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Need for Unconventional Processes

• New materials having high strength and hardness, such as
nimonic alloys and alloys with alloying elements such as

NTMM tungsten, molybdenum, and columbium are difficult to machine

by the traditional methods.
• By conventional machining the MRR reduces with an increase in
the work material hardness.
• Need for development of non-traditional machining processes
which utilize other methods such as electrochemical processes
for the material removal.

Need for Unconventional Processes In Unconventional Machining

• Complex shapes. • Different forms of energy directly applied to the workpiece
to have shape transformation or material removal from work
• A very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of the surface.
surface to be machined. • No chips, No lay pattern on work surface, no direct physical
contact between the tool and the workpiece .
• The tool material does not have to be harder than the work
material.
• Tool forces do not increase as the work material gets harder.

Classification of NTMM 1. Thermal Energy Methods

The Non-traditional Machining Methods are classified
• Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
according to the major energy sources employed in
machining. • Laser beam Machining (LBM)
1. Thermal Energy Methods
• Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
2. Electro - Chemical Energy Method
• Electron Beam Machining(EBM)
3. Chemical Energy Methods
• Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
4. Mechanical Energy Methods

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2. Electro - Chemical Energy Method 3. Chemical Energy Methods

These methods involve controlled etching of the workpiece
•Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM) material in contact with a chemical solution.
•Electro-Chemical grinding (ECG)
• Chemical Machining Method (CHM).
•Electro-Chemical Honing (ECH)

•Electro-Chemical Deburring (ECD)

V.V. IMP
4. Mechanical Energy Methods Some Observations
• EDM has the lowest specific power requirement and can
• Ultra Sonic Machining (USM)
achieve sufficient accuracy.
• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) • ECM has the highest metal removal rate, MRR.
• USM and AJM have low MRR and combined with high tool
• Water Jet Machining (WJM) wear, are used for non-metal cutting.
• LBM and EBM have high penetration rates with low MRR
and, therefore, are commonly used for micro drilling, sheet
cutting, and welding.
• CHM is used for manufacturing shallow components.
• PAM can be used for clean, rapid cuts and profiles in almost
all plates upto 20 cm thick with 5o to 10o taper.

Limitations of NTMM IES - 2012

Which of the following processes has very high material
• Expensive set up, low MRR and skilled labour required.
removal rate efficiency?
• The limitation of electrical machining methods is that the (a) Electron beam machining
(b) Electrochemical machining
work material must be an:-
(c) Electro discharge machining
a) electrical conductor. (d) Plasma arc machining

b) consumption of electrical energy is very large.

Ans. (b)

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GATE - 2006 IES - 2009

Arrange the processes in the increasing order of their
maximum material removal rate.
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) and
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
(a) USM, LBM, EBM, EDM, ECM
(b) EBM, LBM, USM, ECM, EDM
(c) LBM, EBM, USM, ECM, EDM
(d) LBM, EBM, USM, EDM, ECM
Which one of the following statements is correct in respect
of unconventional machining processes?
(a) The cutting tool is in direct contact with the job
(b) The tool material needs to be harder than the job
material
(c) The tool is never in contact with the job
(d) There has to be a relative motion between the tool and
the job
Ans. (d)

Electrochemical Machining
• Electrochemical machining is the reverse of electro plating
• The work-piece is made the anode, which is placed in close
proximity to an electrode (cathode), and a high-amperage

ECM
direct current is passed between them through an
electrolyte, such as salt water, flowing in the anode-cathode
gap.
• Metal is removed by anodic dissolution and is carried away
in the form of a hydroxide in the electrolyte for recycling or
recovery.
• MRR in ECM depends on atomic weight of work material

Electro plating: The

article to be plated (the
work) is made the
cathode (negative
electrode) of an
electrolysis cell through
which a direct electric
current is passed.

3

Fig- Electrochemical Machining process
ECM Equipment
ECM Equipment
• The electrolyte consists of the metal debris removed from
the anode, which will have to be filtered before it is re-
pumped into the system.
• Also a large amount of heat is generated during the
electrolysis, which heats up the electrolyte, and hence it
needs to be cooled.
11/24/2018
Electrochemical Machining
• Variation in the current density will result in work taking the
electrodes shape.
• The electrode is fed with a constant velocity, and the
electrolyte is fed through the tool.
ECM Equipment
• Supply Voltage 2 to 35 V DC and Current 500 to 40,000 A
• The tool-to-work gap needs to be maintained at a very small
value 0.1 to 0.25 mm. A servo drive is provided on the tool
axis for this purpose.
• The electrolyte needs to be pumped through this gap at
high pressures ranging from 0.70 to 3.00 MPa. This
introduces a large amount of load on the machine, because
of the large working areas involved. Hence the machine
structure will have to be made rigid to a withstand such
forces.
Electrolyte
The electrolyte is so chosen that the anode (workpiece) is
dissolved but no deposition takes place on the cathode
(tool).
Properties electrolyte should be
1. High electrical conductivity
2. Low viscosity
3. High specific heat
4. Chemical stability
5. Non-corrosive and non-toxic
6. Inexpensive and readily available
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Tool
The properties of tool materials should be:
1. High electrical and thermal conductivity

2. Easy machinability

3. Good sthiffness

4. High corrosion resistance

For ECM of steel NaCl is

• Tool materials: Copper, brass, bronze, Al, Stainless Steel, Cupro nickel,
etc.

used as the electrolyte. • Material wear / Tool wear: Infinite

Advantages
1. Complex three-dimensional surfaces can be machined
accurately. Good for low machinability or complicated
shapes.
2. As ECM leads to :-
 atomic level dissolution, the surface finish is excellent (Ra
0.2 to 0.6 μm) with
 almost stress free machined surface and without any
thermal damage.
3. The tool wear is practically nil which results in a large
number of components produced per tool.
4. MRR is highest (1600 mm3/min) among NTMM and
comparable with conventional machining.
Disadvantages
1. Use of corrosive media as electrolytes makes it difficult to
handle.
2. Sharp interior edges and corners (< 0.2 mm radius) are
difficult to produce.
3. Very expensive machine.
4. Forces are large with this method because of fluid
pumping forces.
5. Very high specific energy consumption (about 150 times
that required for conventional processes),
6. Not applicable with electrically non-conducting materials
and jobs with very small dimensions

Applications ISRO-2009
• Any electrically conductive work material irrespective of
their hardness, strength or even thermal properties. The machining process in which the work piece is dissolved
• The machining surface can be situated at any inaccessible.
• Shape application – blind complex cavities, curved into an electrolyte solution is called
surfaces, through cutting, large through cavities.
(a) Electro-chemical machining
• It is used for the machining of the gas turbine blades.
• Die sinking (b) Ultrasonic machining
• Profiling and contouring
• Trepanning (c) Electro-discharge machining
• Grinding
(d) Laser machining
• Drilling
Ans. (a)
• Micro-machining

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PSU PSU
ECM cannot be undertaken for
(a) steel Commercial ECM is carried out at a combination of
(b) Nickel based superalloy (a) low voltage high current
(c) Al2O3 (b) low current low voltage
(d) Titanium alloy (c) high current high voltage
(d) low current low voltage

Ans. (c) Ans. (a)

IAS-2011 Main ECM Calculations

Faraday’s laws state that,
E=Atomic
m = It E
What is the principle of electro-chemical machining
(ECM)? Weight/Valancy
What are the advantages and disadvantages of ECM
over conventional drilling? F
Where m = weight (g) of a material
Comment on the surface finish and the accuracy of
the ECM. I = current (A)
[20-Marks] t = time (sec)
E = gram equivalent weight of the
material
F = constant of proportionality –
Faraday (96,500 coulombs)

ECM Calculations ECM Calculations

•MRR = EI
g/s 
AI
g/s
F F. V -3

If you put E = equivalent weight in CGS i.e. g/mole

I in Ampere (A)
F = 96500 columb/mole i. e. As/mole
The MRR will be in g/s

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ECM Calculations Overvoltage

• MRR for pure metal
• If the total over voltage at the anode and the cathode is ΔV and the
AI  cm3  EI  cm3  applied voltage is V, the current I is given by,
    
vF  sec  F  sec 
V  V
• MRR for Alloy I
R
Eeq I  cm3 
  (V  V )
eq F  sec  JS 
100 x  100 x v 
Y
  i  and   i i 
eq i  i  Eeq i  Ai 

Example GATE-2008 (PI)

Using ECM remove 5 cm3/minfrom an iron workpiece, what In an electro chemical machining (ECM) operation, a square
current is required?
hole of dimensions 5 mm x 5 mm is drilled in a block of
Atomic weight of iron 56, density 7.8 g/cm3 valency, 2
copper. The current used is 5000 A. Atomic weight of cupper
is 63 and valency of dissolution is 1. Faraday’s constant is
96500 coulomb. The material removal rate (in g/s) is
(a) 0.326 (b) 3.260 (c) 3.15 x 103 (d) 3.15 x 105

GATE – 2011 (PI) Example (GATE-2009)

While removing material from iron (atomic weight = 56, Electrochemical machining is performed to remove material
valency = 2 and density = 7.8 g/cc) by electrochemical from an iron surface of 20 mm x 20 mm under the following
machining, a metal removal rate of 2 cc/min is desired. The conditions:
current (in A) required for achieving this material removal Inter electrode gap= 0.2 mm
rate is
Supply Voltage (DC) = 12 V
(a) 896.07 (b) 14.93
Specific resistance of electrolyte = 2 cm
(c) 448.03 (d) 53764.29 
Atomic weight of Iron = 55.85
Valency of Iron = 2
Faraday's constant = 96540 Coulombs
The material removal rate (in g/s) is

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GATE-2013 Question from IIT Kharagpur Notes

During the electrochemical machining (ECM) of iron
(atomic weight = 56, valency = 2) at current of 1000 A with
90% current efficiency, the material removal rate was
observed to be 0.26 gm/s. If Titanium (atomic weight = 48,
valency = 3) is machined by the ECM process at the current
of 2000 A with 90% current efficiency, the expected
material removal rate in gm/s will be
(a) 0.1 1 (b) 0.23 (c) 0.30 (d) 0.52
Composition of a Nickel super-alloy is as follows:
Ni = 70.0%, Cr = 20.0%, Fe = 5.0% and rest Titanium
Calculate rate of dissolution if the area of the tool is 1500
mm2 and a current of 1000 A is being passed through the
cell. Assume dissolution to take place at lowest valancy of
the elements.

GATE - 2008 Flow analysis

• To calculate the fluid flow required, match the heat
A researcher conducts electrochemical machining (ECM) on
generated to the heat absorbed by the electrolyte.
a binary alloy (density 6000 kg/m3) of iron (atomic weight
56, valency 2) and metal P (atomic weight 24, valency 4).
Faraday's constant = 96500 coulomb/mole. Volumetric
material removal rate of the alloy is 50 mm3/s at a current
of 2000 A. The percentage of the metal P in the alloy is • Neglecting all the heat losses

closest to
l2R  q e ce (B  o )
(a) 40 (b) 25 (c) 15 (d) 79

Example GATE 2016 SET-2

The electrochemical machining of an iron surface that is 25
mm × 25 mm in cross-section using NaCl in water as • The surface irregularities of electrodes used in an electrochemical
electrolyte. The gap between the tool and the workpiece is machining (ECM) process are 3 μm and 6 μm as shown in the figure.
If the work-piece is of pure iron and 12V DC is applied between the
0.25 mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific electrodes, the largest feed rate is ____mm/min.
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 Ωcm. Calculate MRR and the
Feed rate.
Estimate the electrolyte flow rate. Specific heat of the
electrolyte is given as 0.997 cal/g˚C. The ambient Conductivity of the electrolyte 0.02 ohm-1mm-1
temperature is 35˚C and the electrolyte boiling temperature,
is 95˚C. Open-potential voltage 1.5V
Density, = 7860 kg/m3 Density of iron 7860kg/m3
Atomic weight of iron 55.85gm

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Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

• In ECG:-
the tool electrode is a rotating, metal bonded, diamond grit
grinding wheel.
• As the electric current flows between the workpiece and the
wheel, through the electrolyte,
a. the surface metal is changed to a metal oxide,
b. which is ground away by the abrasives.
As the oxide film is removed, new surface metal is oxidized
and removed.

Continue….
• ECG is a low-voltage high-current electrical
process.
• The purpose of the abrasive is to increase the
efficiency of the ECG process and permit the
continuance of the process.
• The abrasive particles are
a. always nonconductive material such as
aluminum oxide, diamond, or borazon (CBN). Video 5
b. Thus they act as an insulating spacer maintaining
a separation of from 0.012 to 0.050 mm
between the electrodes.
Equipment setup and electrical circuit for electrochemical grinding.

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) IES - 2000

• The process is used for shaping and sharpening
carbide cutting tools, which cause high wear rates on
expensive diamond wheels in normal grinding.
Electrochemical grinding greatly reduces this wheel
wear.
• Fragile parts (honeycomb structures), surgical needles,
and tips of assembled turbine blades have been ECG-
processed successfully.
• Inter electrode gap in ECG is controlled by Controlling
the size of diamond particle in the wheel
Consider the following statements:
In electrochemical grinding,
1. A rubber bonded alumina grinding wheel acts as the
cathode and the workplace as the anode.
2. A copper bonded alumina grinding wheel acts as the
cathode and the work piece as the anode.
3. Metal removal takes place due to the pressure applied by
the grinding wheel.
4. Metal removal takes place due to electrolysis.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and3 Ans. (b)

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Other Electrochemical processes GATE - 2001

In ECM, the material removal is due to
(a) Corrosion
•Electrochemical polishing
(b) Erosion
•Electrochemical hole-drilling (c) Fusion
(d) Ion displacement
•Electrochemical Deburring

Ans. (d)

GATE - 1997 GATE - 1997

Selection electrolyte for ECM is as follows:
(a) Non-passivating electrolyte for stock removal and
passivating electrolyte for finish control
(b) Passivating electrolyte for stock removal and non-
passivating electrolyte for finish control
(c) Selection of electrolyte is dependent on current density
(d) Electrolyte selection is based on tool- work electrodes
Inter electrode gap in ECG is controlled by
(a) Controlling the pressure of electrolyte flow
(b) Controlling the applied static load
(c) Controlling the size of diamond particle in the wheel
(d) Controlling the texture of the work piece

Ans. (d) Ans. (c)

Mechanism of Material Removal

Potential difference
Generally tool negative and
work positive
Electric field is established
Tool and work piece – conductor
of electricity

Once this electrical field is established, these free

EDM
electrons would be plucked because they would be
experiencing lot of electrostatic force. If the work function
of the tool material or the work material of the tool
material is less, then these electrons will come out
because of the presence of electrical field.

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Physical Principle Physical Principle

• Basic process • An arc jumps between two points along the path of least
resistance.

Physical Principle Physical Principle

• The energy of the arc is so concentrated that it causes the • The metal and dielectric fluid is partly vaporized, causing
electrode, and the work to melt. But the electrode material sudden expansion.
is chosen so that it melts less.

Physical Principle Characteristics of EDM

• The blast from the expanding vapors knocks some molten
particles loose, and the remaining molten metal hardens.
Video 6 &
7 μm.
• Mechanics of material removal:-
a. melting and
b. evaporation aided by cavitation.
• The process is based on melting temperature, not hardness,
so some very hard materials can be machined this way.
• The arc that jumps heats the metal, and about 1 to 10% of
the molten metal goes into the fluid. The melted metal then
recast layer is about 1 to 30 μm thick, and is generally hard
and rough.
• The electrode workpiece gap is in the range of 10 μm to 100

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EDM Tool EDM Tool

Prime requirements EDM tool Material
The usual choices for tool (electrode) materials are
1. It should be electrically conductive.
• Copper, Electrical & thermal conductivity Good
2. It should have good machinability, thus allowing
easy manufacture of complex shapes. • brass,
3. It should have low erosion rate or good work to tool • alloys of zinc and tin,
wear ratio. • hardened plain carbon steel,
4. It should have low electrical resistance. • copper tungsten,
5. It should have high melting point. • silver tungsten,
6. It should have high electron emission. • tungsten carbide,
• copper graphite, and graphite.

Wear Ratio Servo-Mechanism

• One major drawback of EDM is the wear that occurs on the
• The gap between the tool and work has a critical
electrode at each spark. Tool wear is given in terms of wear
ratio which is defined as, importance.

Volume of metal removed work
Wear ratio =
Volume of metal removed tool
• Wear ratio for brass electrode is 1: 1. For most other metallic
electrodes, it is about 3: 1 or 4: 1.
• With graphite (with the highest melting point, 3500°C), the
wear ratio may range from 5: 1 up to 50: 1.
• As the workpiece is machined, this gap tends to increase. For
optimum machining efficiency, this gap should be
maintained constant.
• This is done by servo- mechanism which controls the
movement of the electrode.

Dielectric Fluid Relaxation circuit

• Fluid is used to act as a dielectric, and to help carry away
debris.
• If the fluid is pumped through and out the end of the
electrode, particles will push out, and mainly collect at the
edges. They will lower the dielectric resistance, resulting in Fig-Relaxation circuit used for generating the pulses in EDM process
more arcs. As a result the holes will be conical.
• Quite often kerosene-based oil.
• The dielectric fluid is circulated through the tool at a
pressure of 0.35 N/m2 or less. To free it from eroded metal
particles, it is circulated through a filter.

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t
( ) GATE – 2012 (PI) Linked S-1
Vc  Vo{1  e RC
} In an EDM process using RC relaxation circuit, a 12 mm
diameter through hole is made in a steel plate of 50 mm
thickness using a graphite tool and kerosene as dielectric.
Vo =Open circuit voltage Assume discharge time to be negligible. Machining is carried
R=Charging resistance out under the following conditions:
C=Capacitance Resistance 40 Ω
Vc=Instantaneous capacitor voltage during charging
Capacitance 20 μF
t=voltage at any time
Supply voltage 220 V
Spark energy Discharge voltage 110 V
1 The time for one cycle, in milliseconds, is
Es  C(Vc)2 J / cycle (a) 0.55 (b) 0.32 (c) 0.89 (d) 0.24
2

GATE – 2012 (PI) Linked S-2 GATE -2015-set-2

In an EDM process using RC relaxation circuit, a 12 mm
diameter through hole is made in a steel plate of 50 mm • A resistance-capacitance relaxation circuit is used in
thickness using a graphite tool and kerosene as dielectric. an electrical discharge machining process. The
Assume discharge time to be negligible. Machining is carried discharge voltage is 100 V. At a spark cycle time of
out under the following conditions: 25 μs the average power input required is 1 kW. The
Resistance 40 Ω capacitance (in μF)the circuit is
Capacitance 20 μF (A) 2.5
Supply voltage 220 V (B) 5.0
Discharge voltage 110 V (C) 7.5
Average power input (in kW) is (D) 10.0
(a) 0.373 (b) 0.137 (c) 0.218 (d) 0.500

Advantages
1. Hardness, toughness or brittleness of the material poses
no problems. Due to this EDM can be used for machining
materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by
conventional methods.
2. The method does not leave any chips or burrs on the work
piece.
3. Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine
work can be done.
4. The process dimension repeatability and surface finish
obtained in finishing are extremely good.
5. The characteristic surface obtained, which is made up of
craters, helps in better oil retention. This improves die
life.
Disadvantages
1. Only electrically conductive materials can be machined by
EDM. Thus non - metallic, such as plastics, ceramics or
glass, cannot be machined by EDM.
2. Electrode wear and over-cut are serious problems.
3. A re-hardened, highly stressed zone is produced on the
work surface by the heat generated during machining.
This brittle layer can cause serious problems when the
part is put into service.
4. Perfectly square corners cannot be made by EDM.
5. High specific energy consumption (about 50 times that in
conventional machining)
6. MRR is quite low

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Applications IES 2009 Conventional

• In EDM method:-
i. What is the principle of metal removal in EDM
a. small holes, about 0.13 mm, in diameter and as deep as process?
ii. Describe the process with the help of sketch.
20mm diameters can be drilled with virtually no bending
iii. List advantages and limitations of the system.
or drifting of hole. [ 15 marks]

b. particularly useful for machining of small holes, orifices or

slots in diesel-fuel injection nozzles, or in aircraft engines,
air brake valves and so on.

Wire EDM Video 8

• Wire EDM is a special form of EDM wherein the electrode is
a continuously moving conductive wire.

• A thin wire of brass, tungsten, or copper is used as an

electrode.

• The electrode wire is typically made with a 0.05 to 0.25-mm

diameter, which is wire electrode wound between the two
spools.

• Deionized water is used as the dielectric.

Wire EDM
 Geometrically accurate but
• This process is much faster than electrode EDM. moderately finished straight
toothed metallic spur gears.
• This process is widely used for :-
a. the manufacture of punches,  both external and internal type
gear, can be produced by wire type
b. dies,
Electro discharge Machining (EDM).
c. and stripper plates, with modern machines capable of
cutting die relief,
d. intricate openings,
e. tight radius contours, and corners routinely.

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Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)

• EDG is similar to EDM except that the electrode is a rotating
wheel (usually graphite).
• Positively charged work pieces are immersed in or flooded
by a dielectric fluid and fed past the negatively charged
wheel by servo-controlled machine table.
• Metal is removed by intermittent high frequency electrical
discharges passing through the gap between wheel and
workpiece.
• Each spark discharge melts or vaporizes a small amount of
metal from the workpiece surface, producing a small crate at
the discharge sit, as in EDM.
Fig- Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)

GATE - 2004 GATE - 1999

The mechanism of material removal in EDM process is In Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM), the tool is made of
(a) Melting and Evaporation (a) Copper (b) High Speed Steel
(b) Melting and Corrosion (c) Cast Iron (d) Plain Carbon Steel
(c) Erosion and Cavitation
(d) Cavitation and Evaporation

Ans. (a) Ans. (a)

GATE - 2003 GATE-2010 (PI)

As tool and work are not in contact in EDM process
(a) No relative motion occurs between them
(b) No wear of tool occurs
(c) No power is consumed during metal cutting
(d) No force between tool and work occurs
Ans. (d)
Keeping all other parameters unchanged, the tool wear in
electrical discharge machining (EDM) would be less if the
tool material has
(a) high thermal conductivity and high specific heat
(b) high thermal conductivity and low specific heat
(c) low thermal conductivity and low specific heat
(d) low thermal conductivity and high specific heat
Ans. (a)

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GATE - 2007 GATE - 2005

In electro discharge machining (EDM), if the thermal A zigzag cavity in a block of high
conductivity of tool is high and the specific heat of work strength alloy is to be finish
piece is low, then the tool wear rate and material removal machined. This can be carried out
rate are expected to be respectively by using
(a) High and high (b) Low and low (a) Electric discharge machining
(c) High and low (d) Low and high (b) Electro-chemical machining
(c) Laser beam machining
(d) Abrasive flow machining

Ans. (d) Ans. (a)

GATE- 2000
Deep hole drilling of small diameter, say 0.2 mm is done
Ultrasonic Machining
with EDM by selecting the tool material as
(a) Copper wire (b) Tungsten wire
(c) Brass wire (d) Tungsten carbide

Ans. (a)

Ultrasonic Machining Ultrasonic Machining

• In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at
an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of
around 15 – 50 μm over the workpiece.
• Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F.
Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of
water based slurry.
• As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive
particles act as the indenters and indent both the work
material and the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent,
the work material, would remove the same, particularly if
the work material is brittle, due to crack initiation,
propagation and brittle fracture of the material.

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Ultrasonic Machining Ultrasonic Machining

• USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials {which
are poor conductors of electricity and thus cannot be
processed by Electrochemical and Electro-discharge
machining (ECM and EDM)}.
• At full indentation, the indentation depth in the work
material is characterized by δw. Due to the indentation, as
the work material is brittle, brittle fracture takes place
leading to hemi-spherical fracture of diameter ‘2x’ under the
contact zone.
• If at any moment of time, there are an average ‘n’ of grits
and the tool is vibrating at a frequency ‘f’ then material
removal rate can be expressed as

• MRRw 2
  ( w db )3/2 nf
3

Process Parameters Effect of machining parameters on MRR

Feed force (F)

Amplitude of vibration (ao)

average grit diameter, dg

Frequency of vibration (f)

Volume concentration of abrasive

in water slurry – C

Ultrasonic Machine Video-13 Ultrasonic Machine

• Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the
tool during machining
• The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
• The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the
vibration to the required amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and
accommodates the tool at its tip.

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Subsystems of USM Transducer

• The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer.
The transducer is driven by suitable signal generator
followed by power amplifier. The transducer for USM works
B on the following principle
Piezoelectric effect
Magnetostrictive effect
A C Electrostrictive effect
• Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and robust
amongst all.

E D

GATE -2010 (PI) Tool

Ultrasonic machines, used in material removal processes, require ultrasonic • Tools should be constructed from relatively ductile materials.
transducers. The transducers works on different working principles. One of the
working principles of such ultrasonic transducers is based on
• The harder the tool material, the faster its wear rate will be.

(a) eddy current effect (b) Seebeck effect

(c) piezo-resistive effect (d) piezo-electric effect

BECAUSE
The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material,
would remove the same, particularly if the work
material is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation
Ans. (d) and brittle fracture of the material.

Limitations Applications
• Low MRR • Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,
• Rather high tool wear semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
• Low depth of hole • Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes
and surface impressions.
• Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

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Note GATE - 1994

• The following material is generally machined by USM Ultrasonic machining is about the best process for making
(i) Glass holes in glass which are comparable in size with the
(ii) Silicon thickness of the sheet.
(iii) Germanium The above statement is
• Tool in USM is generally made of Steel (a) True
• For ultrasonic machining the job need not be a conductor of (b) False
electricity. It can be used for drilling precise holes and (c) Cant say
intricate shaped machining on ceramic, glass, quartz (d) Insufficient data

Ans. (a)

IES 2011 GATE - 1993

USM has good machining performance for : In ultrasonic machining process, the material removal rate
will be higher for materials with
(a) Al
(a) Higher toughness (b) Higher ductility
(b) Steel
(c) Super alloys (c) Lower toughness (d) Higher fracture strain
(d) Refractory material

Ans. (d) Ans. (c)

GATE - 1992 IES - 2006

In Ultrasonic Machining (USM) the material removal rate During ultrasonic machining, the metal removal is achieved
would by
(a) Increase (a) High frequency eddy currents
(b) Decrease (b) high frequency sound waves
(c) Increase and then decrease (c) Hammering action of abrasive particles
(d) decrease and then increase (d) Rubbing action between tool and workpiece
with increasing mean grain diameter of the abrasive
material.

Ans. (c) Ans. (c)

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Chemical Machining Chemical Machining

• Chemicals are used to dissolve material

• Masks are used to control attack

• Most common use is circuit boards and plates for printing.

• Cutting speed of 0.0025-0.1 mm/minute – very slow

Photo-Chemical Machining Photo-Chemical Machining

• PCM is a material removal process using chemicals
(etchants) to produce high precision parts.
• This process is also known as Photo Etching, Chemical
Blanking and Photo Chemical Milling.
• Coat both sides of the plate with photoresist. (photoresist is
a polymer that adheres to the metal when exposed to UV
light).
• Spray metal with etchant or dip it in hot acidic solution to
etch all material other than part covered with photoresist
(1-15 min.).
• Rinse the plate to ensure photoresist and etchant
removal.

Laser Beam Machining Laser Beam Machining

Video-10

• Direct laser beam against surface of workpiece, as in

laser welding

• Successive pulses from laser gun vaporize tiny bits of

workpiece

• Location of laser beam controlled by computer

• Workpiece need not be conductive

• Cuts are tapered

152 153

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Laser Beam Machining Electron Beam Machining

• Workpiece placed in vacuum chamber
• Produces large remelt zone
• High-voltage electron beam directed toward workpiece
• Can produce holes as small as 0.0005 mm diameter
• Energy of electron beam melts/ vaporizes selected region of workpiece
• Can produce deep holes
• Electron beam moved by deflection coils
• Used to produce cooling holes in blades/vanes for jet engines
• Similar process to EB welding

155

Electron Beam Machining Plasma Arc Cutting

Video-9
• Plasma is a stream of ionized gas

• Typical temperatures are very high

• Same process as plasma welding, without filler metal

• Torch movement controlled by computer

• Power requirements depend on material being cut, plus

depth of cut

156 160

Water Jet Machining Video 2 & 3

• Narrow jet of water directed, at high pressure and velocity, against

surface of workpiece
Video-11
• Jet of water erodes surface of workpiece, thereby cutting workpiece

• Computer control to achieve shape

162

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Abrasive Jet Machining (Dry)

Water Jet Machining • It is similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet of gas and abrasive
particles achieves localized cutting.
• It removes material through the eroding action of a high velocity stream of
abrasive-laden gas.
• The gas is first compressed and mixed with the abrasive powder in a mixing
chamber and passed through outlet nozzle.
• Computer is used to position the jet.
• Gas Pressure about 7 atm
• Velocity of jet about 300 m/s
• Jet Diameter 0.12 mm to 1.25 mm
• Abrasive used: Al2O3 , SiC with particle size 10 to 50 µm
• Tool (nozzle) material – tungsten carbide or sapphire
• Tool (nozzle) Life – about 30 hours

Abrasive Jet Machining Video 1

Advantages of AJM
• Can be used in any material, conductive, non-conductive,
ductile or brittle

• Good dimensional accuracy (±0.05 mm)

• Good Surface finish – 0.25 to 1.25 µm

• Due to cooling action of gas stream no thermal damage on

the work surface

Disadvantages of AJM Application of AJM

• Low MRR • Cutting and drilling on metal foils and thin sections of

• Possibility of stray cutting ceramics and glass

• Intricate holes in electronic components such as
• Embedding of abrasive particles in soft workpiece
resistor paths in insulation
• Dust control needed
• Engraving of characters on toughened glass
automobile windows
• Cleaning, polishing and deburring the surface

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Abrasive Jet Machining

GATE -2012 Same Q in GATE-2012 (PI) Abrasive WJ Cutting

• Used to cut much harder materials .
In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between
• Water is not used directly to cut material as in Pure, instead water is
the nozzle tip and the work surface increases, the
material removal rate used to accelerate abrasive particles which do the cutting

(a) increases continuously. • 80-mesh garnet (sandpaper) is typically used though 50 and 120-mesh is
(b) decreases continuously. also used
(c) decreases, becomes stable and then increases. • Standoff distance between mixing tube and workpart is typically 0.010-
(d) increases, becomes stable and then decreases. 0.200 – important to keep to a minimum to keep a good surface finish

Ans. (d)

Abrasive WJ Cutting GATE - 1992 Ans. (b)

Match the following components with the appropriate machining

processes:
• Evolution of mixing tube technology
Component Process
• Standard Tungsten Carbide lasts 4-6 hours
(not used much anymore) (A) Square hole in a high strength alloy (1) Milling
• Premium Composite Carbide lasts 100-150 (B) Square hole in a ceramic component (2) Drilling
hours
(C) Blind holes in a die (3) ECM
(D) Turbine blade profile on high strength alloy(4) Jig boring
(5) EDM
(6) USM
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 5 6 1 3
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4

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Ans. (a)

GATE 2011 GATE - 2007 Ans. (a)

Match the following non – traditional machining

processes with the corresponding material removal
mechanism:
Machining process
P. Chemical machining
Q. Electro – chemical
machining
R. Electro – discharge
machining
S. Ultrasonic machining
(a) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 4, S – 1
(c) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 4, S – 1
Match the most suitable manufacturing processes for the
following parts.
Mechanism of material removal Parts Manufacturing Processes
1. Erosion P. Computer chip 1. Electrochemical Machining
2. Corrosive reaction
Q. Metal forming dies and moulds
2. Ultrasonic Machining
3. Ion displacement R. Turbine blade 3. Electro-discharge
Machining
4. Fusion and vaporization S. Glass 4. Photochemical Machining
Codes:P Q R S P Q R S
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(b) P – 2, Q – 4, R – 3, S – 1
(c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 1 2 4 3
(d) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 4

GATE - 1998 Ans. (b)

IES - 2008 Ans. (a)

List I List II Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using
(A) ECM (1) Plastic shear the code given below the lists:
(B) EDM (2) Erosion/Brittle fracture List-I List-II
(C) USM (3) Corrosive reaction (Unconventional machining process) (Basic process)
(D) LBM (4) Melting and vaporization A. Electro polishing 1. Thermal
(5) Ion displacement B. Electrochemical machining 2. Mechanical
(6) Plastic shear and ion displacement C. Abrasive jet machining 3. Electrochemical
Codes:A B C D A B C D D. Electrical discharge machining 4. Chemical
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 5 4 2 4 Code: A B C D A B C D
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4 (a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 2 3 4 1

IES - 2003 Ans. (d)

IES - 2003
Match List I (Materials) with List II (Machining) and select Assertion (A): Water jet machining uses high pressure and
the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: high velocity water stream which acts like a saw and cuts a
List I List II narrow groove in the material.
(Materials) (Machining) Reason (R): The force required for cutting is generated from
sudden change in the momentum of the water stream.
A. Machining of conducting materials 1. ECM
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
B. Ruby rod 2. EDM
explanation of A
C. Electrolyte 3. USM
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct
D. Abrasive slurry 4. LBM explanation of A
Codes:A B C D A B C D (c) A is true but R is false
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 4 2 3 1 (d) A is false but R is true
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3 Ans. (a)

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GATE - 2004 Ans. (d)

Typical machining operations are to be performed on hard-to-

machine materials by using the processes listed below. Choose
the best set of Operation-Process combinations
Operation Process
P. Debarring (internal surface) 1. Plasma Arc Machining
Q. Die sinking 2. Abrasive Flow Machining
R. Fine hole drilling in thin sheets 3. Electric Discharge
Machining
S. Tool sharpening 4. Ultrasonic Machining
5. Laser beam Machining
6. Electrochemical Grinding
(a) P-1 Q-5 R-3 S-4 (b) P-1 Q-4 R-1 S-2
(c) P-5 Q-1 R-2 S-6 (d) P-2 Q-3 R-5 S-6

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