction with the cope of
renewable energy sources such as solar energy [2]. One challenging
aspect is satisfying the thermal comfort based on bioclimatic design. It
can contribute significantly to the climate change and has a consider-
able overall environmental impact.
Before the invention of modern mechanical systems, all buildings
were naturally ventilated. Since energy and environment became two
key issues in building design, a large interest in developing ancient
architecture took place among the scientists. Solar chimney (SC) is
regarded as one of the oldest strategies for passive ventilation. It has
been utilized for centuries, particularly in the Middle east by the
Persians, as well as in Europe by the Romans [3]. It is a novel design to
the chimney with the aim of solar radiation [4].
The operational concept of solar chimneys, Trombe walls and
double-skin facades is similar as they are open cavities that induce
movement of air with the aid of insolation. Trombe wall is a massive
wall mainly used for heating the building. However, with proper
modifications cooling can also be achieved. Solar chimneys are mainly
used to promote night ventilation, although they can be used to
enhance daytime ventilation. They could be mounted on rooftops or
attached to the building walls. Vertical chimney is the most common
layout. However, it has negative impact on the aesthetic aspect of the
building. So it is cheaper and less visual to lay the collector along the
roof slope.
The possibility of utilizing a solar chimney is not limited to
residential or commercial buildings. Rahman, Chu [5] proposed a
natural draft chimney instead of mechanical ventilation for a livestock
housing. The reduced ventilation cost led to improved production
efficiency and profitability of poultry enterprises. Design aspects and
comfort criterions are different for industrial sites and are beyond the
scope of the presented paper.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nima8927@yahoo.com (N. Monghasemi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.078
Received 16 October 2016; Received in revised form 17 April 2017; Accepted 22 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Monghasemi, N., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.078
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
The literature survey indicates that a considerable body of literature
on SC exists. In recent years there has been a growing interest in
introducing innovative strategies taking advantage of solar chimney
integrated systems. A few papers have addressed the integrated
systems for space heating/cooling. Accordingly, the objective of this
manuscript is a contribution to recent progresses in solar chimney
application for building ventilation. Moreover, it shows the potential
and effectiveness of prospective implementation of integrated systems
based on solar chimneys.
Section 2 is devoted to solar chimney independent space heating
and cooling applications. The section follows a sequential pattern,
describing the analytical and numerical developments of solar chimney
and then referring to experimental studies in this field. Section 3.1 is a
detailed description of EAHX-SC system; PCM-enhanced solar chim-
ney will be discussed under Section 3.2; water consuming systems
based on SCs are covered in Section 3.3; at last, a brief report of PV
based solar chimney is outlined under Section 3.4.
2. Solar chimney independent building applications
Due to the general availability of mechanical ventilation devices and
improved lifestyle in the 20th century, utilization of wind force or solar
energy for ventilation became obsolete. As a result, research and
development of solar chimney is fairly limited before 1980s. Over the
last few decades, the challenge of reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and the need for efficient ventilation aroused the renewed interest in
solar chimneys. Many existing research concentrate on model experi-
ments and theoretical investigations to study the geometry, orientation
and meteorological parameters on the ventilation performance of solar
chimneys [6]. In most solar chimney studies, the main idea was to
enhance natural ventilation by considering different design parameters.
For instance, the chimney width, stack height, chimney orientation and
absorber materials were of practical interest. Khanal and Lei [4]
research revealed that most of the studies in the area were based on
pure experiments or on an experimental approach coupled with a
numerical modeling. Afonso and Oliveira [7] experimental results
showed the chimney width was more effective on ventilation rate
rather than its height. Mathur and Mathur [8] showed that the
optimum absorber inclination angle varies from 40° to 60°, based on
the place latitude. While Hamdy and Fikry [9] found out the optimum
tilt angle of a solar collector required to provide the best ventilation
performance for their experimental model was 60°, this inclination
angle was about 45° based on Mathur and Mathur [8] experiments. The
optimum tilt angle causes a slight increase in chimney air flow rate for
winter applications, so it might not worth the risk of the construction
instability. However, the improved ventilation rate for summer months
is remarkable and decisions must be made with caution. Ong [10]
developed a steady mathematical model of a wall-type solar chimney.
The model predicted the thermal performance of the solar chimney as
well as the chimney air flow rate. The analytical modeling of velocity
and temperature profiles in the chimney showed a good agreement
with former experiments for the chimneys with gap-to-height ratio less
than 1:10. Because of the fluctuating nature of solar irradiation, it
seems difficult to obtain steady state radiation. Martı and Heras-
Celemin [11] proposed a dynamic model evaluating the performance of
the solar chimney with real weather data acquisition. The theoretical
usefulness of the SC in offering nocturnal ventilation in Mediterranean
climates was also reported. Lee and Strand [12] examined the effect of
chimney height, solar absorptance of the absorber wall, solar transmit-
tance of the glass cover and air gap width under different climate
conditions. It turned out that the air gap width had the least impact on
the ventilation enhancement among the four input variables. Mathur,
Bansal [13] suggested a small size solar chimney with an absorber
length less than 1 m . The system installation had priority over the
earlier configurations because it could be embedded in a regular
window without major structural modifications. Their detailed analysis
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
also revealed that the airflow rate increased with increasing the air gap.
Air change per hour (ACH) is a measure of the air volume added to
or removed from a space (normally a room or house) divided by the
volume of the space [14]. If the volume of air supply to the inner spaces
is sufficient, the temperature would approach the ambient. At an
ambient temperature of 20–26 °C , natural ventilation provides thermal
comfort for habitation. There is no general guideline finding the
optimum ACH for a naturally ventilated house. ACH dependence on
many design parameters such as building configuration, number of
residents and building function makes it a challenging aspect. Most of
the studied literature computed its value without referring to an
optimal number [4].
With development of fast numerical schemes, computational fluid
dynamic (CFD) methods were quickly growing in solar chimney
analysis. CFD usually provides all relevant flow information throughout
the domain of interest. In case of a solar chimney, pressure variations
and thermal distribution in the chimney are of practical interest. Before
the advent of commercial software packages; laminar flow codes were
developed to simulate airflow and heat transfer in the solar chimney.
The flow conditions in the solar chimney are more in line with
turbulent flow regime. Special focus is given to the correct description
of turbulence modeling in the literature. k − ԑ models are assumed to
present more realistic predictions of velocity and temperature profiles
as reported by experiments. It is revealed from this review that the
k − ԑ models provided superior performance for boundary layer flows
under adverse pressure gradients. Thus, they have been the main
investigation method used in solar chimney research. Fig. 1 illustrates
the share of different CFD models adopted in solar chimney study.
A multi-dimensional analysis which is supported in the CFD
technique is able to capture prevailing flow phenomena like reverse-
flow in contrast with a one-dimensional approach. Reverse flow
eventuates as air entrainment occurs at the chimney exit and air
penetrates downwards into the chimney. Reverse flow should be
avoided through the solar chimney since it results in a reduction of
flow rate which is not desirable for ventilation. In order to prevent
reverse flow, Khanal and Lei [15] proposed a solar chimney design with
an inclined passive wall (glazing) and a vertical active wall (absorber)
called inclined passive wall solar chimney (IPWSC). The study verified
that there was an optimum chimney height-to-gap ratio suppressing
the reverse flow as well as inducing the maximum ventilation rate.
In most theoretical models the assumption of uniform air tempera-
ture distribution is considered which might not be valid for large gap-
to-height ratios. Another issue is the difficulty arising about the suitable
expressions for pressure losses at the inlet, outlet and along the
chimney channel. These uncertainties might cause significant deviation
Fig. 1. The share of different CFD techniques used in solar chimney investigations based
on the present literature review.
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
Fig. 2. Structure of double pass roof solar collector. (a) Space heating mode (b) Natural ventilation mode [29]. Dampers are indicated by Latin numerals- Tuyeres are indicated by
Roman numerals- AC1 air channel 1- AC2 air channel 2- IP insulation plate- AP absorber plate- GC glass cover.
from the experimental measurements. Unlike analytical models, CFD
can give better estimations to handle the referred issues. Naraghi and
du Sordet [16] derived a correlation calculating the air flow rate for an
inclined roof type solar chimney with the aid of a number of data points
obtained using CFD analysis. The parameters involved in the correla-
tion were inter-plate spacing, absorbing wall temperature, inlet air
temperature, height of chimney and chimney slope. Improvements in
the resulting flow rates were observed. Considering other parameters
like wind speed effect would improve the correlation further.
Bassiouny and Koura [17] CFD analysis led to the idea that the
chimney width has more significant effect on the ACH than the
chimney inlet size. The flow pattern was investigated in the chimney
mainly to find where flow separation took place in order to prevent it.
Flow separation yields to the contraction of the airstream flowing up in
the chimney. Thus, the exit velocity will reduce and hence the air flow
rate. Chamfering the inlet sharp edge is suggested to avoid the
occurrence of flow separation.
Although in recent publications a huge interest in numerical and
analytical methods took place, it would rather be coupled and validated
by an experiment. Yusoff, Salleh [18] created a prototype of an
integrated roof solar collector with vertical stack. The model was
capable of enhancing the ventilation both in semi-clear and overcast
sky conditions. They also indicated that the wind effect on air velocity
could be beneficial or unfavorable depending on the positions of inlet
and outlet.
Dependence of stack ventilation on the local climate and experi-
mental conditions makes the universal validity of the experimental
literature in question. Building energy simulation is an effective tool for
understanding the complex and dynamic interactions the building has
with its environment. Koronaki [19] elaborated the effectiveness of
three different SC configurations for nocturnal ventilation during
summer season. The aim was to indicate the most appropriate SC
configuration and orientation based on EnergyPlus simulations. An
advantage of using EnergyPlus is the ability to provide a full set of
informative measurements based on a whole day or an annual
performance. Besides, the SC was not simulated individually. Instead,
it was connected to a specific room space. It was found that almost
56 kWh /month of electric energy could be saved during the summer
period.
Naturally ventilated buildings require different operational and
control strategies compared to mechanically ventilated buildings. To
facilitate the control of airflow and thermal comfort in the building,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
appropriate envelopes can include temperature sensors or automated
windows. DeBlois, Bilec [20] highlighted the potential savings with
ideal control of windows could be around 20% at the least for a novel
opaque roof SC configuration. The control strategy can also rely on a
schedule to activate the system operation. A few papers have consid-
ered the effect of scheduling operation modes for SC [21,22]. So, one
might enhance the SC performance without altering the configuration.
2.1. Solar chimney for space cooling
It is clear that contrary to natural stack ventilation strategies that
can provide a weak stack effect, solar chimney offers more promising
outcome because it maximizes indoor-outdoor temperature difference
by increasing the solar gain. An important benefit of a SC used for
space cooling is that the demand for cooling and the supply of
insolation are in phase.
Solar chimneys are generally considered to be unsuitable for
regions with insufficient insolation or hot-arid climates. However,
AboulNaga and Abdrabboh [23] improved the chimney night ventila-
tion performance by integrating a wall and a roof solar chimney. The
results showed that the air flow rate was three times more than that of a
roof solar chimney alone. The system was installed on a single house in
Al-Ain, UAE. The optimum wall chimney height corresponding to the
maximum air flow rate (nearly 2.3 m3 / s ) was 3.45 m with an inlet height
of 0.15 m . An ACH number up to 26 was achieved for a flat volume
(321 m3). It is high enough to overcome the high-cooling load for a
building in hot climate.
Khedari, Rachapradit [24] investigated the performance of a solar
chimney in a single-room house (25 m3) with an air-conditioner (AC) in
Bangkok, Thailand. The house with solar chimney reduced the average
electrical consumption of an AC by 10–20% in contrast with a common
house. Solar chimney opening size was used to control the ventilation
rate. Experimental analysis demonstrated that a 5 × 5 cm2 opening for
the SC unit was the most efficient when operated with an AC.
Imran, Jalil [25] installed a SC on the roof of a 12 m3 cabin room in
Iraq. The chimney width and length were 2 m with three different air
gap thicknesses of 50,100 and 150 mm. The optimum inclination angle
was 60° to obtain the maximum air flow rate. The system could induce
4–35 air changes per hour for this space. It could be used for space
cooling without the need for mechanical ventilation.
Most solar chimney studies were concerned with one-story build-
ings. With the growth of population, constructors tend to build multi-
 Table 1
A summary of selected research on solar chimney.

Author Location Application Key argument Methodology Major findings/Observations

Zhai, Dai [30] Shanghai, China Space heating/ • Investigation of a solar air collector Experimental laboratory • Optimum collector inclination angle was 45°
cooling measurements A balance between air temperature rise and air-flow rate should be
• done to obtain maximum heat for space heating mode
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee

• The length of the solar air collector was recommended to be about

1m
Lee and Strand [12] Minneapolis, U. Space heating/ • Implementation of the model into EnergyPlus Computer simulation • Chimney height, solar absorptance and solar transmittance turned
SSpokane, U.SPhoenix, cooling program out to have more influence on the natural ventilation improvement
U.S • Parametric analysis than air gap width
• Solar chimneys have more potential for cooling than for heating
• An annual run in simulation programs like EnergyPlus seems
crucial to justify the applicability of a thermal chimney
Gan [31] – Space cooling • Impact of computational domain on buoyancy- Numerical CFD modeling • Extending the computational domain for a better prediction of air
driven ventilation flow rate and heat transfer coefficients through the cavities is
crucial
• Uniform distribution of heat on solar chimney walls induce larger
flow rate in a ventilation cavity
Tan and Wong [32] Singapore (Tropical zone) Space cooling • Solar chimney optimization in tropics Numerical CFD modeling • The larger the stack height, the greater the solar chimney outlet air
• Developing a regression model temperature
An increase of air flow rate is expected when the ratio of length to
• hydraulic diameter of the chimney is larger than 15
• The outlet air temperature decreases with increasing solar
chimney's width
• The none-dimensional regression model for predicting output air
speed can be applied for optimal solar chimney depth
determination

4
Al-Kayiem, Sreejaya [33] Malaysia Space cooling • Analysis of a roof top solar chimney Mathematical analysis • The average mass flow rate and the performance of the system
would increase by increasing the collector area
2
Insolation intensity less than 200 W /m was not adequate for an
• effective performance of the roof top solar chimney
• Wind speed played an important role when the solar intensity was
higher than 400 W /m 2

Tan and Wong [34] Singapore (Tropical zone) Space cooling • Influence of internal heat load and the ambient air Experimental measurements/ • There is no temperature stratification of interior spaces in the
speed on the SC performance Numerical CFD modeling tropics due to the relatively high ambient air temperature
• Although the ambient air speed impact on air temperature is poor,
values over 2 m /s would cause an increase in solar chimney air
speed
• The influence of internal heat load on the air temperature and air
speed is limited
Jing, Chen [35] – Space cooling • An improved air flow rate prediction method for Experimental laboratory • The assumption of uniform temperature distribution across the
solar chimneys with large gap-to-height ratio measurements chimney height is no longer valid for wide chimneys
• Correction was made to an existing air flow prediction method
• The improved prediction method appears to be applicable for both
small and large SC gap-to-height ratio
Suárez-López, Blanco- – Space cooling • Solar chimney exergy analysis for ventilation Analytical/Numerical CFD • SC exergy balance for ventilation and power plant is similar except
Marigorta [36] modeling that the power extracted by the turbine in the power plant is used
to overcome the flow losses in ventilation instead
• The difference between the thermal and useful exergy efficiency
indicate that this construction performs better in heating mode
• Diminishing the fluid dynamic losses, optimization of the channel
geometry and the reduction of losses through the glass cover are
suggested to improve the chimney performance
Lei, Zhang [37] – Space cooling • SC performance enhancement by utilization of a Numerical CFD modeling • The perforated absorber plate increase the pressure head and
perforated absorber plate temperature rise across the chimney
rate and a better
• The novel design led to higher air flow(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

story buildings instead. Therefore, solar chimney is an interesting

model can be improved further by considering a turbulent

the air relative humidity results in the reduction of air

air temperature distribution is relatively similar to the dry-air

opening height-to-gap ratio of 0.25 is recommended for SCs

analytical existing models, both vertical and horizontal

plume model showed promising results for predicting SC air

density variations across the chimney are considered in the plume

experimental data sets were chosen for validation of plume

inability of the model to predict complicated flow phenomena

flow rate and reflecting the existence of the optimal chimney gap
option for multi-story buildings. Among the works done in SC
applications, Punyasompun, Hirunlabh [26] assessed the effectiveness
of a solar chimney for a small scale model of a three-story building in
performance at large inclination angles and gap widths

such as the reverse flow is the limitation of this model

model apart from a slight increase in air temperature

boundary layer for relatively high velocity conditions

Thailand. They concluded that the room temperature of the solar
chimney model was 4–5°C lower than the scale model without SC.
velocity at the inlet and outlet of the chimney

They examined different SC configuration set-ups and found out that a

SC with an opening at each floor and one outlet opening at the third
floor was the most efficient.
Major findings/Observations

2.2. Solar chimney for space heating

According to the above-mentioned studies, the majority of the

with moist air

research on solar chimneys was concerned with passive cooling.

• Increasing

However, in some regions the necessity of space heating is more than

• Unlike

• Plume

natural cooling, especially in winter. Since SC performs better for space

model

model

width
• Small
• The

• The
• The
• Six

cooling, the applications of SC for space heating is limited in the

literature.
Haghighi and Maerefat [27] showed the usefulness of solar chimney
for space heating. They presented a numerical modeling of natural
Numerical CFD modeling

convection in a 2D room in contact with a cold external ambient. The

numerical modeling was validated against some preceding experimen-
Analytical modeling

tal and numerical surveys in the literature. A parametric study was also
carried out to gain further insight of parameters that have impact on
Methodology

ACH and room air temperature. The results showed the optimized air
gap, inlet and outlet size led to maximum ACH were 0.2 m for a room
having a size of 4.0 m × 4.0 m × 3.125 m without air infiltration. It is
also found that the effect of ambient air temperature on ACH is not
plume model based on energy
of air velocity and temperature

significant. Moreover, the system seemed plausible for providing a

distribution in the SC with dry air and moist air

balances and thermal boundary layer theory to

good indoor condition even with poor solar intensity of 215 W / m2 and
low ambient temperature of 5 °C .

2.3. Solar chimney simultaneous space heating and cooling

investigate SC airflow rate

configuration
in a hot humid climate

The previously mentioned SC systems were cooling or heating only

devices. It is a novel design to use SC for both space heating and
• Comparison
Key argument

• Developing

cooling purposes. Zhai, Dai [28] presented a plausible configuration

without adding complexity to the system that can reduce the heating
and cooling demand throughout the year. They examined a single-pass
roof solar collector and a double pass roof solar collector installed on a
single traditional common house in China. Roof solar collectors were
single or double pass solar air collectors mounted on the building roof.
Space cooling

Space cooling

The double pass roof solar collector which was configured by integra-
Application

tion of a double pass solar air collector with the southern roof of the
building, is shown in Fig. 2. Dampers 1, 2, 3 and 4 were installed to
switch operating modes between space heating in winter and natural
ventilation in summer. By closing dampers 1 and 2 followed by opening
dampers 3 and 4, indoor air can enter air channel 1 (AC1) through
tuyere II gaining heat from solar radiation. Then, it flows into air
channel 2 (AC2) where it gains heat from the absorber plate. After
closing tuyere I it flows into the air duct. The fan blows the hot air into
Thailand
Location

the room through tuyere III. The reverse cycle provides natural
ventilation in the room. By closing dampers 3 and 4 along with opening
–

dampers 1 and 2, the indoor air enters air channels 1 and 2 through
tuyeres I and II, respectively. The air is heated in the channel and
Chinsorranant [38]

moves up, so the stack effect will be produced eventually. The results
Table 1 (continued)

showed a double pass roof solar collector had better performance

He, Zhang [39]

whether for space heating or natural ventilation. Its instantaneous

Sudprasert,

efficiency was often 10% higher than a single pass roof solar collector.
Several literature articles have been reviewed. The literature con-
Author

tains different study methods to tackle different aspects of a SC design.

A summary of selected studies on SC is provided in Table 1.

5
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of integrated earth-air heat exchanger and solar chimney [48].
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of a coupled system with EAHX and solar chimney [49].
3. Integrated systems based on solar chimneys
The above-mentioned introductory outlined solar chimney inde-
pendent building applications as space heating or cooling strategies.
The success of a natural ventilation system relies directly on the
inhabitants for at least two reasons. First, the occupants must be
thermally comfortable. Second, they might be expected to exercise
some control of the system [40]. For the purpose of improving indoor
thermal comfort, integration of solar chimney with other technologies
is advised to enhance its performance appreciably. The purpose of the
present paper is to review the most common integrated systems based
on solar chimneys. Integrated systems were generally accompanied by
considering their fundamental aspects and recommendations regard-
ing the improvement of the system to achieve a more sustainable
future.
6
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
3.1. Earth-air heat exchangers coupled with solar chimneys
An innovative technique to circulate the air in the building is by
means of pipes buried several meters under the ground, utilizing soil as
a natural constant temperature source. The soil temperature 2–3 m
beneath the ground is fairly constant called earth's undisturbed
temperature. This temperature is higher than the surface temperature
in winter and lower in summer. This system which can be applied for a
better ventilation through a cooling or heating effect is called an earth-
air heat exchanger (EAHX) [41].
Mihalakakou, Santamouris [42] suggested a complete numerical
model for the prediction of thermal performance of the EAHX. Their
model was developed in TRNSYS environment and could be easily
employed for further research. The early results revealed that the pipe
length, pipe radius, air velocity, soil depth and the temperature
difference between ambient air and soil play a major role in EAHX
performance [43,44]. Increasing the burial depth and length of the
pipes as well as reducing the airflow rate will boost the heat transfer
capacity [45]. Bansal, Misra [46] concluded that the buried pipes
material did not affect the EAHX performance, thus a cheaper material
for piping is reasonable.
Ramírez-Dávila, Xamán [47] developed a three-dimensional finite
volume CFD code in order to model the EAHX. Three different climate
conditions, one with an extreme heat in summer and low temperature
in winter (Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua), the second one with mild
weather (Mexico City) and the last with hot weather (Merida,
Yucatán) were investigated. Simulations have been conducted for sand,
silt and clay soil textures for the cities of Cd. Juárez, México city and
Mérida, respectively. They stated that the EAHX potential for space
heating and natural ventilation may differ significantly. The results
showed an average decrease of air temperature about 6.6 and 3.2 °C for
summer and an increase of 2.1 and 2.7 °C for winter in Cd. Juárez and
México city, respectively. By contrast, Mérida EAHX winter thermal
performance was better than its cooling effect.
Due to its passive nature of operation, predicting the applicability of
EAHX is widely depending on environmental conditions. Long-term
operation and low maintenance cost are two favorable reasons for its
utilization. The location latitude and altitude, ambient air temperature,
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of proposed passive heating system [53].
soil type, water table, relative humidity, soil moisture content and
building design are vital considerations affecting the EAHX perfor-
mance. In general, dense damp soil with considerable shade increases
EAHX efficiency. In hot humid climates EAHX is not effective for
achieving the thermal comfort. Furthermore, high water table, insuffi-
cient space and shallow bedrock are among its operational limitations.
Apart from the obstacles in EAHX utilization mentioned above, it is
still a convincing alternative to reduce or eliminate the need for
conventional conditioning systems. An innovative idea is the integra-
tion of an earth-air heat exchanger and a solar chimney. As a
consequence, the coupled system lowers energy consumption in winter
as well as reducing the peak electrical demand in summer.
Maerefat and Haghighi [48] proposed an EAHX-SC system. The
system ventilation acted with the aim of solar energy as the heat source
and the soil as a sink. A schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 3. The
roof solar chimney configuration included a glass surface oriented to
the south and an absorber wall working as a capturing surface. The air
was heated up in the rectangular box. The buoyancy provided the
driving force for extracting the air from the room. The EAHX consisted
of horizontal pipes buried several meters beneath the ground, deliver-
ing the pre-cooled air to the room.
The research made an attempt to ascertain the system ability in
providing good indoor conditions based on Adapted Comfort Standard
(ACS). Mathematical modeling of SC and EAHX were developed,
separately. The SC model was validated with experimental results of
[13]. The parametric study showed that the minimum required number
of SCs and EAHXs encountered by deploying the optimum cooling pipe
diameter (0.5 m ). Increasing the length/diameter of the pipe provided
more cooling effect. It was observed that while the ACH number and
indoor air temperature rose up due to high solar radiation, EAHX
numbers employed had to increase. Furthermore, when the outdoor
Table 2
A summary of selected research on SC-EAHX.
Study method Climate Type Application Outcomes
Analytical Semi-arid, continental Space cooling • Optimal dimensional requirements of a SC- • Model is assumed to work in steady state condition.
climate EAHX system
Experimental Hot summer,
continental climate
Space cooling • Total cooling capacity of the system almost • Insufficient space makes the system unsuitable for
covered the building design cooling load.
• Underground soil temperature distribution
Analytical Semi-arid, continental Space heating • Effective dimensions of a SC-EAHX system • Model
climate
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 6. Classifications of PCMs [58].
temperature was high, the chimney effect lost its potential for air
circulation. Under these circumstances, raising the number of SCs
would help. It could be concluded that achieving thermal comfort was
possible at harsh environmental condition with high air temperature or
low solar intensity by means of proper modifications to the system.
However, when the outdoor air temperature was too high (around 45°C
and more) the solar chimney was no longer suitable.
Li, Yu [49] investigated the performance of an EAHX-SC system for
a one-story building at a testing facility of the university of Nebraska,
sat on a concrete slab with external dimensions of 19.4 m long, 4.9 m
wide and 3 m high. The main testing room dimensions were 15.2 m
long, 4.9 m wide and 2.4 m high. A schematic of the system is shown in
Fig. 4. EAHX was made of a culvert steel with 57 m length, 0.45 m
diameter and buried at a depth of about 3 m underground. The solar
chimney was 12.2 m high and 0.457 m diameter in order to provide
sufficient pressure draft. The solar collector absorbing surface area was
20 m2 , with a loss coefficient of 8.5 W /(m2.˚C ) and an absorptivity of
0.8, when insolation was evaluated to be 400 W / m2 . The experiments
focused on estimating the thermal performance of the system as well as
a detailed analysis of its cooling capacity. The undisturbed soil
temperature was tested through a whole year. At a depth of 2.9 m the
soil temperature attained a maximum of 14.6 ˚C and a minimum of
8.1 ˚C which verified the ability of the underground system for summer
cooling. The profile of the indoor and outdoor temperature during
summer in 2008 (from August 14, 2008 to August 31, 2008) Nebraska
showed that while the outdoor air temperature during the daytime
could be as high as 34 ˚C , the indoor air temperature remained mainly
from 21 ˚ to 24 ˚C . The performance of the system largely depended on
its cooling capacity. The total cooling capacity was determined in the
previous period mentioned in 2008. They obtained a cooling capacity
as high as 2582 W , almost covering the building design cooling load of
2813 W .
Limitations Ref
[48]
• Effects of environmental conditions like soil thermal
saturation and soil type were not addressed.
• Dynamic operation may lead to contradictory results
compared to the analytical solution derived.
residential buildings.
[49]
is assumed to work in steady state condition. [53]
• Anotdescription
provided.
of economic feasibility of the system was
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
According to the current state of art, a few researchers were
concerned about the real operation situation, particularly the soil
thermal saturation and recovery of the EAHX. Soil thermal saturation
occurs when the soil and air temperature gradient is nearly zero. At this
level no energy transfer takes place between soil and air [50]. Soil
thermal saturation is common in soil having high specific heat and low
moisture content. Niu, Yu [50] analyzed the performance of the EAHX
under continuous and intermittent operation conditions. In the inter-
mittent operation mode, the soil temperature and the cooling capacity
could recover during the nonworking time. Besides, the supply airflow
rate and the cooling capacity were higher than the continuous mode of
operation.
Mathur, Surana [51] perceived the soil dynamics around the pipe.
Also, following remarks were made to prevent soil thermal saturation.
The soil temperature was higher at the initial length of EAHX pipe and
then this temperature decreased. The soil temperature around the
buried pipe was strongly influenced by the ambient air temperature.
Ambient air temperature decrease, led to the soil temperature reduc-
tion. This influence reduced as the distance between buried pipe and
soil increased. Heat penetration analysis revealed that the affected soil
thickness and the heat transfer between air and soil kept increasing
simultaneously.
In order to overcome soil thermal saturation in summer, Mathur,
Surana [51] suggested a continuous 24-h operation using cold ambient
air for night purging (forced convection between soil and purged air).
However, this strategy was not a financially feasible plan. Instead, an
EAHX system operating in intermittent mode with limited night
running for temperature recovery through purging was recommended.
Mathur, Surana [52] investigated the soil temperature recovery of
an EAHX system under intermittent operations in Jaipur, India. The
results revealed that by the end of the summer, the soil thermal
saturation, might induce the system ineffectual for the next summer. A
comparison between the different modes of intermittent operations for
summer and winter suggested that a summer operation mode with
night purging (9 a.m.–5 p.m. ,2 a.m.–4 a.m.) improved the soil tem-
perature recovery rather than a summer operation mode (9 a.m.–
5 p.m.) alone. Both were suitable for residential or office buildings. For
winters, a winter day operation mode (9 a.m.–5 p.m.) for office
Fig. 7. Schematic view of the solar chimney experimental setup and the locations of thermocouples on absorber (all units are in mm) [62].
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
buildings and a winter night operation mode (10 p.m.–6 a.m.) for
residential buildings were suggested. Winter operation modes, not only
provided hot air in winter, but also lowered the soil temperature to be
used in the next summer season as well.
Among the few studies in the literature regarding the system
capability for passive heating, Haghighi and Maerefat [53] analytically
studied the effects of main geometric and environmental parameters on
a SC-EAHX system performance in Tehran, Iran. The proposed
mathematical models were in good agreement with the previous
studies of [13,54,55]. A schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 5.
The following dimensions and specifications were used in the model-
ing. The room had the size of 4.0 × 4.0 × 3.1 m3 without air infiltration.
The heating demand was varied between 0 and 1000 W . A solar
chimney with 3.125 m length, 4.0 m width and air gap depth of 0.2 m
was considered. The outlets size of the SC and the room were 0.05 ×
4.0 m and 0.1 × 4.0 m , respectively. The EAHX was a PVC pipe with the
length of 25.0 m , 0.01 m thickness and inner diameter of 0.5 m . It was
buried 3.0 m below the ground. The soil temperature was approximated
to be 19 ˚C at this depth, assuming it constant during the working
hours. The results yielded to an optimum air gap size of 0.2 m for the
SC and heating pipe diameter of 0.5 m . By proper configuration,
thermal comfort could have been provided even in the low solar
intensity of 250 W / m2 and low ambient air temperature of 0 ˚C .
Thermal comfort for the building inhabitants were achieved even at
the low soil temperature of 13 ˚C . The proposed design for the SC-
EAHX configuration based on the thermal comfort criteria was
considering the south wall of the building as a solar chimney.
Furthermore, the required number of SCs and EAHXs were obtained
approximately by: room volume/50 and 2× (room volume/50) +1,
respectively.
It should be noted that humidity and mold colonization is another
challenging aspect of an EAHX design. It is claimed to be a potential
health risk for the inhabitants. Wagner, Beisel [56] inspected twelve
earth-air heat exchangers with different designs, pipe materials, size
and age. The study was concerned about microbial growth in the buried
pipes. Surprisingly, the airborne concentrations of viable spores and
bacteria, with few exceptions, even decreased after passage through the
pipe system. Based on the investigations the operation of EAHX was
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
Fig. 8. Dimensions of PCM container and the locations of the thermocouples: (a) lateral section; (b) cross section [62].
acceptable as long as regular controls were undertaken or cleaning
facilities were available. An antimicrobial material layer is highly
recommended for the EAHX pipe to remove the risk. Notice that it is
important that the underground cooling pipes have perfect condensa-
tion drain. So the pipes should be installed at about 4-degree slope to
ensure the constant removal of condensed water from the pipes
whether an antimicrobial layer is used or not.
In order to deeply understand the performance of an EAHX, further
aspects such as the influence of ice-formation in winter could be an
area of the future research. A summary of selected research on SC-
EAHX topic is found in Table 2. It presents the major findings and
limitations of each case.
3.2. Solar chimneys combined with phase change materials
Phase change materials (PCMs) are ideal products for thermal
Fig. 9. Schematic of the solar chimney incorporating with PCM: (1) closed mode; (2) open mode [66].
9
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
management. PCM stores and releases thermal energy during the
process of melting and freezing. When such a material freezes, it
releases large amounts of energy in form of latent heat of fusion.
Conversely, when the PCM is melted, an equal amount of energy is
absorbed from the environment as it changes from solid to liquid.
PCMs in building envelopes can be used for many different purposes
including reduction of space-conditioning energy consumption, ther-
mal peak load shaving and shifting, local temperature control in
building envelope components and improvement of overall system
durability [57].
PCMs store 5–14 times more heat per unit volume, unlike sensible
thermal energy storage materials such as masonry or rocks [58].
Utilization of PCM for building can be divided into three stages: the
first stage, before 1990, a feasibility study to determine the viability of
PCM incorporation for building elements and selection of the relevant
PCM that can be used; compatibility, stability and useful life of PCMs
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 10. The schematic of the integration of the PCM based solar chimney and the guardroom [67].

PCM can be utilized in buildings for temperature regulation. PCM will

stabilize the room temperature mainly using its latent heat. It releases
heat when the ambient temperature is below the melting temperature.
Additionally, it stores heat when the temperature is rising above the
melting temperature. Also, utilizing PCM in building structure can
significantly enhance the thermal mass of the building.
Without insolation, solar chimneys thermal efficiency shows a
drastic reduction. This generally happens during the night-time or
cloudy days. Additionally, fluctuations in solar radiation yield to solar
chimney instability. PCMs as thermal energy storage mediums coupled
with solar chimneys are suggested to overcome these main drawbacks
[62].
A few studies have reported the incorporation of PCM in a solar
chimney system for building ventilation applications. Kaneko, Sagara
Fig. 11. Variation of average room temperature for a whole day [67].
[63] presented a prototype solar chimney equipped with PCM. The
results showed there was the possibility for prolongation of natural
were examined in the second stage which dates back to the 1990s; from
ventilation in night-time, provided that the PCM completely melted in
1990s to the present, attempts have been made to incorporate PCM
the daytime. Amori and Mohammed [64] studied a solar chimney
into many kinds of building envelops for different purposes such as
numerically and experimentally. The results showed a solar chimney
thermal storage, ventilation and insulation and evaluating the perfor-
with PCM extended the ventilation hours after the solar absence.
mance [59]. A large number of PCMs are known with wide spectrum
The assumption of a fully-melted PCM is not valid for all ventilation
range of fusion and melting point. In one categorization, PCMs are
hours. The performance of the system under fully-melted or partially-
divided into three main groups of organic, inorganic and eutectic as
melted PCM needs further research [62]. Moreover, it seems that its
shown in Fig. 6. Organic compounds used for PCM include paraffin
performance for cooling/heating a space is rarely investigated.
waxes, esters, acids and alcohols. Organic compound PCMs usually
Li and Liu [62] explored the thermal performance of a SC-PCM
have low melting points and are suitable for household applications.
system with three different uniform heat fluxes of 500 W / m2 , 600 W / m2
Salt hydrates are the most well-known inorganic PCMs and numerous
and 700 W / m2 experimentally. The system was installed inside a
studies have used them for thermal storage applications. Eutectic
laboratory in order to minimize the insolation fluctuations. The
PCMs consist of a combination of at least two other PCMs, each of
schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 7. The chimney was 2 m high,
which melts and freezes congruently forming a mixture of the
1 m wide and 200 mm deep. The chimney inlet and outlet width and
component crystals during crystallization [57].
height were 1 m and 200 mm , respectively. The PCM container was
In a literature survey proposed by Akeiber, Nejat [60], the share of
filled with 50 kg RT42 (a macro-encapsulated paraffin wax) and was
different kinds of PCMs for passive cooling applications were investi-
constructed of stainless steel with dimensions of 1000 mm wide × 1600
gated. It was revealed that nearly 60% of the previous studies focused
mm high × 40 mm deep as shown in Fig. 8. The chimney openings were
on organic PCM. The reason for this might be the high heat of fusion,
closed during the PCM charging period. After 7 h and 10 min the heat
ease of compatibility with most building elements and good thermal
discharge period started. At this stage only in the case of 700 W / m2 heat
stability. Unfortunately, a relatively low ignition resistance of some
flux, PCM was fully melted. It yielded to the highest air flow rate. In a
organic PCMs is a main drawback for their utilization. The share of the
24-h period, a peak thermal efficiency of 80% (in case of 500 W / m2 heat
inorganic PCMs was about 11%. The low contribution of inorganic
flux) and a minimum value of 50% (in case of 700 W / m2 heat flux) were
PCMs is due to chemical instability, being corrosive to metal and
observed among the three cases. The 500 W / m2 heat flux case attained
segregation. The second most applied PCM was the eutectic type.
the maximum air outlet temperature.
Contrary to its high cost, its high heat of fusion per unit volume has
Li and Liu [65] also presented a numerical and experimental study
made it a suitable material for ventilation purposes.
concerned about the impact of heat fluxes lower than 500 W / m2 on the
PCM applications can be divided into temperature control and
thermal performance of the PCM incorporation in solar chimney. The
storage of heat or cold with high storage density. In PCM usage for
experimental data mentioned above validated the proposed numerical
temperature control, the focus is on the temperature regulation and not
method. It is observed that increasing the heat flux more than 700
on the amount of heat supplied [61]. In most space heating and cooling
W / m2 had a little impact on the system performance. However,
applications small temperature fluctuation is desirable. Therefore,

10
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
Fig. 12. Schematic of the solar house with solar chimney and adsorption cooling cavity [72].
decreasing the heat flux lower than 500 W / m2 showed an extreme
reduction on the system performance.
In order to gain further insight, Liu and Li [66] examined the
thermal performance of a solar chimney with or without the PCM.
Moreover, three different modes of operation of a solar chimney
equipped with PCM with uniform heat flux of 700 W / m2 were
investigated. Closed-fully charging mode gained the maximum solar
radiation during the day when no space heating was required for
thermal comfort. The PCM was fully-melted in this case. In open-partly
charging mode, outlet or inlet could be open in order to heat the space.
The last case was open-fully charging mode where the thermal
parameters of the chimney were specified. The experimental setups
were the same as described in [62] and is shown in Fig. 7, except that
outlet and inlet were both on the same side. The PCM based solar
chimney for close and open modes are shown in Fig. 9. Latent heat
release occurs with a relatively constant temperature range as a result
of using the PCM. Since the system was responsible to provide space
heating, the stabilized air flow rate and air outlet temperature
Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of solar chimney and cooling cavity [73].
11
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
enhanced the thermal comfort of the living space. Therefore, a PCM
based solar chimney increased the air flow rate and air outlet
temperature during the discharging period compared with a solar
chimney without PCM and vice versa in charging period. The results
showed that the closed-fully charging mode provided the highest
system efficiency. The experiments were simulated by constant artifi-
cial lightning of a solar simulator. However, its crucial to predict the
model efficiency in real climatic operation.
Safari and Torabi [67] performed a CFD simulation analysis to
examine the impact of PCM utilization in a solar chimney performance
for heating a guardroom in a winter day (December 5th) when the
ambient temperature was about 5 ˚C and solar radiation was almost at the
lowest level. Compared to the previous studies, the connection of the
system to a guardroom was investigated. The schematic of the system is
shown in Fig. 10. The guardroom was in Tehran, Iran. It was 4 m long and
2.5 m high. The roof was built of three layers of tar-layer, brick and stucco
from top to bottom. The inner and outer surface of the walls were stucco
and brick, respectively. A 25-cm layer of sodium sulphate decahydrate was
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of solar chimney with evaporative cooler wind tower [74].

used as the PCM heat storage. As shown in Fig. 11, using PCM led to a
smoother temperature profile. Moreover, it provided longer hours of
space heating compared to a solar chimney without PCM.
Dwellers are willing to utilize PCM-enhanced solar chimney without
any significant unforeseen cost for maintenance. The proposed system
cannot be freely replaced or repaired in case of its failure. So, incorpora-
tion of a PCM with long-term durability seems crucial for a proper design.
PCM micro-encapsulation shows a growing trend when it comes to PCM
packaging. This technique improves the PCM compatibility with the
building elements and can also increase the service lifetime of the system.
It is done to reduce the potential risk of leakage, increase the cyclic
stability and improve the heat transfer surface area. Although it might be
considered a costly process, the payback period of the investment might
solve the issue in near future [68].
It is revealed from this review that the PCM based solar chimneys
either developed for space heating or natural ventilation have been tested
in the laboratory, usually under controlled conditions simulating the real
conditions. Dynamic operation would definitely affect the model's beha-
vior. The influence of different kinds of PCM on solar chimney perfor-
mance could be further investigated. In order to persuade the building
owners to utilize PCM, it should be economically feasible. Commercial
PCM price is typically in the range from 0.5 £/kg to 10 £/kg for most
applications [61]. Li and Liu [62] proposed the paraffin wax that is
commercially available and very cheap (around 5 £/kg). It also showed a
good recyclability and the system could perform well for a 5-year period
without requiring any maintenance. Therefore, the increase in the cost of
the system with the use of PCM was reasonable. Since the inclusion of
PCM for a solar chimney is economical, the combination of an EAHX with
a PCM-enhanced solar chimney has the potential to attract the research-
er's attention in near future. Fig. 15. Schematic of a Trombe wall and a solar chimney combination with a water
spraying system [76].

3.3. Water consuming integrated solar chimney applications

Windcatchers have been used in Iran and many other middle
eastern countries for centuries [69]. A windcatcher provides natural
ventilation by downward airflow due to wind entry. In hot dry climates,
wind towers were built on top of a lavabo. The wind was directed over a
small pond of water, cooling the air before being blown into the house.
With the growing emphasis on the building energy demand, the
windcatcher idea has been caught on through the design of recent
building ventilation systems. A solar chimney is utilized instead of the
traditional windcatcher to enhance the ventilation rate. Additionally,
cooling cavity or water spraying system (WSS) was replaced with the
water pond. Upcoming sub-sections are devoted to water consuming
integrated solar chimney applications.

12
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
3.3.1. Solar chimney coupled with a cooling cavity
Many are agreed that global warming may be one of the greatest
threats facing the planet. This led to the new requirements for
developing ingenious natural ventilation systems. The ambient air
temperature can circulate in the building with the aid of a solar
chimney. However, stand-alone solar chimney is incapable of satisfying
thermal comfort in extreme hot weather. Precooling the outdoor air
with a cooling cavity is regarded as one of the most effective methods to
keep the room temperature low.
In one of the primary studies in the literature, Verma, Bansal [70]
signified that evaporative cooling could maintain the room temperature
at a desired level. Mathews, Kleingeld [71] simulated the integration of
an evaporative cooling system with a building by a computer program.
The program assured the thermal comfort for more than 80% of well-
designed buildings in South Africa. Dai, Sumathy [72] presented a
parametric analytical study on the enhancement of natural ventilation
in a solar house induced by a solar chimney and an adsorption cavity
for a humid climate. A comparison between the ventilation effect of the
solar chimney and the combined system was also provided without
considering the wind effect. The schematic diagram of the studied solar
house is given in Fig. 12. The wall was made of brick with outside
insulation. The outlet air entered the cavity inlet (point 0 in Fig. 12) got
cooled by the chilled water through the heat exchanger and supplied to
the room. Dampers enclosed the space between the glass cover and the
adsorption bed in order to allow the bed to get cooled effectively. The
ventilation rate at night is increased about 20% with the solar
adsorption cooling cavity. The solar adsorption COP of 0.12 could
achieve cooling to the room without any change in humidity.
Maerefat and Haghighi [73] proposed a system consisted of a solar
chimney and an evaporative cooling cavity which is shown in Fig. 13.
The solar radiation gained provide the sufficient stack in the chimney.
The stack effect inhaled the outdoor air through the cooling cavity. In
the cooling cavity, water sprayed on the wall, moved downward. Due to
the temperature difference between the water droplets and the moving-
air in the cavity, heat transfer between them occurs. The water was
then recycled to the tank by the circulation pump. Therefore, the air
supplied to the room cooled down and both cooling and ventilation
were provided. The numerical experiments showed the capability of the
system to provide thermal comfort even at low insolation rate of
200 W / m2 and high ambient air temperature of 40 ˚C . A detailed
analysis of different parameters involved in the system performance
such as the ambient conditions, dimensions of solar chimney, cavity
and room specifications were also provided. Solar chimney inlet
dimensions were dominant parameters in controlling the ACH and
the indoor air temperature. The proposed system was intended to
prepare good indoor thermal conditions for ambient air relative
humidity lower than 50%. Besides, it was suggested that the system
combination with a conventional air conditioner would create a
reasonable indoor environment for human thermal comfort as well as
reducing the air-conditioning load.
Since the threat of water crisis affects many countries, the system
reviewed above might be criticized due to its large water consumption.
Plus, the demand of electricity for the circulating pump, cost for
maintenance of the system and added space required are major
difficulties encouraged researchers to propose new system configura-
tions. Abdallah, Yoshino [74] proposed a system which is shown in
Fig. 14. Instead of a cooling cavity, an evaporative cooling wind tower
was used to cool the ambient air as it passed through the wet medium.
The evaporative pad provided a large water surface, and the pad was
wetted by dripping water. The evaporative cooler worked by a
concentric float valve, opened when the water level was low in the
collecting grill, allowing more water to enter. When the water level
returned to the full level, the valve was shut automatically. The
numerical experiments revealed that the room temperature decreased
by 10–11.5 °C compared to the ambient air temperature. This sup-
ported achieving thermal comfort during the hottest summer days,
13
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
with 95% of indoor temperature below the upper range of acceptable
comfort range during the period from 21 May to 21 August in the hot
dry climate of New Assiut City, Egypt.
Abdallah, Hiroshi [75] further developed a parametric study in
order to achieve compact and efficient design. It could be concluded
that the system achieved nearly at least 80% acceptable comfort range
based on Adaptive Comfort Standard of American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) with opti-
mum ventilation rate of 414 m3 / h for the hottest day. The system
optimized dimensions were 0.75 m × 0.4 m for the solar chimney and
1 m × 1 m for the evaporative cooler wind tower. The optimized system
perfectly satisfied carbon dioxide concentration (less than 1000 ppm )
according to ASHRAE standard, especially during daytime.
Solar chimney-cooling cavity integration is a mean for room
ventilation in summer. The system works well for regions with hot
summer and mild winter. So, an auxiliary space heating utility for
regions with cold winter is required.
3.3.2. Trombe wall in combination with solar chimney and water
spraying system
A Trombe wall is a south-facing masonry wall covered with glass
spaced a few inches away. Solar radiation passes the glass and is gained
and stored by the wall. The wall has vents provided at both the upper
and the lower parts for air circulation. Air in the space between the
glazing and the wall is heated up and enters the room space through
upper vents. Cool room air takes its place through the lower vents, thus
establishing a natural circulation pattern. Trombe walls are mainly
used as natural space heating systems. Many studies investigated the
performance of a Trombe wall with different materials, various channel
and vents dimensions [76]. A classic Trombe wall has low thermal
resistance and loses a large amount of heat at night. In hot weather and
mostly in well-insulated buildings, it might function as a source of heat
gain and causes overheating. Insulated-Trombe walls prevent this
issue. Knowing that insulation acts as a barrier to heat loss in winter
while being a source of retaining heat in summer, the overall efficiency
of insulated Trombe wall is improved. Stazi, Mastrucci [77] presented a
super-insulated Trombe wall that could decrease the total seasonal
heating and cooling energy demand by about 47% in comparison with a
classical Trombe wall. Nevertheless, insulation impact on efficiency is
regarded a controversial issue which depends on many variables. It is
suggested to identify insulation effectiveness separately according to
Trombe-wall type and location [78].
In order to overcome the inadequacy of a Trombe wall application
for natural cooling, Rabani, Kalantar [76] proposed a coupled solar
chimney-Trombe wall accompanied by a water spraying system (WSS)
increasing the air humidity for a hot dry climate in Yazd, Iran. An
experimental room was built to investigate the performance of the
system. All optimum dimensions were adopted by the previous studies
to guarantee the best operational configuration. A schematic of the
system is shown in Fig. 15. The experiments focused on many aspects
divided into three phases: in the first phase, according to the Adapted
Comfort Standard (ACS) the optimum water mass flow rate and water
droplet diameter with an average ACH of about 8, were found 10 lit / h
and 30 μm , respectively. Second-phase experiments showed that the
outdoor relative humidity had more impact on the indoor relative
humidity rather than indoor temperature. Moreover, the increase or
decrease in the outdoor relative humidity didn't significantly affect the
air velocity and ACH. The third phase of the study considered the
system performance when a sharp reduction in solar intensity oc-
curred. It is found that the stored energy decreased more and became
negative, thus showing that the heat stored in the Trombe wall during
non-sunny periods was transferred to the channel, which induced the
air ventilation. At last, utilization of the water spraying system
enhanced the thermal efficiency of the system approximately 30%.
Although, complexity is added to the system design and electricity is
demanded for running the WSS pump, the system seemed reasonable.
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
3.3.3. Solar chimney and a water spraying system
Chungloo and Limmeechokchai [79] examined two test rooms in
Thailand. One equipped with a water spraying system and a solar
chimney and the other utilized a stand-alone roof solar chimney as a
reference. The experimental results showed that water spraying on the
roof along with solar chimney could reduce indoor temperature by 2.0–
6.2 ˚C compared with ambient air and by 1.4–3.0 ˚C compared with the
reference room. Besides, a cool ceiling increased the air flow rate in
contrast to the decreased-air flow rate in the application of precooled
air to the room [80].
Rabani, Faghih [81] experiments showed that a SC-WSS combina-
tion is mostly suitable for regions with hot dry climates. It was
perceived that the combined system decreased the average room
temperature about 9–14 ˚C versus the small reduction of average room
temperature created by the solar chimney alone.
3.4. Photovoltaic panels integration with roof solar chimneys
An innovative design is to use a PV module or array installed in a
building to provide passive cooling by operating it as a roof solar
collector (RSC) with PV panel as absorber plate. An air channel is
attached at the back of the module for air circulation. This design can
improve the performance of roof integrated PV panels by collecting
heat absorbed by the panels. Moreover, it has the potential of reducing
space heating/cooling load of the building.
Khedari, Ingkawanich [82] investigated the effect of using a PV
system on the performance of a RSC. The PV system consisted of one
PV panel (27 Wp ), a DC electrical fan (7.3 W ) installed in the gap of
RSC and a control unit. This integration led to a higher ventilation rate
and ACH number. Therefore, the indoor temperature was closer to
thermal comfort condition. The proposed system was economically
feasible. Besides, the PV-powered RSC could be applied to conventional
air-conditioned buildings as an aid during the peak hours’ electricity
demand.
DeBlois, Bilec [83] prompted a roof solar chimney which was a
building integrated photovoltaic array applied to plywood on a pitched
roof. A modeling of the system was created in building energy
simulation program ESP-r to determine appropriate boundary condi-
tions. A two-dimensional CFD model was also used to calibrate key
model inputs and providing a comprehensive sensitivity analysis. The
sensitivity analysis confirmed that the flow rate was most sensitive to
the inside-outside temperature difference. Solar insolation, thermal
resistance of the roof and the convection coefficients were the other
influential parameters. The model seemed promising in providing
space cooling for a single detached mobile home.
In a following paper presented by DeBlois, Bilec [20], the afore-
mentioned configuration was adapted to identify the system perfor-
mance characteristics and potential savings under cooling demand. A
three-bedroom dwelling with an area of 184 m3 and high thermal mass
constructions was considered instead of the mobile home. Cross
ventilation was provided by placing openings in the interior walls.
Three ventilation cases operating at either regular or high efficiency
levels were described as follows: 1) baseline model which included
single-sided ventilation 2) cross ventilated case which allowed air flow
between interior zones and taking advantage of the pressure differences
between windward and leeward side of the exterior surfaces 3) the
ventilated roof case that included both cross ventilation and chimney
effect. The space was divided into four zones based on custom
occupancy patterns, the family zone (including a kitchen and living
area), the dining zone, the bed zone and the bath zone. Schedules were
developed according to behavioral assumptions for each zone. For
instance, the bed zone had higher lighting in the morning and evening
and constant occupancy through the night, while the dinning zone had
higher lighting and occupancy at meal times and during the weekend.
The simulations were performed within four U.S climate types.
Pittsburgh (mild summer), Phoenix (hot-arid climate), Albuquerque
14
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
(moderate semi-arid climate) and Atlanta (humid subtropical climate).
All of the cases simulated were for high thermal mass constructions
with ideal control. The results revealed that cooling load reductions
with cross ventilation were from 23% (Phoenix) to 64% (Pittsburgh),
and ventilated roof savings from 49% to 92%. Load reductions up to
70% were possible in all climates by proper combination of the
techniques.
It is reported that the efficiency of the most commercial PV panels
drops down around 0.5% for a one-degree temperature rise of the solar
cells. The heat removal techniques from the PV panels are not limited
to natural air cooling. A novel design is to assemble a PCM layer as a
heat sink on backside of PV module and a ventilated air cavity. The
PCM layer has the advantage of delaying the temperature rise of panel
without any electricity consumption. Advising highlights regarding the
selection of the suitable PCM for PV cooling may be found in [84].
The hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) systems have been studied
in great extent in the literature. The study of PV/T collector systems
were introduced since 1970s [85]. The advantage of the PV/T system in
generating electricity and simultaneous provision of useful heat makes
it suitable for building applications. This paper is not intended to
present a detailed review of PV/T systems owing to the fact that these
systems are basically focused on photovoltaic cells. However, the
interested readers may refer to [86–89].
4. Discussion
There are different motivations that drive us towards green building
development. The brunt of climate change is regarded as an altruistic
motivation since it will be borne by future generations. Reducing
building energy demand is an issue addressed in green building
development. Natural ventilation provided by solar chimney is re-
garded as an innovative strategy reducing the energy demand. Solar
chimney has been extensively studied in the literature as an element to
implement natural ventilation in buildings where solar energy is
available. This study can be divided into two parts: the first part
discussed recent progresses in developing a SC application whether for
space heating or cooling. The second part, is devoted to the integration
of common systems based on SC. These systems enhance the thermal
performance of SC and extend its utilization usually for locations where
stand-alone SC is unpromising to achieve thermal comfort. The
presented report can be a topic of practical interest for future research.
Earlier studies focused on enhancing the ventilation rate and/or air
temperature increase in the solar chimney by considering different
design parameters. The most considered influencing factors were solar
insolation, chimney inclination angle and chimney height to gap ratio.
Numerical simulations have lessened the deviation gap between
experimental and analytical results. They have the ability to extend
the list of influential parameters and modify design considerations to
get closer to SC realistic performance.
Solar absorptance of the absorber wall, solar transmittance of the
glass cover, wind velocity and internal heat load were considered as
newly introduced parameters in the literature. A few papers outlined
correlations for calculating the air flow rate or chimney thermal
performance based on a parametric analysis [16,27,32]. It is suggested
to refine the existing parametric analysis by considering more input
variables such as the airflow humidity. It would be worth mentioning
that the optimum combination of parameters may vary with the
latitude. Future research should make an assessment of correlations
that can diminish the latitude dependency.
CFD has a major share of SC studies in the literature. It offers
relevant details of temperature or velocity distribution in the chimney
channel. Improved numerical accuracy by considering a larger compu-
tational domain, evaluation of pressure loss coefficients, modifying the
chimney layout to suppress reverse flow and chamfering the chimney
inlet and outlet edge to prevent flow separation are contributions of
this study method to move towards a better design. The authors believe
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
that uncertainties arising by imposing the proper boundary conditions
for the computational domain is still a challenging aspect of CFD
modeling. To the best of the authors knowledge, none of the reviewed
articles mentioned the boundary effect in buoyancy-driven ventilation
systems except Bangalee, Miau [90]. Thus, the guidelines in this field
can be further developed.
The integration of EAHX and SC is an innovative idea to enhance
natural ventilation. The EAHX acts as a precooling strategy for hot
season and a preheating strategy for cold season. A detailed analysis of
the EAHX independent application was not intended to be included in
this review. Instead, a deliberate attempt to notice the benefits and
design considerations of the coupled system was made. It is revealed
that the system effectiveness for space heating and cooling differs
remarkably based on the location climate and soil type. The following
observations are derived according to this review:
• The system might not be able to achieve thermal comfort for hot
humid climate.
• Dense damp soil with considerable shade will improve the system
efficiency.
• High water table, insufficient space and shallow bedrock are
obstacles in implementation of the system.
• Soil temperature recovery is possible by defining an intermittent or a
suitable system operational schedule.
• In spite of relatively high installation expenses, long-term operation
and low maintenance cost makes it a promising ventilation system.
There is a large number of publications focused on PCM as a major
subject for building applications. These are presented as a combination
of walls, space-conditioning systems containing PCMs, active solar
heating systems and the large-scale whole building seasonal thermal
storage applications [57]. However, PCM-enhanced solar chimney is
relatively a new subject. Since there is a wide range of PCMs proposed
in the literature for ventilation purposes [60,91], the authors believe
the appropriate selection of the PCM and the performance of the SC
under the influence of different PCMs are regarded as research
opportunities. The following reasons can persuade designers to take
advantage of PCM in SC design:
• It can decrease the sensitivity of the SC to sudden fluctuations in
heat input rate.
• Longer hours of ventilation are available; especially for night times
or cloudy days.
• A wide selection of PCMs are available on the market that are
reasonable enough to be considered economically feasible.
• It only requires minor modifications to an independent SC config-
uration.
It is preferred that the PCM temperature remains relatively con-
stant during the phase change process. This is useful for keeping the
space at a desired uniform temperature. PCM in the SC will usually not
meet the theoretical assumption that the entire phase change transition
occurs during each diurnal cycle. In reality, typically the phase change
process will start from a partially melted state, resulting from
incomplete night time solidification, partial daytime melting or tem-
perature fluctuations throughout the day. Therefore, investigating the
system when PCM is not fully melted or is working under real climatic
situation needs further research.
The above-mentioned systems based on SC, might not be suitable
for achieving comfort in hot-arid climates. Water consuming systems
based on SC would likely operate effectively in these regions. The main
challenge for widespread usage of these natural evaporative systems is
scarce water sources in arid regions. The loss of water by evaporation
will increase the operational cost which is not desirable. Thus, the
reviewed papers sought systems that can minimize water consumption
as their chief objective.
15
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
In recent years, technologies related to hybrid photovoltaic-thermal
(PV/T) modules have increased with fast pace. These systems generate
heat and electricity simultaneously. The idea of the concept is to utilize
more solar radiation by also harvesting the heat accumulated in PV
panels. The authors believe the integration of active solar systems like PV
panels with chimneys are out of the scope of this paper. These systems are
basically concerned with the active system rather than the SC.
5. Conclusions
Solar chimney as an excellent passive strategy is used to enhance
natural ventilation and thus reduce the need of auxiliary energy for
thermal comfort. Over the last few decades, solar chimneys have been
extensively studied numerically and experimentally. Solar chimney
utilization is not efficient in hot arid or humid climate and for regions
with low insolation. Therefore, research on development of a combina-
tion system could be an alternative.
A solar chimney coupled with an earth-air heat exchanger is advised
to utilize both the solar and the geothermal energy. The system is
basically favored because it is capable of providing space heating in
winter and cooling effect in summer. However, its applicability is
widely dependent on the location latitude and altitude, soil type, water
table, soil moisture and building design. A model that is optimized
based on parametric studies of the coupled system would further reveal
the effectiveness of the system. In order to deeply understand the
system performance, further research including the influence of ice-
formation in winter, dynamic operating and real experimental condi-
tions should be provided.
The investigation of PCM for heating and cooling applications in
building is back to 1930s. For PCM-technology, the key parameters of
human comfort requirements are the temperature of the air and of the
surrounding surfaces, because PCM can only influence these para-
meters [61]. In this paper, research regarding incorporation of PCM
and a solar chimney was mentioned. The potential of PCM to reduce
temperature fluctuations, specifically to cut peak temperatures makes it
suitable in solar chimney design. Among the proposed configurations,
the inclusion of PCM in SC is the simplest and the most economical.
The selection of the proper PCM for the system should be investigated
in further research. As proper ventilation is the primary concern, the
designer is eager to come up with the scenario of equipping an EAHX-
SC system with PCM in future research. It should be noted that the
performance of a PCM-enhanced SC should be tested in real conditions
to persuade the building users. So, it seems necessary to carry out more
experiments in the area.
Water consuming systems based on solar chimneys are suitable
mostly for regions with hot and dry climate. Different configurations of
the system are proposed. Water consuming systems increase the
thermal efficiency of solar chimney significantly. The biggest disadvan-
tage for widespread public use of the coupled system is the lack of
sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a
region. Therefore, a challenging aspect is developing the least-water
consuming and the most optimized system.
The hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) systems have been studied
in great extent in the literature. An innovative idea is to combine
photovoltaic panels and a roof solar chimney. The ability of the system
to enhance ventilation and generate electricity at the same time makes
it a compatible design.
The design of the proposed-systems involves unpredictable vari-
ables such as weather and inhabitants’ attitude. The physical processes
involved are complicated. Moreover, there can be considerable un-
certainty in specifying important parameters, such as wind pressures,
internal temperatures and building leakage. The mentioned integrated
systems were all investigated based on the first law of thermodynamics
or energy analysis. However, energy efficiencies are unable to provide
information about how nearly the performance of a system approaches
ideality. Exergy analysis shows the potential for better matching the
N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee
energy source and the energy demand. Besides, exergy can be
considered as a confluence between energy, environment and economy.
This might be a research opportunity to compare the SC integrated
systems based on an exergy analysis. The process of investigating these
systems are still in progress. Thus, at this level there is not a strict
judgment to decide which system is superior. It is concluded that each
system has its own pros and cons which might be suitable for one
region while being impractical for the other.
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