Chapter 1 Introduction

Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

Chapter 1

Dielectric Diagnosis of Stator winding insulation

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Electric Power System comprises of a large number of Power equipments like
high voltage generators, motors, transformers, bushings, cables etc. which
are quite expensive and form a significant portion of plant assets. More
importantly they are vital components for reliable delivery of electric power.
However, the reliability of these equipments depends to a large extent on the
healthy condition of the insulation. Failure of the insulation either directly or
indirectly will result in failure of power equipment which in turn may result in
forced outage, reduced reliability, and increased maintenance costs.
Insulation systems of power equipments are a complex combination of
materials and have undergone changes like non-synthetic to synthetic in the
last few years. Insulating materials generally comply with the required
performance at the beginning of their life, but during their course of operation,
ageing phenomena and deterioration may occur due to the effects of various
stresses. The ageing processes are complicated and take place under various
stresses simultaneously or sequentially which may result in deterioration of
physical / chemical / dielectric properties. Thermal ageing is a chemical
process leading to molecular decomposition and oxidation of organic
materials resulting in changes in dielectric response. The dielectric response
at low frequencies involves phenomena like direct conduction, quasi dc
conduction (low frequency dispersion), and alpha dipolar relaxation
mechanisms.

1.1 STRESSES ACTING ON POWER EQUIPMENT

The major stresses acting on the power equipment either sequentially or in
combination are electrical, thermal, mechanical / vibrational stresses and
environmental factors (temperature, humidity, pollutants etc.) and any one of
them may dominate depending on the type of power equipment. The
mechanical stresses acting on the winding of power transformer (between the

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

conductors, leads and windings) are due to fault currents caused by system
short circuits. Thermal stresses arise due to local overheating and over load
currents. Dielectric stresses arise due to system over-voltages and transient
impulse conditions. The stator windings of a rotating machine experience
thermal, electrical, vibrational stresses which is dependent on the load output,
type of duty cycle and ambient conditions like humidity & contamination. The
stresses acting on other power equipments like cables (oil filled cable,
extruded cables and gas filled cables) depend on the type of cable. Thermal
stresses arise due to operating current under normal or abnormal conditions.
Mechanical stresses arise due to bending of cable; thermo mechanical
stresses are due to cyclic or short-circuit behavior. Depending on
environmental conditions, deterioration occurs due to parameters like
corrosivity etc. Also electrical stresses arise due to operating and abnormal
voltage conditions. In case of large power capacitors the dielectric stresses
are predominant. Also stresses arising due to over voltages like switching and
impulse result in deterioration of capacitor insulation.

Therefore dielectric diagnosis plays a vital role in assessment of insulation

condition of the power equipment and helps in trend analysis of degradation
of insulation to ensure reliability of power equipment.

1.2 DIELECTRIC DIAGNOSIS

Dielectric diagnosis is the application of suitable procedures and
measurements to evaluate insulation degradation and deterioration caused
during service conditions. The deterioration criteria is either tailored to the
insulation material or to the equipment and may be classified as direct or
indirect. The direct criteria are connected with properties like electrical
strength, flexural strength etc. while indirect criteria have a relationship with
electrical properties like loss angle, insulation resistance, partial discharge,
moisture content, non-ohmic behavior etc. which may change during service
life. Several diagnostic tools both off line and on line techniques are used to
assess the insulation condition of the power equipment when they are in
service.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.3 DIELECTRIC DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES

Electrical, Thermo analytical, Chemical and Spectroscopic techniques are
widely used for dielectric diagnosis of power equipment.

1.3.1 Electrical techniques:

Some of the electrical techniques are
1. Insulation resistance / polarisation index to check for index of dryness
in case of transformers, rotating machines, cables, power capacitors.
2. Tan  measurement & capacitance measurement to assess the
dielectric loss in case of transformers, generators, motors, cables,
CT’s, PT’s, capacitors.
3. Partial discharge measuring techniques to determine discharge activity
in cables, rotating machines, capacitors, transformers etc. On line
acoustic emission techniques for PD activity in power transformers, gas
insulated substations.
4. Recovery or return voltage measurements (RVM) are being used to
evaluate the polarization and discharge characteristics of an insulation
system since these processes are strongly influenced by the quality
and condition of the dielectric materials. This technique is widely used
for determination of moisture present in paper insulation of
transformers and oil filled cables.
5. Winding resistance for determination of bad joints, poor connection in
case of transformer windings, rotating machines etc.
6. Dielectric spectroscopy for dielectric response studies for oil filled
transformers, cables, etc.
7. Low frequency bridge methods for measuring tan , PD etc. for cables
and transformers.

1.3.2 Thermo Analytical techniques (For Physical and chemical

properties of materials)
1. Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) for investigation of phase
transformations in crystalline, nanocrystalline and amorphous
materials.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

2. Differential thermal analyser (DMA) for high temperature investigation

3. Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA)
4. Thermo mechanical analysis (TMA).
5. Hot spot detection using infra red cameras

1.3.3 Spectroscopic techniques (Equipments for investigation of

structure and chemical analysis of materials)
1. Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometer (FTIR)
2. Ultraviolet spectroscopy
3. Scanning Electron microscope (SEM) for structural characterization
4. Transmission Electron microscope
5. Nuclear magnetic Resonance spectroscopy
6. X-ray Fluorescence spectroscopy
7. Raman spectroscopy
8. X-ray diffractometer
9. Optical microscopes

1.3.4 Chromatographic / Chemical methods

1. Gas Chromatography – Mass spectrometry
2. Analysis of dissolved gases in oil in case of power transformers, oil
filled cables
3. Degree of polymerization in paper oil insulation.
4. Chemical composition, oxidation induction time to study the polymer
morphology as in case of extruded cables, epoxy insulator, rotating
machines etc.

A variety of diagnostic tests representing a broad spectrum of electrical,

thermo analytical, physico–chemical and spectroscopic techniques are
available as either on-site or laboratory tests for insulation condition
assessment. These diagnostic tools are mainly used for trend analysis to
know the condition of the power equipment insulation. However,
determination of remaining life is the most difficult part of analysis because of
lack of well defined deterioration models, multiplicity of failure mechanisms
which are not well understood in quantitative form and are highly dependent

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

on environmental and operating conditions. Due to various degradation

processes and during ageing, insulation material undergoes structural
changes which can be monitored and studied by some analytical and
spectroscopic techniques. However correlation of structural changes with
dielectric parameters obtained by diagnostic tests is not fully explored for
improving the accuracy of diagnostics and prediction of remaining life. This
correlation is very much necessary to assess the reliability of the system.
CIGRE Working group 33/15.08 [1] has emphasized that there is need to
apply physical / chemical tools like structural, morphological and
spectroscopic procedures for value addition to dielectric diagnosis.

Though Electric Power System comprises of a large number power

equipments, high voltage rotating electrical machines represent the most vital
components of power generation and industrial application fields. They are
quite expensive and form significant portion of plant assets. However, the
reliability of these machines depends to a large extent on the healthy
condition of the stator winding insulation. The insulation systems used in
stator winding of high voltage rotating machine, the deterioration mechanisms
due to ageing and the electrical evaluation techniques are discussed in the
succeeding sections.

1.4 STATOR WINDING OF HIGH VOLTAGE ROTATING MACHINE

The insulation systems of high voltage (HV) rotating machines are a complex
combination of materials and have undergone considerable changes in the
last few decades. In the past, natural binding materials were employed as
stator winding insulation for HV rotating machine. However, with the advent
of synthetic materials (polyester, epoxy, silicone resins, etc.) the develop-
ment of generator with larger capacity became possible. Epoxy-mica is used
as a main ground wall insulation (electrical insulation that separates the
copper conductors from the grounded stator) of stator coils of large
generators since 1960 [2].

To fully understand and predict the electrical behavior of insulation and ageing
characteristics, one must have knowledge of the chemistry of materials used:

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

the atomic-molecular arrangement and the nature of the chemical bonds. The
stator winding of rotating machine usually comprises of mica with organic
reinforcing, bonding and impregnating materials [2]. Mica paper / synthetic
resin combinations (polyester, epoxy, silicone resins, etc.) are employed
almost exclusively in the form of tapes, which are wrapped around the stator
coil (form wound), impregnated and cured. Mica’s unique combination of
physical, thermal and electrical properties and its ability to be split into very
thin, incompressible sheets while maintaining flexibility, toughness and high
tensile strength find wide applications in high voltage machines. The two
classes of mica most commonly used in electrical applications are muscovite
[KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2] and phlogopite [KMg3 (Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2] respectively
[3]. Mica minerals comprise of layers of silicates separated by alternating
layer of metal oxides and metal ions. Figure 1.1 shows the cross section
where every four silicon atoms is replaced by an aluminum atom. Each three
layer structure is separated by a layer of potassium ions.

Epoxy resins provide high strength, good adhesion to most materials including
metals, resistance to moisture, solvents and other chemicals. Epoxies take
their name from the epoxide functional group (three-membered oxygen
containing ring) which forms part of the epi-chlorohydrin molecule, one of the

Figure 1.1 Molecular Structure of muscovite mica [3].

two reactants to make the resin. The molecular structure of basic epoxy resin
pre-polymer [3] is shown in Figure 1.2. The other component which is most
commonly used is diphenyl propane, often called Bis-phenol A. Many
different curing agents are used to bring about cross linking of thermosetting
epoxy resins.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

Figure 1.2. Molecular structure of basic epoxy resin pre-polymer

Stator winding insulation do comply with the required dielectric performance

at the beginning of their life, but due to occurrence of various stresses during
service condition, ageing and deterioration.

1.4.1 DETERIORATION MECHANISMS OF STATOR WINDING

INSULATION
During machine operation, the stator windings are mainly subjected to
stresses like electrical, thermal, mechanical etc. and undergo ageing. Some of
the major deterioration mechanisms are:

1.4.1.1 Electrical Ageing:

The various causes of electrical ageing are high dielectric stress during over
voltages, effect of operating dielectric stress over a long period of time,
electrical tracking due to surface build up of moisture, oil, carbon dust etc.,
treeing, corona, and insufficient insulation on leads.

The electrical stress distribution at the operating voltage has an important role
in ageing of insulating materials. Enhanced electrical stresses can occur at
certain local points due to voids, imperfections and defects. Since the
insulation is composite in nature, it is very likely that cavities are present
within the system. The partial discharges in these cavities are always a
starting point of degradation resulting in surface erosion as shown in figure
1.3 [4]. The occurrence of PD in rotating machine stator insulation is a very
common phenomenon and the origin of failure in many instances has infact
been traced to this. In addition, two other types of degradation phenomena
can occur in the insulation, namely the slot discharges and discharges in the
end region which are called end discharges.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

Figure 1.3 Surface erosion of epoxy resin

1.4.1.1.1 Partial Discharges

Partial discharges are caused by local breakdown in voids in insulating media.
As a result of high local electric field, charge carrier swarms are generated in
the voids and may produce local decomposition of the insulation. Partial
discharges generate short duration current pulses which propagate from the
origin towards both ends of the winding, and can take place in
 a series mode like a traveling wave on a transmission line with
frequency dependent attenuation & reflections and
 in a parallel mode mainly by inductive and capacitance coupling
between the windings.

The most significant locations of PD occurrence are

 Voids enclosed in the slot insulation material or at its boundary with the
copper conductor
 Between the semi-conducting paint on the bar and the iron core (slot
discharges).
 At the damaged spot of the paint i.e. where the electric field along the
surface becomes too high.
 Where the stator bar emerges from the slot and no special stress
control is present.
 Between the non-linear and highly resistive stress grading paint at slot
entry and the low resistance coating on the bar.

In HV electrical rotating machines three types of discharges can be identified.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

a) Internal discharges that occur in voids occluded in the bulk volume of the
winding insulation.
b) Slot discharges that occur in the air gaps between the core laminations and
adjacent coil sides in the slots.
c) End winding discharges that occur at the extremity of the conducting
coating outside the end of the slot where there is an interface on the coil
surface between ground and high voltages.

1.4.1.1.2 Slot Discharges

The discharge between the main ground insulation of high voltage coil and the
slot wall is termed as slot discharges. One can easily distinguish between
mechanical slot discharges caused by the stator bar movement in the slot,
and electrical slot discharges caused by poor contact between the semi-
conducting layer of the stator bar insulation and the stator iron core. A view of
the slot portion of the stator winding is shown in Figure 1.4 [4].

1.4.1.1.3 Causes of Damage to Insulation Due to Discharges

Various causes responsible for damage to insulation are:
Slot discharge sites may occur as the result of certain semiconductive coating
conditions that either are present when the machine is new or develop in
operation. These conditions include discontinuities in the semiconducting slot
coating, high resistivity values of the coating such that it does not function as
intended, stator bar vibration levels due to wedge looseness or migration, coil
damage, clearance between coil side and slot wall, loss of effective electrical
contact of coil surface to ground, level of vibration, thermal cycling etc. Each
factor has its own effects and finally the combined effects lead to damage of
insulation.

The following are the common symptoms and failure modes: Damage to bar
armour and insulation surface, white or brown discoloration and powdering
due to corona specially between phases, dark or black discoloration &
powdering due to arcing, burning along creapage paths and along stress
control coatings, higher temperature due to increased dielectric losses
resulting in puncture and ground fault.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

Figure 1.4. A view of Slot portion of the stator winding

1.4.1.2 Thermal Ageing

The thermal stress on the insulation occurs due to the normal continuous I2R
loss in the conductor and sometimes due to thermal shock in the event of a
short circuit. The insulation inside the slot is surrounded by large amounts of
iron whose heat capacity is very large as compared to air. However in deep
slotted machines, the temperature in the middle of the slot could be 180° -
185° C because of low thermal conductivity of the surrounding insulation and
localized runaway condition may occur.

The various effects & causes of thermal ageing are

 Chemical changes in binder and backing materials due to operating
temperature and with time, Ingress of moisture and contaminants
during periods of shut down, overhaul, relative motion between
conductor and core due to thermal cycling, inadequate cooling due to
dead spots, poor distribution and reduction in heat transfer, loss of
volatiles
The common symptoms and failure mode due to thermal ageing are: Burning
smell, change in colour and texture, strand separation, powdering, puffiness,
embrittlement, flaking and delamination of insulation, tape separation, cracks
and sponginess, flow of insulation in case of bitumen, increase in PD activity,
flashover along surfaces or gaps under electrical stress due to nearby arcing
or extremely high metal temperatures in the presence of contaminated gas.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.4.1.3 Mechanical Ageing

During operation of the machine, the firm contact of the bar with the slot walls
is disturbed due to core vibrations, thermal expansion and contraction of the
winding and forces imposed on the winding due to sudden short circuits. The
mechanical stresses occur due to the load changes. These stresses may be
amplified many times during a short circuit. In very large capacity generators
the conductor overhangs (in spite of being rigidly supported) are subjected to
enormous vibrations and embrace each other upon severe short circuit. Due
to the fact that the heat capacity of the surrounding medium (air) near the
conductor overhangs is very low, the insulation in the conductor overhangs
[Figure 1.5] is subjected to tearing stress due to differential thermal expansion
and contraction. As load changes, the temperature of the conductor increases
or decreases rapidly giving rise to thermal expansion and contraction. The
insulating materials over the conductors may not sustain these sudden
expansions or contractions and cracks on the surface of the insulation may be
formed, which may become a site of PD. Performance under mechanical
stress is one of the most important aspects in deciding the materials for
rotating machine insulation.

Figure 1.5 Overhang portion of the stator winding

The probable causes of insulation ageing due to mechanical stresses are

 End winding vibration due to magnetic forces between phase belts,
resonance of mechanical support, inadequate support and axial

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

restraint of end winding, deterioration of radial support in slots, wedges,

springs and packing.

The common symptoms and failure modes are

 Loosening of slot wedges, strand separation and cavitations, rubbing
and looseness at end windings blocking, higher temperature due to bar
bouncing and consequent reduction in heat transfer especially at cross
over resulting in flashover and ground fault.

1.4.1.4 Ageing due to Environmental factors

Machines operating in polluted atmosphere e.g. cement and chemical plants,
rubber factories etc. would suffer rapid deterioration of insulation system if not
designed with proper care. Also majority of stator windings may get affected
by surface deposition of chemicals, dust, etc. and ingress of moisture.

Electrochemical failure will occur if the electrolyte concentration within the

insulation is high enough.

1.4.1.5 Causes of failure of windings during manufacture

Quality deficiencies of the insulating materials (mica tapes, varnishes,

enamels etc.) Improper storage, defective method of application (loose taping,
causing voids and formation of wrinkles), non-uniform pressing of insulation
during baking & curing, non-adherence to established procedures of
maintaining temperature and curing time, inclusion of foreign particles during
application of insulation, development of cracks, sharp corners, mechanical
damage caused while inserting the winding into the slots, sharp edges / burrs
in the stator slots, mishandling of the machine during manufacture,
overheating of insulation during brazing of end joints, loose core causing
vibration & damage, magnetic particles inside stator, inadequate corona
protection, defective inter-turn insulation, lack of or inadequate quality control
at different manufacturing stages are the causes of winding failure during
manufacture.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.4.2 EVALUATION TECHNIQUES FOR STATOR WINDING

The main features of the electrical methods of evaluation of electrical
insulation are summarized below.

1.4.2.1 Evaluation of Electrical Parameters

IEEE standards [5-10] and procedures are widely used by motor and
generator manufacturers and utilities during commissioning of windings for
new machines and as well as to evaluate the condition of the winding
insulation in operating machines. The tests can be broadly classified as
A. Over Voltage tests
1 Proof tests
a) Power frequency ac voltage (at twice rated voltage+1) in kV
b) Direct Voltage at 2.5 times rated voltage

c) 0.1 Hz
d) Half cycle
e) Impulse

B. Direct Current tests

1. Insulation resistance
2. Polarization Index
3. Polarization / depolarization versus time

C. High Voltage AC bridges

1. Tan delta, Capacitance and tip-ups
2. Integrated Partial discharge energy (DLA)
3. Product of Resistance and Capacitance (R*C)

D. Pulse and HF Measurements

1. Partial Discharge
2. Neutral signal analysis
3. R F Slot probe, manual / automatic

1.4.2.2 Over Voltage tests

Over voltage tests are carried out on full stator windings and individual
phases. Proof tests like power frequency ac voltage (at twice rated voltage+1)
in kV and dc voltage (at 2.5 times rated voltage) in kV are normally
recommended. These proof tests simulate two conditions namely, the
permanent stressing of the insulation by power frequency and the action of

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

switching surges. IEEE standard 56 [5] is an extensive guide for various tests
on stator windings and also discusses the maintenance ac Hipot test. A Hipot
test is application of a “high potential” applied to the winding and is normally
higher than what the winding experiences in service (Details described in the
succeeding sections 1.4.2.3). Any gross flaws in the windings are detected
during the test and if the winding does not fail during the over voltage test,
then the winding is not likely to fail when put into service.

High KVA rating transformer is required to test the winding of a high capacity
machine at power frequency because the capacitance of these windings will
be quite high which can result in high capacitance current at power frequency.
DC tests were introduced to overcome the difficulty of portability of high KVA
rating test transformer. The objective of many investigators [11] was to
determine the ratio between dc/ac test voltage which would produce the same
probability of insulation failure, or the same ability to detect weak spots.

1.4.2.3 DC Method
DC methods range from the simple withstand or proof tests to more refined
ramped voltage test in which the dc high voltage is applied as a linearly
increasing ramp function and the current response is recorded. IEEE standard
95 [6] gives the guidelines for conducting dc test. The 2002 version standard
highlights a new variation of the dc Hipot test called DC Ramp test.

1.4.2.3.1 Hipot method for Evaluation of winding insulation

The dc Hipot tests are performed by several methods. DC test sets being
lower in capacity are portable and power consumption is much less. The ratio
between dc and ac tests in terms of applied voltage varies between 1.2 to 2.5.
Usually a value of 1.6 is chosen for the machines in operation.

(a) Conventional dc Hipot

In this method suitable high voltage is applied quickly to stator winding
terminal which is maintained for either 1 or 5 minutes and then the voltage is
gradually reduced to zero. If the insulation is healthy there will be no high

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

current surge. If the power circuit breaker trips, then it is an indication that,
puncture has occurred in insulation.

(b) Step stress Hipot

In this method the applied dc voltage is increased in steps of 1 kV with each
voltage level being held for I minute. The dc current is measured after the end
of each step and current plots are obtained with voltage. The trend is
generally a curve with slight upward slope. An abrupt increase in current is an
indication of weakened insulation.

(c ) DC Ramp Hipot
In this method, the dc voltage is smoothly and linearly increased at a constant
rate, usually 1 or 2 kV/minute and there are no discrete steps in voltage or
current. The current vs voltage plot is graphically displayed. The advantage is
that it is a very sensitive method to detect defects when current instability
occurs since the capacitive charging current is not changing with time.
However the disadvantage is that it does not experience the voltage stresses
applied across the insulation when it is in operation [12].

1.4.2.4 Insulation Resistance

Insulation Resistance (IR) tests are made to determine current leakage
through insulation and over its surfaces under specific conditions of voltage
and time. DC insulation resistance also provides information on humidity,
conductive contamination, degree of cure, cracks and certain types of
mechanical damage of insulation. The test voltages are chosen such that it
does not overstress the insulation and cause failure and must be restricted to
a value appropriate for both the voltage rating of the system and basic
insulation level. Guidelines for performing insulation resistance measurements
are given in IEEE std 43-2000, “Recommended practice for testing Insulation
Resistance of Rotating Machinery” [6] which recommends a dc test voltage of
5 to 10 kV for insulation system rated for 11 kV.

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.4.2.5 Polarisation Index [PI]:

For determination of current to earth and its rate of change with time, the
commonly used characteristic is the PI. Polarisation index is the ratio of
observed leakage currents at two instants i.e. 1 min and 10 min. PI is a
recognized criterion for judging the insulation dryness or humidity,
contamination, cure and physical integrity of a new winding or after a service
interruption. A low value of PI indicates a humid insulation. IEEE std. 43-2000
[6] recommends a polarization index greater than or equal to 2 for class F
insulation.

The variation of polarization or depolarization current with time follows a

power law in most of the cases. The value of the exponent might provide
useful information on the state of the insulation or contaminated with oil, dirt,
etc.

1.4.2.6 Surge comparison

Surge comparison test is used to determine condition of inter turn insulation of
the stator winding [9]. A steep front voltage of suitable magnitude is applied to
any two winding sections under test. In each cycle, a capacitor is charged to
an appropriate voltage, then discharged by means of a suitable switch (such
as a spark gap, thyratron, or a solid-state device) into a circuit that includes
the windings. Voltage and current then oscillate at the natural frequency of the
circuit. The resultant damped oscillatory superimposed waves are displayed
on an oscilloscope. The two waveforms will be identical if both the phase
windings are electrically identical and free from faults. Any discrepancy in the
two waveforms indicates inter turn fault in one of the windings.

A variety of dc testing techniques have been devised to monitor and assess

the condition of stator winding insulation systems. It was an international
practice to subject the windings to direct current (dc) over voltage tests to
avoid damage due to overheating and intense partial discharges of the
insulation during the high voltage ac tests. However, it was realized that
failures occurring during ac and dc testing respectively were not always of the
same kind; end winding failures were more frequent in dc tests. This is due to

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

the fact that the electrical stress distribution over a winding is governed by
resistivity in the case of direct voltage and permittivity in the case of ac
voltage.

In order to obtain a realistic stress distribution over the winding and the
influence of the dielectric parameters, very low frequency [13] tests were
introduced and the effect of frequency on the stress distribution was analysed.
Another approach is the power frequency half cycle test. Alternatively a
resonant power frequency voltage generator is used in place of portable 50
Hz, voltage test equipment. The advantage is that when an insulation failure
occurs, the limited available power causes much less destruction to the
insulation. The voltage wave has a very low harmonic distortion, which is
extremely important for proper evaluation and analysis of partial discharge.
Impulse voltage testing of multi-turn windings will produce a realistic
simulation of the stresses produced by surge voltages, but damping will
confine stresses to a small portion of the winding near the energized terminal.

1.4.2.7 Non-linear Analysis

Non-linear analysis test is carried out by means of application of ac voltage at
predetermined voltage levels up to a maximum of rated phase voltage on the
stator winding. The voltage & the current flowing through the insulation is
monitored by capturing several waveform cycles of the voltage and the
current on a digital storage oscilloscope [14]. The instantaneous admittance of
the insulation is calculated and the admittance patterns analysed for specific
harmonic patterns. The extent of harmonics, predominance of odd or even
harmonics, high or low frequency harmonics is analysed to provide
information on insulation ageing and or degradation status and the ionic
activity intensity inside the slots caused by the presence of voids between the
stator core and the winding. This current spectrum tends to be displaced from
the fundamental frequency to higher harmonics along the time indicating the
presence of ionic activity [14].

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.4.2.8 Dielectric loss measurements by HVAC bridge

The dielectric loss is the power dissipated in a dielectric as heat when the
dielectric is subjected to an electric field. The power loss occurs due to the
conduction processes in a dielectric that cause a leakage current.

1.4.2.8.1 Dissipation factor tip-up (Delta tan )

Dissipation factor, also called tan  is a measure of dielectric losses in the
insulation. It is the property of the insulation system used. IEEE 286-2000 [8]
gives the guidelines for measurement of power factor tip-up of electric
machinery coil insulation. Power factor tip-up is the increment in dielectric
dissipation factor (tan of the insulation measured at two designated
voltages. Tip-up is an indirect way of determining if partial discharges (PD)
are occurring in a high voltage stator winding [8]. For a given insulating
system the tan  shall be as small as possible. An AC bridge such as a
Schering bridge or transformer ratio arm bridge is used to measure tan  and
capacitance of the stator winding.

Dissipation factor is determined at several levels of test voltage. The first test
voltage is usually 0.2 times the rated phase to phase voltage V ph where PD is
just below inception level and is taken as the reference value (tan δ o). The
inception voltage may decrease due to reversal of charges or presence of
homopolar charges at the interface or on the system or due to a single large
void. Tan δ and capacitance measured at low voltage are a function of the
state of the curing of the resin, the presence of moisture or contamination in
the windings, loss of contact of the coil outer surface with the core due to
erosion of adhesive coating used for preventing slot discharges, non linear
effect of slot end stress grading systems, the influence of inter winding
capacitances and losses, besides other factors [8]. The higher levels often in
steps of 0.2 Vph are interpreted as revealing the gradual ignition of PD in voids
and imperfections [11]. These measurements are performed by balancing the
bridge with appropriate earthing and guard circuitry. The settings of a
balanced bridge give values of the capacitance of the test object as well as
the dissipation factor. Information about PD activity is contained not only in

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

tan δ tip-up (tan) but in capacitance tip-up as well. Different shapes of the
voltage wave will at constant amplitude produce different values of tan for
a particular test object.

Capacitance tip-up is another important insulation diagnostic tool. A change in

capacitance may occur due to change in the size, shape or distance between
the two conductors. As insulation system cures or ages, the dielectric
constant may change causing a change in the measured capacitance.

1.4.2.9 Partial Discharge measurements

Discharge measurements provide a sensitive, nondestructive means of
detecting minute defects in insulation. The successful application of discharge
technique depends on the following; the conditions at which discharges occur,
factors which affect the discharge magnitude, recurrence frequency, the
various mechanisms of deterioration and breakdown by discharges. The
Schering bridge and modifications of HVAC bridge circuit (PD detectors)
represents the new development which reveals the extent of PD activity.

Partial discharge test is another important diagnostic test for HV machines as

it is capable of revealing incipient faults in the stator winding structure. Partial
discharges in stator windings are manifest by positive and negative current
pulses of nanoseconds duration. IEEE std. 1434 – 2000 [10], “Guide to the
Measurement of Partial Discharges in Rotating Machinery” describes typical
systems for conducting off-line partial (PD) measurements on individual form-
wound coils. The magnitude of a particular PD pulse is proportional to the size
of the void in which PD occurred. Consequently the bigger the detected PD
pulse, the larger is the defect the originated that discharge. Smaller defects
tend to produce smaller PD pulses. The key measurement in a PD test is the
peak magnitude, Qm. i.e the magnitude of the highest PD pulse. The PD
magnitude depends on several factors like size of the defect, the capacitance
of the winding, the inductance between the PD site and the PD detector [10].
The PD test is thus a comparison test and one can compare the PD from the

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Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

same winding over time during ageing. There are no specified limits in the
standards.

The slot and end winding discharges are known to be more detrimental to the
insulation than internal discharges. The internal discharges cause slow but
gradual deterioration of the insulation in the course of service. The slot and
end winding discharges are severe and can cause deterioration and eventual
breakdown of the insulation with in the span of a few months or later.

The PD evaluation involves energizing the individual phase winding to earth

from an external source. The coupling or blocking capacitor Cb blocks the
power frequency high voltage and allows the high frequency current pulses of
PD to be coupled to the discharge detector. The magnitudes of PD are
calibrated in pico coulombs.

The ac applied voltage is raised gradually until PD pulses are observed on the
detector. The voltage at which PD starts occurring is called discharge
inception voltage (DIV). The test voltage is increased up to the maximum of
phase to earth voltage and magnitude of the PD pulses is noted down. The
test voltage is decreased until PD pulses disappear and the voltage is called
discharge extinction voltage (DEV) which is lower than the DIV.

1.4.2.10 Integrated Partial Discharge Energy

Another method of deriving more direct information on PD activity is by
dielectric loss analyzer (integrating capacitance bridge) developed in UK [15].
This bridge is balanced at a voltage below PD inception. A signal proportional
to the test voltage is connected to the X-Plates of an oscilloscope and the
signal across the bridge detector to Y-Plates. When the test voltage is
increased above PD inception, the Lissajous figure on the oscilloscope screen
opens up to a loop typically in the form of a parallelogram. Information is
derived from the dimensions and shape of this figure as a function of the test
voltage. An overall judgment is expressed in terms of dissipated power loss
per microfarad of winding capacitance and per ac cycle. With advancements
in technology and new measuring instruments, this method is sparingly used.

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Chapter 1 Introduction
Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.4.2.11 Ohm-Farad R*C

As insulation system cures or ages, the permitivity may change causing a
change in the measured capacitance. The product of the insulation resistance
measured after one minute of application and the capacitance of the winding
at 0.2 times line voltage (VL) is another diagnostic tool. It has the dimension of
time, the insulation time constant. It decreases with time in service and this is
sometimes related to the ongoing processes of deterioration of insulation.

1.4.2.12 On line monitoring techniques

Of late, a new PD sensor called the stator slot coupler (SSC) is developed by
the Canadian Electrical association [16-19] which is able to differentiate
between the PD in the winding and all types of electrical interference and
permit on-line test for turbo generators. The new sensor requires no HV
connection to the winding, and is easily installed in the stator slot, underneath
the wedges. The SSC is essentially a directional electromagnetic coupler and
consists of a ground plane and a sense line with co-axial output cables at
each end. The SSC yields an output pulse from each end whenever an
electromagnetic wave propagates along the SSC near the sensor line. The
dual port nature of the SSC permits determination of the direction of PD pulse
travel using instrumentation that can indicate which end of the SSC has
detected the signal first.

The Passive Rotor Temperature Sensor (PRTS) to measure the temperature

at specific locations on the rotor of a turbine generator [18,19] has been
developed. The PRTS uses an optical temperature measurement technique.
The surface of the rotor is painted with a special fluorescent paint, when
illuminated with ultra violet (UV) light (via a fibre optic cable in the stator that
focuses the UV light on the rotor), will fluoresce with a temperature dependent
decay time. The higher the temperature, faster is the decay time.

Electronic Rotor Temperature Sensor (ERTS) is an alternative means of

measuring rotor temperature at specific locations [19]. Other online method
devices like thermal life indicator, insulation sniffer, global motor monitor are
used for insulation diagnostics of stator winding of generators [19].

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Chapter 1 Introduction
Dielectric Diagnosis of stator winding insulation

1.5 Summary:
This chapter summarizes the various deterioration mechanisms of stator
winding insulation due to ageing under service conditions and presents a
bird’s eye view of the various electrical test methods for diagnosis of stator
winding insulation of high voltage motors and generators. Several off-line and
on-line electrical techniques for condition assessment of stator winding
insulation of Generators and motors have been enumerated. The techniques
like Dielectric Spectroscopy and Recovery voltage measurement (RVM) for
dielectric response studies at low frequencies are described in chapter 2. The
theoretical basis on which these techniques are based is briefly described
and Spectroscopic techniques like Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR)
spectrometry, Dielectric spectroscopy, Scanning Electron microscopic
techniques and thermal analysis techniques like Thermo gravimetric analysis,
Differential Scanning Calorimeter are also described in chapter 2.

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