General Metal Work

Table of Contents
General Metal Work...........................................................................................................................................1
GENERAL SURVEY...............................................................................................................................1
1. METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES.................................................................................................5
1.1 Classification of Metals..............................................................................................................5
1.2 Identification of Metals (Examples)............................................................................................5
1.3 Properties of Metals...................................................................................................................7
1.4 Shapes and Sizes of Metal......................................................................................................11
2. TECHNICAL DRAWING...................................................................................................................12
2.1 Introduction into Technical Drawing.........................................................................................12
2.2 Types of Lines..........................................................................................................................13
2.3 Drawing Paper with title block..................................................................................................14
2.4 Basic Rules..............................................................................................................................16
2.5 Drawing in three Elevations.....................................................................................................19
3. METROLOGY...................................................................................................................................20
3.1 Metric System..........................................................................................................................20
3.2 Inch System.............................................................................................................................22
3.3 Metrology Introduction..............................................................................................................22
3.4 Common Measuring Tasks......................................................................................................22
3.5 Measuring Equipment..............................................................................................................23
4. FITS AND ISO TOLERANCES.........................................................................................................33
5. LAYING OUT....................................................................................................................................36
5.1 Layout Tools and Accessories.................................................................................................36
5.2 Layout Procedure.....................................................................................................................37
6. BENCH WORK TOOLS....................................................................................................................39
6.1 Work Bench..............................................................................................................................40
6.2 Bench Vise...............................................................................................................................40
6.3 Hand Hacksaw.........................................................................................................................41
6.4 Chisel Tools.............................................................................................................................42
6.5 Files..........................................................................................................................................43
6.6 Hammer...................................................................................................................................46
Bench Work Exercise.....................................................................................................................47
Bench Work Exercise − New..........................................................................................................53
7. PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL METAL CUTTING........................................................................60
7.1 Classification of Metal Cutting Processes................................................................................60
7.2 Angles of tools..........................................................................................................................60
7.3 Cutting Tool Guideline..............................................................................................................62
8. DRILLING.........................................................................................................................................62
8.1 Drill Press.................................................................................................................................62
8.2 Twist drill..................................................................................................................................64
8.3 Different Drill Press Operations................................................................................................68
8.4 Facts and Problems.................................................................................................................69
8.5 Drill Press Safety......................................................................................................................70
9. CUTTING THREADS WITH TAP & DIES.........................................................................................71
9.1 Main Parts of a Screw Thread..................................................................................................71
9.2 Hand Tapping...........................................................................................................................71
9.3 Threading Dies.........................................................................................................................74
10. SHARPENING TOOLS...................................................................................................................76
10.1 Bench Grinder or Pedestal Grinder........................................................................................76
10.2 Sharpening Tools...................................................................................................................77
10.3 Safety Precautions:................................................................................................................78
LIST OF NEEDED RESSOURCES FOR “GENERAL METAL” COURSE...........................................78
11. APPENDIX......................................................................................................................................79
APPENDIX NO. 1...........................................................................................................................79
APPENDIX NO. 2...........................................................................................................................80
GENERAL METAL WORK − FINAL TEST...........................................................................................81

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ii
General Metal Work
With technical assistance from:
GERMAN DEVELOPMENT SERVICE

August 2000

Dear Reader,

I would like to comment this handout, because otherwise you might get a little confused while studying it.

The most important thing to know is, that this handout is developed for a non−formal Training Center. The
participating government officials and the involved companies were not interested in long−term courses. So, I
had to respect the wish of my project partners for a course with this length and was limited on the most
important subjects.

One or two of the modules are still under construction. Sorry for this.

DED − Development Worker

GENERAL SURVEY

TARGET PARTICIPANTS

• min 18 years old, High school graduates, no experience needed

LENGTH OF COURSE

120 hours / 15 days

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course, the participants should be able to:

• Distinguish different metals and their properties and know the most common shapes of
metals

• Read and draft simple blue prints in order to fabricate workpieces to the required
specification

• Know how to measure, use the most important measuring tools and prevent the most
common mistakes while measuring

• Understand the importance of limits and fits in fabrication and know how to use them

• Lay out some workpieces with the necessary tools

• Understand the basics of angles of cutting tools

• Properly use hand hacksaw, file, chisel, hammer and other hand tools

• Know the process of drilling with a drill press and the needed tools and equipment

• Know how to sharpen tools using the bench grinder

• Cut internal and external threads with taps and dies and know how to prepare the workpiece

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 • Make use of different power tools typically used in a metal workshop

• Know how to use SMAW welding machine while welding mild steel

• Cut metals with Oxy−Acetylene cutting outfit

• Know and use the proper safety procedures and equipment

COURSE OUTLINE

THEORY (30%) HANDS−ON TRAINING (70%) METHOD

• Metals and their properties
• Various types of drawings,
scales, views, lines, symbols of
blue prints
• Measuring tools and measuring
errors.
• Metric and inch system
• Procedure of laying out
• Limits and fits
• Principles of metal cutting and
cutting angles of tools
• Bench and hand tools
• Drilling operation, threading and
reaming
• Sharpening tools using bench
grinder
• Cutting and grinding with power
tools
• SMAW welding process
• Oxy−Acetylene cutting
• Safety procedures and
equipment
Time Frame Plan of “General METAL Work” − Course
(Zero skills level − Course Duration 120 hours)
• Draw and read some simple drawings Lectures/Discussion
• Use measuring tools like steel rule, vernier Practical Sessions
calibers, micrometer, protractor Case studies
• Use laying out tools like scriber, divider, center Teaching Videos
punch, try square
• Make use of hand hacksaw and files while
preparing workpieces following the
specifications of blue prints
• Make use of a drill press and the necessary
equipment. Know how to calculate the RPM for
drilling
• Sharpen tools like scriber, center punch, chisel,
drill bits
• Experience the different power tools like bench
grinder, power hacksaw, chop saw, angle and
die grinder, drill
• SMAW welding exercises (mild steel with
different joints and various positions)
• Correct welding defects
• Oxy−Acetylene cutting exercises

Topic Theory ? Methodology Hours Hands−On Hours Total

Resources Training Hours
Needed (Practical
Sessions)

Orientation • Training Overview ? 1.0 Familiarization 1.0 2.0

Lecture/Discussion tour to the (2.0)
Manuals workplace
General, Policy and
Procedure

Work Attitude • Work Attitude and ? 2.0 0.0 2.0

“Time is Money” Lecture/Discussion (4.0)

Metals and • Property definition ? 2.0 0.0 2.0

their Properties • Ferrous metals Lecture/Discussion (6.0)
• Nonferrous metals ? Demonstration
and nonferrous Training Handout
alloys Assorted
• Identification of Samples of metals
metals
• Shapes and sizes
of metals

4.0 8.0

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Technical • Tools needed for ? Self practice 12.0
Drawing drawing Lecture/Discussion exercises in (18.0)
• Types of drawings ? Demonstration reading and
and views Training Handout drafting blue
• Types of lines Samples of blue prints and
• Dimensioning prints preparing
• Limits different
• Scaling workpieces
• Basic Drafting
symbols

Measurement • Metric and Inch ? 4.0 Self practice 6.0 10.0

System Lecture/Discussion exercises in (28.0)
• Measuring tools ? Demonstration measuring
and care (Steel rules, Training Handout different
Vernier calipers, Samples of samples
Micrometers, Measuring tools
compass, Height
Gauges)
• Inspection of
measuring tools

Limits and Fits • Interchangeability, ? 2.0 0.0 2.0

types of fits, limits of Lecture/Discussion (30.0)
tolerance on ? Training Handout
technical drawings

Laying Out • Types of laying out ? 2.0 Self practice 3.0 5.0
• Layout Equipment Lecture/Discussion exercises in (35.0)
and tools (Surface ? Demonstration laying out
plate, Combination Training Handout different
square, Scriber, Samples of workpieces
Center punch, Laying tools
Divider, Steel rule,
Protractor, surface
gauge)
• Layout Accessories
(Angle Plate,
V−Blocks, Vernier
height gauge,
machine lay out)

Bench Work • Explain the use of ? 1.0 Bench work 20.0 21.0
bench vise, hammer, Lecture/Discussion exercise (MS (56.0)
hand hacksaw, file, ? Demonstration plate 180mm ×
chisel, letter stamp, Training Handout 100mm ×
anvil Samples of 10mm)
handtools

Principles of • Machineability of ? 3.0 0.0 3.0

Metal Cutting metals Lecture/Discussion (59.0)
• Cutting tool design ? Demonstration
Training Handout
Drill Press, • Types of drill press ? 3.0 Drilling exercise 5.0 8.0
drilling tools, and the important Lecture/Discussion (MS plate (67.0)
drilling parts ? Demonstration 180mm ×
operation • Tool holding device Training Handout 100mm ×
and taper shank Assorted 10mm)
tools Samples of drill bits
• Twist drills
(materials, sizes,
cutting speeds and

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 feeds)
• Machine vise, drill
press operation,
Cutting fluid,
countersinking,
counterboring

Threading • Hand taps and tap ? 1.0 Exercise for tap 3.0 4.0
wrenches Lecture/Discussion and die (71.0)
• Tap drill size and ? Demonstration
taping a hole Training Handout
• Treading dies and
holder
• Treading lubricants

Resharpening • Explain bench ? 1.0 Self practice 3.0 4.0

tools grinder Lecture/Discussion exercises in (75.0)
• Sharpen tools like ? Demonstration resharpening
chisel, center punch, Training Handout different tools
scriber, drill bit
• Safety, care and
maintenance of
bench grinder

Cutting with • Explain power ? 1.0 • Self practice 3.0 4.0

Power Tools hacksaw and chop Lecture/Discussion exercises in (79.0)
saw ? Demonstration cutting different
• Process on cutting Training Handout shapes of
with power hacksaw metals
and chop saw • Hands on
• Safety, care and training in
maintenance of maintain the
power hacksaw and machines and
chop saw in mount and
dismount
hacksaw blade
and cutting disc

SMAW Welding • Definition of the ? 2.0 0.0 2.0

Fundamentals various types of the Lecture/Discussion (81.0)
and its most common Training Handout
Processes welding technologies Teaching Video
• Power Sources
• SMAW Processes
• Tools and
equipment

SMAW Welding Types of electrodes ? 2.0 0.0 2.0

Electrodes (mild steel, low Lecture/Discussion (83.0)
hydrogen electrode) Training Handout
Teaching Video
Welding • Striking the arc ? Demonstration 3.0 • Setting up the 22.0 25.0
Processes in • The most common ? equipment (108.0)
Various types of joints (Butt, Lecture/Discussion • Weld with
Positions T, lap, corner, edge) Training Handout different types
• The most common Teaching Video of mild steel
types of grooves electrodes
(Square, beveled, V, • Prepare metal
double V) plates and
• Welding positions grooves for
(flat, horizontal, welding
vertical, overhead) • Weld

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 • Manipulation of standardized
electrode workpieces

Identification of • E.g. Incomplete ? 1.0 Analyze welding 3.0 4.0

Welding penetration, slag Lecture/Discussion defects and (112.0)
Defects inclusion, undercut, Training Handout correct them
spatters Sample of during the
workpiece practical work

Oxy−Acetylene • Types of gas for ? 1.0 Cutting 3.0 4.0

Cutting cutting metals Lecture/Discussion Exercises (116.0)
• Gas cylinder, gas ? Demonstration
flow meter and Training Handout
pressure regulator
• Cutting tools
• Cutting process

Safety • Safety in the ? 4.0 0.0 4.0

(included in the workshop Lecture/Discussion (120.0)
previous ? Demonstration
topics) Training Handout
Total 40 80 120

1. METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1.1 Classification of Metals

Steels are the most important ferrous metals used in machine shop work. They are generally classified by
their carbon content. It can be custom−made to fit a wide range of requirements. By using various chemical
and alloying elements, steels with many different properties can be produced.

1.2 Identification of Metals (Examples)

Metal Carbon Appearance Uses

Content %

Cast Iron (C.I.) 2.5 to 3.5 Grey, rough sandy surface Parts of machines, such as lathe
beds, water pump pitcher type, etc.

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Machine Steel 0.10 to 0.30 Black, scaly surface Bolts, rivets, nuts, machine parts
(M.S.)

Cold Rolled 0.10 to 0.30 Dull silver, smooth surface Shafting, bolts, screws, nuts
(C.R.S.)

Tool steel (T.S.) 0.60 to 1.5 Black, glossy Drills, taps, dies, tools

High Speed Alloy Steel Black, glossy Dies, taps, tools, drills, toolbits
Steel (H.S.S.)

Brass / Yellow (various shades), rough Bushings pump parts, ornamental

if cast, smooth if rolled work

Copper / Red−brown, rough if cast, Soldering irons, electric wire, water

smooth if rolled pipes
Metals are usually identified by one of the following four methods:

• By their appearance
• By spark testing
• By manufacturer’s stamp
• By a code color painted on the bar.

Exercise Sheet

Classify the materials. Please mark your answer by a “X”.

Metals Non−Metals

Ferrous Metal Nonferrous Metal Natural Material Artificial

Material

Wood

Aluminum

Leather

Glass

Copper

Mild Steel

Cast Iron

Rubber

Ore

Brass

Ceramics

Tool Steel

Bronze

Lead

PVC

Teflon

Tin

Stainless Steel

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 Materials used in Car Production

Use one of these expressions to complete the statements below:

“covered with” or “made of” or “contain(s)”

The pipes of the radiator ………………………. copper.

The bumper …………………………………… chromium.
The door handles ……………………………… zinc.
The cables ……………………………………... plastic.
The windscreen ……………………………….. glass.
The battery ……………………………………. lead.
The pistons ……………………………………. aluminum.
The cylinder block ……………………………. cast iron.

1.3 Properties of Metals

To better understand the use of the various metals, you should be familiar with the following metallic
properties:

1.3.1 Physical Properties:

Melting Point:

The melting point is the temperature at which a material starts to melt.

Ferrous 1,536 degree Celsius

Copper 1,083 degree Celsius

Lead 327 degree Celsius

Aluminum 658 degree Celsius

Tin 232 degree Celsius

Tungsten 3,387 degree Celsius

Electrical Conductivity:

The electrical conductivity describes the ability of a material to conduct electricity.

Copper 100%

Silver 106%

Lead 8%

Aluminum 62%

Ferrous 17%

Zinc 29%

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Density:

The density (kg/dm3) of a material gives the quotient of mass and volume of a body.

Water 1.00

Copper 8.90

Lead 11.30

Aluminum 2.70

Steel 7.85

Tungsten 19.27
Thermal longitudinal expansion:

To express the thermal longitudinal expansion, there is a coefficient that gives for each material the expansion
of a body with the length of 1 Meter at a change of temperature of 1 degree Celsius.

1.3.2 Mechanical −Technological Properties:

Elasticity:
Is the ability of a metal to return to its original shape after being
distorted. Properly heat−treated springs are good examples of
elastic materials.

Ductility:
Is the ability of a metal to be permanently deformed without
breaking. Metals such as copper and machine steel, which may be
drawn into wire, are ductile materials

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 Tensile Strength:
The ability of material to resist fracture under tensile load.

Compressive Strength:
The ability of a material to withstand heavy compressive load.

Brittleness:
Is the property of a metal that allows no permanent distortion
before breaking. Cast iron is a brittle metal; it will break rather than
bend under shock or impact.

Toughness:
Is the ability of metals to withstand shock or impact. Toughness is
the opposite of brittleness.

Shear Strength:
The ability of a material to resist fracture under shear load.

Flexural Strength:
The ability of a metal to resist under flexural force.

Torsional Strength:
The ability of a metal to resist torsional force.

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 Collapsing Stress:
The ability of a metal with a slim form to resist axial directed force.

Hardness:
The ability of metal to withstand abrasion or penetration.

1.3.3 Manufacturing − Technological Properties:

Weldability:
Means the ability to weld two metals together. The grade of
weldability depends on the content of carbon. Steels with a content
of max. 0.22% are more or less good weldable.

Machinability:
Indicates how easy or difficult materials can be machined.

Malleability:
Is the property of metals that allows it to be hammered or rolled into
other sides and shapes.

Castability:
Is the property of metals that allows it to be molten and after it to be
casted without any pores.

Hardenability:
Is the property of iron metals that allows it to increase the
hardening through structural transformations.

1.3.4 Chemical Properties:

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 Corrosion Resistance:
Is the ability of a material to resist the attack of water, gases, acids or
other chemicals.

1.4 Shapes and Sizes of Metal

Due to the wide variety of work performed in a metal shop and the necessity of conserving time, as well as
reducing the amount of metal cut into steel chips, metals are manufactured in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes.

There is a proper method for specifying the sizes and dimensions of metal when ordering:

Flat−bar: Thickness × Width × Length

Round−bar: Diameter × Length

Square−bar: Width × Length

Angle−bar: Thickness × Width × Length

Hexagon−bar: Diameter × Length (or Distance Across Flats ×

Length)

Pipe: Diameter × Schedule × Length # 20 is thinner

than # 40

Square−tubing: Thickness × Width × Length

Channel−Bar: Width × Height × Length

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 I−Beam: Length × Thickness × pounds

Z−Bar: Width × Length

T−Bar: Width × Length

Metal Sheet: Gauge × Width × Length

2. TECHNICAL DRAWING

A technical drawing, sometimes referred to us as a drawing or print, is the language used for technical
communication. It depends on the job how exactly the drawing should be made. Sometimes it is enough to
sketch with freehand lines, but when it comes to more important parts the draft should be made very exactly.

2.1 Introduction into Technical Drawing

Drawing Equipment

The basic equipment is:

• Drawing board
• T−Square
• Drawing paper
• Compass
• Protractor
• Pencils
• Eraser

Drawing Paper sizes

ISO A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6

mm 841×1189 594×841 420×594 297×420 210×297 148×210 105×148

Scale Size

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Scale is used to indicate the ratio of the drawing size to the actual size of the part. Scaling is often necessary
to enlarge small parts for clarity and to have room for dimensions and other details. Large objects are often
drawn at a reduced scale in order to get the necessary information to fit a convenient size sheet of paper. The
scale is generally found in the title block of a drawing.

The dimensions shown on the drawing give the correct size of the part required. The actual drawing should
never be measured to determine that size to be machined.

2.2 Types of Lines

Various standard line styles and widths are used on technical drawings by the designer to precisely specify
what is required. The examples below is the so called “alphabet of lines”:

Standard lines used for technical drawings:

Type Description Thickness Use

mm

Free−hand Thin black lines 0,25 to Sketches;

line 0,35 break line

Object line Thick black lines 0,5 to 0,7 Indicate the

visible form
or edges of
an object

Thin unbroken Thin black line 0,25 to Shading

line 0,35 line, Thread
line,
Diagonal
line

Hidden line Medium−weight 0,35 to 0,5 Indicate

black lines (dash: hidden
approx. 4 mm, contours of
gap: 1 mm) an object

Center line Thin lines with 0,5 to 0,7 Indicate

alternating long centers of
lines and short holes,
dashes (dash: cylindrical
approx. 10 mm, objects, and
gap: 1 mm) other
sections

Dimension line Thin black lines 0,25 to Indicate

with arrowhead at 0,35 dimensions
each end. of an object

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 Cutting−plane Thick black line 0,5 to 0,7 Show
line (dash: approx. 7 imagined
mm, gap: 1 mm) section

Cross−section Fine evenly 0,25 to Show

line spaced parallel 0,35 surfaces
lines at 45°. Line exposed
spacing is in when a
proportion to the section is
part size cut
Exercise Sheet

Fill up the boxes with the given line type

2.3 Drawing Paper with title block

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 Exercise Sheet

1. Draw and dimension the object below using the given measurements. Use a piece of paper with a
title block.

2. Draw and dimension the object below using the given measurements. Use a piece of paper with a
title block.

15
2.4 Basic Rules

Dimensions are entered in millimeters without measures.

Dimension lines must have a distance of about 10 mm from

the object edge and 7 mm from parallel dimension lines. The
dimensions should be placed above the dimension lines and
should be staggered.

Dimensions must be either read from below or from the

right. For small dimensions the arrows are placed outside.

Symmetrical workpieces are dimensioned symmetrical to the

center line which extends 2−3 mm beyond the object edge.

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 Simple workpieces are mostly drawn in front elevation only.
If an elevation in which the area of a circle appears as a
straight line is to be dimensioned, the diameter symbol is to
be placed in front of the dimension figure.

If the circle is shown in the elevation, then it is not necessary

to draw the diameter symbol.

The diameter is shown by two dimension arrows on the

circumference or drawn on the extension lines of the circle. In
this cases no diameter symbol will be used.

A radius is symbolized by R and has only one dimension

arrow at the circumference. The center point is fixed by the
crossing of center lines.

Concealed edges are drawn as dash lines. The length of

each dash depends on the size of the drawing.

Dash lines start and end with a dash at the object edges.

If visible and concealed edges coincide, the visible edges are

drawn.

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Section views are used to show the interior form of an object
that could not be shown clearly by conventional methods.
The section areas are shaded, not the hollow spaces.

The smaller the section area the closer the shading lines.

In order to insert dimension figures the shading has to be

broken.

The shading lines are thin unbroken lines, which are angled
at 45 degree to the center line or angled to the base edge.

Assembled workpieces are identified by opposite or varied

shading. Section areas of one object are always shaded in
the same direction.

The outer diameter of a bolt thread is drawn as an object

line, the core diameter as a thin unbroken line. The distance
between the thick and thin lines represents the thread
diameter.

Looking in direction of the shaft end the core diameter

appears as a three−quarter circle in any position.

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 The ends of screws are normally 45 degree chamfered.

The core diameter of the internal thread is drawn as an

object line, the outer diameter as a thin unbroken line.

All lines of concealed thread are drawn as invisible edges.

The thin three−quarter circle becomes a full circle shown in
broken line.

To be dimensioned are: Outer diameter (e.g. M 10 or UNC ¾)

Useful length of thread Length of shaft with end, or
respectively depth of core hole without drill cone.

2.5 Drawing in three Elevations

Sometimes it is necessary to draft workpieces in three elevations to show all important parts of it.

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3. METROLOGY

Over 90% of all countries in the world are presently using the Metric System. But there are still some
countries using the Inch System (e.g. United States, Canada, and England). With the reality of global
manufacturing continually expanding, the need for metal workers in both systems of measurement will
continue to grow.

3.1 Metric System

The metric system uses the meter and linear units based on the meter as its standards of measure. At the
General Conference on Weights and Measures in October, 1983, the meter, defined as the distance traveled
by light in a vacuum during 1/299,792,458 of a second, was approved as a world standard.

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All multiplies and subdivisions of the meter are directly related to the meter by a factor of ten. This makes it
easy to use the decimal system for calculations involving metric units.

Kilometer = km 1 km = 1,000 m

Meter = m 1m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1,000 mm

Decimeter = dm 1 dm = 10 cm = 100 mm

Centimeter = cm 1 cm = 10 mm

Millimeter = mm 1 mm = 1,000 mm

Micrometer = mm

3.1.1 Exercises − Metric System

Change into smaller units

1m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1,000
mm

2.5 m dm = cm = mm

0.9 m = dm = cm = mm

1.2 m = dm = cm = mm

0.1 m = dm = cm = mm
Change into larger units

100 mm = 10 cm = 1 dm = 0.1 m

25 mm = cm = dm = m

120 mm = cm = dm = m

19 mm = cm = dm = m

386 mm = cm = dm = m
Summing Up

20 cm + 10 dm + 30 mm + 25 cm = 1,48 m

10 cm + 5 dm + 28 mm + 30.5 cm = mm

38 mm + 42 cm + 0.6 dm + 0.9 m = cm

5.5 dm + 122 mm + 44 cm + 1.2 m = dm

2.2 m + 86 cm + 77 cm + 333 mm = m

0.1 mm + 1.2 cm + 9.86 cm + 55.6 mm = mm

Mixed Operations

1m + 37 mm − 5 dm + 40 cm = 937 cm

1.47 m − 37 mm − 1.8 dm + 36.5 cm = cm

96 mm − 3.8 cm + 1.36 m + 98 dm = dm

0.4 cm − 12 mm + 1.55 m − 8.4 dm = m

11 cm + 11 mm + 1.1 dm + 1.11 m = m

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 19.4 dm − 87.5 cm + 1.36 m − 94 mm = dm
Conversion from Metric to Inch or opposite

1 millimeter = 0.0394 inch 1 inch = 25.4

millimeters

1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 inch = 2.54

centimeters

1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 foot = 0.3048

meter

3.2 Inch System

Unlike the Metric System, within the Inch System there is no relationship of other linear units to the base inch
unit. The values of yard, rod, mile, etc. have to be studied and kept in memory in order to use them. The inch
can be dived in halves (1/2), quarters (1/4), eighths (1/8), sixteenth (1/16), thirty−seconds (1/32), sixty−fourth
(1/64), tenth, hundreds, thousandth, ten−thousands etc.

3.3 Metrology Introduction

Engineering metrology is defined as the measurement of dimensions: length, thickness, diameter, taper,
angle, flatness, profiles and others.

An important aspect of metrology in manufacturing processes is dimensional tolerances. That is, the
permissible variation in the dimensions of a part. Tolerances are important not only for proper functionings
of products, they also have a major economic impact on manufacturing costs. The smaller we make the
tolerances, the higher the production costs. These and related aspects of tolerances and tolerancing are
described later on in this course.

3.4 Common Measuring Tasks

Inside − Outside

Height − Depth

Diameter

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 Distance

Angle

Taper

Gear

Surface

Geometrical Form and Position

3.5 Measuring Equipment

A modern industrial fabrication could not function without precise measuring equipment. The parts produced
are useless if they are not made to the exact sizes specified by the customer.

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3.5.1 Care of Measurement Tools

Proper care of measuring tools and instruments is very important to maintain the accuracy and quality of
these tools. Precision measuring tools and instruments are expensive and should be treated with care,
otherwise their accuracy can be destroyed.

• Never drop a measuring tool.

• Keep measuring tools away from chips, welding and grinding sparks.
• Never place measuring tools on oily or dirty surfaces.
• Store measuring tools in separate boxes to avoid scratches, nicks, or dents.
• Clean the tools and apply a light film of oil on the handling surfaces before putting them
away.

3.5.2 Sample of Gauges

Outside Radius Gauge

Inside Radius Gauge

Angle Form Gauge

Limit Snap Gauge

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 Thread Gauge

Angle Form Gauge

Limit Plug Gauge

Outside Thread−Ring Gauge

Inside Thread−Plug Gauge

3.5.3 Indirect Reading Instruments

Inside and Outside Calipers are comparison tools used to make approximate measurements of the outside
diameter of round workpieces. The caliper cannot be read directly and its setting must be checked with a rule
or a vernier caliper.

25
 Inside caliper with curved legs, a spring, and an adjusting nut

Outside caliper with curved legs, a spring, and an adjusting nut

3.5.4 Angle Measuring Instruments

With a simple Protractor the measuring arm can be set against a circular degree scale from 0 degree to 180
degree. The measuring error is around 1 degree.

With a more precise Universal Bevel Protractor angular measurements can be carried out with an accuracy of
5 minutes.

Simple Protractor

Universal Bevel Protractor

26
3.5.5 Comparative Length−Measuring Instruments

These instruments compare dimensions, hence the word comparative.

Dial Caliper

Digital Caliper

Digital Micrometer

27
 Dial Gauge

3.5.6 Direct Reading Instruments

Steel Rules

Steel rules are the most common linear measuring tools and are available in the metric or inch system. Metric
rules are graduated in both millimeters and half−millimeters. Some rules are available with both inch and
millimeter graduation.

28
 Exercise Sheet − Measuring with the Steel Rule

Measure all given shapes in metric and inch

Vernier Calipers

Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments used to make internal, external and depth
measurements. Both systems metric and inch are available, and some styles of vernier caliper provide metric
readings on one side and inch readings on the other side.

The common size of verniers for machine shops are 200 mm, 250 mm and 300 mm. The precision depends
on the vernier scale. Common types provide an accuracy of either 0.05 mm or 0.02 mm. The example below
shows an accuracy of 0.05 mm.

How to read a Metric Vernier Caliper (accuracy 0.05 mm):

29
1. The last numbered division on the bar to the left of the zero on the vernier scale
represents the number of millimeters. In the example above the #2 (20 mm) is the last
number left of the zero on the vernier scale.

2. Count the graduations between the last number (#2) and the zero on the vernier scale. In
the example above there are 8 (8 mm) graduations between the #2 and the zero on the
vernier scale.

3. Locate the line on the vernier scale that aligns with a bar line. Divide the number below
the line by 10. In the example above it is the line with #7 (7/10=0.7 mm).

4. The measurement in the example above is 20 mm + 8 mm + 0.7 mm = 28.7 mm

Exercise Sheet − Read a Vernier Caliper with an accuracy 0.05 mm

30
 Exercise Sheet − Read a Vernier Caliper with an accuracy 0.02 mm

Hands On − Measurement Exercise

Steel Ruler Vernier Caliper

No. mm inch No. mm inch

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

31
13 13

14 14

15 15

16 16

17 17

Hands On − Measurement Exercise

Steel Ruler Vernier Caliper

No. mm inch No. mm inch

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

32
4. FITS AND ISO TOLERANCES

Limits and Fits

In the world of manufacturing it is almost impossible to reach exactly the given dimension for a workpiece.
Therefore the off−sizes must be tolerated. To make sure, that all mating parts will fit each other they should
be fabricated within certain limits of nominal dimension.

Common Expressions in the world of manufacturing:

Nominal The given size in the technical drawing N

Upper Limit The maximum allowed size. UL

Lower Limit The minimum allowed size. LL

Upper Tolerance Is the difference between Nominal and Upper Limit UT

Lower Tolerance Is the difference between Nominal and the Lower Limit LT

Tolerance Is the difference between the Limits T

Shaft with a
nominal
dimension
of 20 mm

33
 Shaft with
toleranced
dimension,
2 mm plus
and 2 mm
minus is
allowed.

UL = N +
UT
LL = N− LT
T = LT + UT

Limits − Exercise Sheet

Nominal Upper Lower Upper Lower Tolerance

Dimension Limit Limit Tolerance Tolerance
(max. Æ) (min. Æ)

20.00 mm 20.00 mm 20.00 mm 0.00 mm 0.00 mm 0.00 mm

20.00 mm 20.50 mm 20.00 mm 0.50 mm 0.00 mm 0.50 mm

20.00 mm 20.25 mm 19.75 mm 0.25 mm 0.25 mm 0.50 mm

20.00 mm 20.00 mm 19.80 mm 0.00 mm 0.20 mm 0.20 mm

20.00 mm 20.15 mm 19.95 mm 0.15 mm 0.05 mm 0.20 mm

20.00 mm 20.00 mm 19.95 mm 0.00 mm 0.05 mm 0.05 mm

20.00 mm 20.02 mm 19.99 mm 0.02 mm 0.01 mm 0.03 mm

20.00 mm 20.01 mm 19.99 mm 0.01 mm 0.01 mm 0.02 mm

34
 20.00 mm 20.035 20.00 mm 0.035 mm 0.00 mm 0.035 mm
mm

20.00 mm 20.055 20.045 0.055 mm 0.045 mm 0.010 mm

mm mm

Classes of Fits

Force Fit (Interference Fit)

Transition Fit

35
 Loose Fit (Clearance Fit)

5. LAYING OUT

Laying out is the operation of scribing center locations, straight lines, arcs, circles, or contour lines on the
surface of a piece of metal to show the machinist the finished size and shape of the part to be manufactured.
The information regarding the size and shape of part is taken from a technical drawing. The care and
accuracy of the layout plays an important role in determining the accuracy of finished parts, since the
machinist uses these layout lines as a guide for machining.

5.1 Layout Tools and Accessories

Tools & Details

Accessories

Surface Plate or Is a plate or a table made of cast iron or of granite. It must be adjusted absolute
Marking Table horizontally. Its surface must be perfect plane to ensure accurate scribing. To bring
workpieces to the correct position on the marking table there are some other devices
like prism, angle plate, V−Blocks and Parallels.

Steel Rule Steel rules are the most common linear measuring tools and are available in the
metric or inch system. Metric rules are graduated in both millimeters and
half−millimeters. Some rules are available with both inch and millimeter graduation.

Scriber A scriber is a layout tool used for drawing layout lines on a workpiece. They are
made of tool steel with hardened and tempered points. It is important that the point of
the scriber be as sharp as possible to produce clear, thin, layout lines.

Center Punch Normally ground to an angle of 90 degree. Before drilling a hole the center must be
punched. To make a line more visible for cutting or oxy−acetylene cutting it is helpful
to punch the line.

Solid Square or Is used for laying out workpiece in combination with steel rule and scriber. It is also
Try−Square used to check the angles and the surfaces for flatness.

Divider The divider is used to transfer length or circles to the workpiece. Dividers are
available with and without fixing devices.

Protractor A simple protractor has a measuring range from 0 to 180 degree. The measuring
error is around 1 degree.

Surface Gauge or Is normally used in combination with a surface plate and an angle plate to mark
Vernier Height parallel lines. Using the simple type, the height can be adjusted with a steel rule.
Gauge

36
 Angle Plate An angle plate is a precision L−shaped tool usually made of hardened steel. All its
surfaces are ground to an accurate 90−degree angle and are square and parallel. It
is used to support workpieces on a 90−degree angle during the layout process.

V−Blocks or Prism It is an accurate fabricated layout device to hold cylindrical workpieces during the
layout process. They have one or more accurate 90−degree V−slots.

5.2 Layout Procedure

5.2.1 Laying out with Try−Square and Steel Rule

1. Remove all burrs from the workpiece and clean it properly.

2. Start the layout from a square machined (or filed) surface.
3. Use a try−square and a steel rule.
4. Place the point of the sriber on the workpiece against the try−Square edge. Hold the
scriber 15 degree inclined away from the workpiece and in the direction in which it is to be
drawn.

37
5.2.2 Laying Out Circles with the Divider

1. Lay out the center of the circle

2. Punch the center of the circle
3. Adjust the divider to the proper radius while using a steel rule or a vernier caliber
4. Place one point of the divider in the center punch hole and give some force to this leg.
5. Move around the fixed leg and scratch the surface.

Laying out circles

Laying out parallel lines

5.2.3 Laying Out with Surface Gauge

38
5.2.4 Laying Out with Protractor

5.2.5 Center Punch Procedure

1. Make sure that the point of the punch is sharp before starting.
2. Hold the punch at a 45 degree angle and place the point carefully on the layout line.
3. Tilt the punch to a vertical position and strike it gently with a light hammer.
4. If the punch mark is not in the proper position, correct it as necessary.

6. BENCH WORK TOOLS

Even in the time of CNC technology it is important to know how to do bench work using different hand tools,
because still today bench work plays a big rule in machine maintenance or in metal fabrication.

39
This chapter will provide the trainee with the necessary knowledge about bench work. This includes the basic
tools as well as their proper use.

6.1 Work Bench

• The workbench should be sturdy and when possible fixed with the shop floor.
• It is advisable to use wood for the bench board.
• The height of the workbench should depend on the height of the craftsman.
• Keep the workbench clean. Put only the tools necessary for the work on it.
• Measuring tools should be all the time separated from the other tools. Place them accurately
on the wooden tray board.

6.2 Bench Vise

• The base of a bench vise is normally made of cast iron. The jaws are hardened. Clamping
soft workpieces requires covering the jaws with an aluminum sheet cover.

• The size of the bench vise is measured by the width of the jaws and the maximum opening
between the jaws.

• There are different types of bench vises available: With or without an anvil plate, with a pipe
clamping device, machine vise for drill press, and adjustable in any position within 360
degree.

40
6.3 Hand Hacksaw

A hand hacksaw mainly serves to separate materials and also to produce grooves and slits.

By moving the saw in the direction of cut (cutting motion) with simultaneous pressure on the saw (cutting
pressure), the teeth penetrate into the material and remove chips.

There are different hacksaw blades, depending on the metal to be cut, available:

Coarse: for soft materials appr. 14 teeth per inch.

Medium: for normal material appr. 22 teeth per inch.

Fine: for hard material appr. 32 teeth per inch.

In order to achieve a perfect cut, file with a triangular file a small notch beside the marking line to get a good
start, then place the saw with an angle of tilt (as shown in the picture below) and start with sawing.

41
Forward stroke with pressure. Return stroke without pressure. Use the full length of the saw blade.

Saw in a straight line along the marking line.

Work safety:

When sawing through reduce pressure on hand hacksaw just before the workpiece separate.

6.4 Chisel Tools

In chiseling the cutting edge of a chisel is driven into a workpiece by impact. A chisel must be harder than the
piece being worked. Most chisels are made of alloyed tool steels.

Flat Chisel

Wedge angle for soft materials 30 to 50 degree; for mild steel 60 to 70 degree; for alloyed steels 70 to 80
degree

Work Process:

• The workpiece must be properly clamped when chiseling.

• The chisel must be struck on the center of the head, in the direction of the axis of the chisel.

• The correct wedge angle must be maintained when grinding the chisel (measure with an
angle gauge). The tool must be cooled frequently when sharpening, so that it does not lose its
temper.

42
 Shearing with a shearing chisel

The head of the chisel must be free of burrs and grease

6.5 Files

The file is a cutting tool to work materials. It has many cutting edges which are like small chisels (file teeth)
and are harder than the material being worked upon. For cutting metals normally Cross−Cut files are used.
These files have an overcut, and an upcut. When using a file, several cutting wedges always act at the same
time.

• To file different materials there are various coarses available, such as smooth−cut,
second−cut, and bastard cut.

43
 • The length of the file body normally used is between 100 mm and 350 mm.

• The file handle is either from wood or from plastic.

Types of Files

1. Square File large

2. Flat File

3. Square File small

4. Triangle File

5. Round File

44
 6. Half−Round File

7. Knife File

8. Flat−Triangle File

45
File Handling

• Clamp the workpiece as close as possible to the jaws of the vise. Use protective jaws
(Aluminum) to protect the workpiece.

• Start with a rough file for removing more material then take a smooth file to reach a good
surface.

• Forward stroke with pressure; Return stroke without pressure.

• Move with the file crosswise to control the area of filing.

• Clean the file from time to time (especially smooth files) with a wire brush to prevent messy
finishes.

• Never work with a file without a file grip.

• Make sure that the file grip is properly attached, that it has the right dimension and that it is
not splitted.

6.6 Hammer

• A hammer is used nearly in every operation related to metal works.

• They are made of cast steel or carbon steel.

• It mainly consists of a face, peen and body. The face and the peen are hardened and
tempered but the rest of the body is kept soft. A wooden handle is fitted in the eyehole of the
hammer with the help of a wedge. The wedge spreads the handle and fixes it inside the hole.

• Hammers are made in the size range of 25 Gram to 10 Kg.

• There are different types of hammer available:

Fitters hammer, Ball pane hammer, Rubber mallet, Plastic hammer, Wood
hammer, Sledge hammer, Claw hammer, Aluminum hammer, copper etc.,

46
Safety:

− The handle of a hammer should be dry and not greasy

− The surface of a handle should be smooth
− The face of a hammer should not be spotted, if it so then make it smooth by grinding
− Hold the hammer handle always nearer to its tail end.

Bench Work Exercise

Necessary material and tools for this exercise:

• 1 piece flatbar 200 mm × 102 mm × 10 mm

• steel rule 400 mm
• scriber
• center punch
• hammer 200 g
• protractor

47
 • try square
• combination square
• vernier caliber 250 mm
• depth vernier caliber
• hand hacksaw
• flat file 250 mm rough and bastard
• triangular file 250 mm rough and bastard
• different twist drills
• different screw taps
• different countersink
• letter stamps
• chisel

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 1

1. Take a piece of flat bar with a measurement of 200 mm lengths and 105 mm width and 10
mm thickness.

2. Take the letter “A” stamp and stamp it as shown in the above drawing.

3. File surface of edge A even and remove all rust and forging scale. First use a rough file,
then for finishing the surface a bastard file. Control the evenness with the try square.

4. Layout lines from the left side as well as on the right side. Use edge A as a reference to put
the try square and scribe the lines.

5. Center punch the lines with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.

6. Cut on the outer part of the lines using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm
allowance for filing.

7. File the surfaces of edges B and D in a right angle to surface A. File the 1mm excess to
the size required.

8. File surface of edge C even and parallel to edge A to the size required. First use a rough
file, then for finishing the surface a bastard file.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 2

48
 1. Take a combination square and set 135 degrees angle using a protractor.

2. Put the combination square at edge A.

3. Scribe a line with the scriber.

4. Center punch the line with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.

5. Cut on the outer part of the line using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm allowance
for filing.

6. File the surface of edge B in an angle of 135 ° to surface A. File the 1mm excess to the
size required.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 3

1. Take divider and steel rule for laying out the central point of radius = 40 mm.

49
 2. For laying out, use surfaces “A” and “B” as basis.

3. Set the divider on 40 mm radius.

4. Scribe a circle on the left lower corner of the work piece.

5. Center punch with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points along the line.

6. Cut on the outer part of the layout line leaving 2 mm allowance for filing.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 4

1. Lay out using surface “A” and “B” as a basis, scribe and punch following the illustration
given below on the right lower corner of the work piece.

2. Cut on the outer part of the layout line leaving 1 mm allowance for filing.

3. File the work piece and check if it is in the right measurement.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 5

50
 1. Lay out the two squares which are 30 mm × 30 mm and 20 mm × 20 mm as shown in the
drawing above using surface “A” and “B” as a basis.

2. Mark the squares exactly as shown in the drawing above.

3. Centerpunch the lines as shown in the drawing above.

4. Drill the punch mark of the inner square with a 8.5 mm twist drill.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 6

1. Cut the bridge between the wholes using chisel and hammer.

2. File the outer square 30 mm × 30 mm using the necessary files.

3. Check if the filed square is parallel to surfaces “A”, “B”, “C” and “D”.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 7

51
 1. Mark a border line for the height of the letters and vertical line for each letter. For the width
let approximately 1 mm clearance both sides.

2. Adjust the letter stamp on the surface of the work piece.

3. Strike the letter stamp using a 200 g hammer.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 8

1. Lay out the lines for drilling using the measurement given.

2. Punch all the mark for drilling.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 9

52
 1. Drill the holes with required twist drills.

2. Countersink both sides of holes with countersink tool.

3. Tap the threads with required screw taps.

4. Check the specifications for holes “1” and “2” in the complete technical drawing of the
workpiece.

Bench Work Exercise − New

53
Necessary material and tools for this exercise:

• 1 piece flatbar 100 mm × 100 mm × 10 mm

• steel rule 400 mm
• scriber
• center punch
• hammer 200 g
• protractor
• try square
• combination square
• vernier caliber 250 mm
• depth vernier caliber
• hand hacksaw
• flat file 250 mm smooth and rough
• triangular file 250 mm smooth and rough
• square file 250 mm smooth and rough
• different twist drills
• different screw taps
• different countersink
• letter stamps
• chisel

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 1

54
 1. Take a piece of flat bar with a measurement of 100 mm lengths and 100 mm width and 10
mm thickness.

2. The fianl dimension of the workpiece should be 95 mm × 90 mm × 10 mm with a

tolerance of plus 0.2 mm and minus 0.2 mm.

3. Take the letter “A” stamp and stamp it as shown in the above drawing.

4. File surface of side A even and remove all rust and forging scale. First use a rough file,
then for finishing the surface a smooth file. Control the evenness with the try square.

5. Layout lines from the left side as well as on the right side. Use side A as a reference to put
the try square and scribe the lines.

6. Center punch the lines with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.

7. Cut on the outer part of the lines using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm
allowance for filing.

8. File the surfaces of sides B and D in a 90 degree angle to surface A. File the 1mm excess
to the size required.

9. File surface of edge C even and parallel to side A to the size required. First use a rough
file, then for finishing the surface a smooth file.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 2

55
 1. Take a combination square and set 135 degrees angle using a protractor.

2. Put the combination square at side A.

3. Scribe a line with the scriber.

4. Center punch the line with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.

5. Cut on the outer part of the line using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm allowance
for filing.

6. File the surface in an angle of 135 ° to surface A. File the 1mm excess to the size
required.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 3

56
 1. Take divider and steel rule for laying out the central point of radius = 40 mm.

2. To layout, use surfaces “A” and “D” as basis.

3. Set the divider on 40 mm radius.

4. Scribe a circle on the left lower corner of the work piece.

5. Center punch with at least 5 mm distance between the marking−points along the line.

6. Cut on the outer part of the layout line leaving 2 mm allowance for filing.

7. File the surface exactly following the marks.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 4

1. Lay out the two squares which are 30 mm × 30 mm and 20 mm × 20 mm as shown in the
drawing above using surface “A” and “B” as your basis.

2. Mark the squares exactly as shown in the drawing above.

3. Centerpunch the lines as shown in the drawing above.

4. Drill the punch mark of the inner square with 8.5 mm twist drill.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 5

57
 1. Cut the bridge between the wholes using chisel and hammer.
2. File the outer square 30 mm × 30 mm using the necessary files.
3. Check if the filed square is parallel to surfaces “A”, “B”, “C” and “D”.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 6

1. Mark two lines for the height of the letters and vertical lines for each letter. For the width let
approximately 1 mm clearance both sides.

2. Adjust the letter stamp on the surface of the work piece.

3. Strike the letter stamp using a 200 g hammer.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 7

58
 1. Lay out the lines for drilling using the measurement given.
2. Punch all the marks for drilling.

Metal Plate − Working Step No. 9

1. Drill the holes with required twist drills.

2. Countersink both sides of holes with countersink tool.
3. Tap the threads with required screw taps.
4. Check the specifications for holes “1” and “2” in the complete technical drawing of the
workpiece.

59
7. PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL METAL CUTTING

A large portion of manufacturing operations in the world consists of machining metal to size and shape. To
be competitive, it is important that machining operations be as cost−efficient as possible. This requires a good
knowledge of metals, cutting tools, and machining conditions and processes.

7.1 Classification of Metal Cutting Processes

Hand Cutting Processes Machine Cutting Processes

• Filing • Drilling
• Chiseling • Hacksawing
• Hand Hacksawing • Turning
• Shearing • Milling
• Hand Tapping • Grinding
• Die−Tapping • Shaping
• Hand Reaming • Machine Threading
• Machine Reaming

Chiseling

Sawing

Turning

Grinding

7.2 Angles of tools

• What is common to all cutting tools is the wedge shape BETA (?).

• To cut metals, the tool must be wedge−shaped, be resistant to abrasion and tenacious.

60
 • For different cutting operations there is a need for different tool angles.

• Cutting tools with small wedge angles penetrate the material more easily but also tend to
break off more easily if the material is hard

Wedge Angle Beta (?):

The wedge angle must suit to the material being worked.

• The smaller the wedge angle is, the lower the expenditure of force.
• The harder the material, the larger the wedge angle should be chosen.

Clearance Angle Alpha (?):

The clearance angle is the angle between the flank of the tool and the surface being cut.

Friction and heating depend upon this angle. The angle should be chosen as such that the tool could cut
freely.

• Soft materials require a larger clearance angle because they generate more heat and
friction.

Rake Angle Gamma (?):

The rake angle is the angle between the cutting face and the plane of reference of the tool, an imaginary
surface perpendicular to the cut surface.

The rake angle influences the chip formation.

• Large angle: good chip flow, low cutting force

• Small to negative angle: great cutting force, highly robust cutters

61
7.3 Cutting Tool Guideline

• Cutting tools are expensive therefore take care of them.

• Always use sharp cutting tools to ensure an efficient cutting action and accurate work.

• Use the largest nose radius possible (Cold chisel, lathe tool….)

• Clamp the workpiece as short as possible and securely.

• Always use the speeds, feeds, and depth of cuts recommended by the manufacturer for the
material being cut and the cutting tool used.

• Use enough of the proper coolant for the material being cut and the cutting tool used.

8. DRILLING

8.1 Drill Press

A drill press is a machine used for drilling operations available in a wide variety of types and sizes to suit
different types and sizes of workpieces. The most common machine type found in a metal shop is the
floor−type drill press.

8.1.1 Drill Press Parts

Although drill presses are manufactured in a wide variety of sizes, all drilling machines contain certain basic
parts.

Base:

The base, usually made of cast iron, provides stability for the machine and rigid mounting for the column. The
base is usually provided with holes so that it may be bolted to a table or bench to keep it rigid. The slots or
ribs in the base allow the work−holding device for the workpiece to be clamped to the base.

Column:

The column is an accurate, vertical, cylindrical post that fits into the base. The table, which is fitted on the
column, may be adjusted to any point between the base and head. The head of the drill press is mounted
near the top of the column.

Table:

The table, either round or rectangular in shape, is used to support the workpiece to be machined. The table,
whose surface is at 90 degree to the column, may be raised, lowered, and swiveled around the column. On
some models it is possible to tilt and lock the table in either direction for drilling holes on an angle. Slots are
provided in most tables to allow jigs, fixtures, or large workpieces to be clamped directly to the table.

Drilling Head:

The head, mounted close to the top of the column, contains the mechanism to revolve the cutting tool and
advance into the workpiece. The spindle, which is a round shaft that holds and drives the cutting tool, is
housed in the spindle sleeve. The spindle sleeve does not resolve, but is moved up and down by the hand
feed lever that is connected to the pinion on the rack of the spindle sleeve. The end of the spindle may have a
tapered hole to hold taper shank tools, or it may be threaded or tapered for attaching a drill chuck.

The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the spindle sleeve and the cutting tool. A
depth stop, attached to the spindle sleeve, can be set to control the depth that a cutting tool enters the
workpiece.

62
Drill Chuck:

Drill chucks are the most common devices used on a drill press for holding straight−shank cutting tools. Most
drill chucks contain three jaws that move all at the time when the outer collar is turned. The three jaws hold
the straight shank of a cutting tool securely and cause it to run accurately.

8.1.2 Drill Sleeves and Sockets:

The size of the tapered hole in the drill press spindle is generally in proportion to the size of the machine: The
larger the machine, the larger the spindle hole. A drill sleeve is used to adapt the cutting tool shank to the
machine spindle if the taper on the cutting tool is smaller than the tapered hole in the spindle.

Before a taper shank tool is mounted in a drill press spindle, be sure that the external taper of the tool shank
and the internal taper of the spindle are thoroughly cleaned. Align the tang of the tool with the slot in the
spindle hole and, with a sharp upward snap, force the tool into the spindle.

63
Remove a taper shank tool:

A drift, a wedge−shaped tool, is used to remove a taper−shank tool from the drill press spindle. Place a piece
of wood under the tool. Insert the drift and sharply strike the end of it with hammer to remove the tool from the
drill press spindle.

8.2 Twist drill

A twist drill is a cutting−tool used to produce a hole in a piece of metal or other material. The most common
drill manufactured has two cutting edges (lips) and two straight or helical flutes.

The flutes provide the cutting edges with cutting fluid and allow the chips to escape during the drilling
operation.

Drill bit materials:

High−speed steels drills are the most commonly used drills, since they can be operated at good speeds and
the cutting edges can withstand heat and wear.

Cemented−carbide drills, which can be operated much faster than high−speed steel drills, are used to drill
hard materials. They can be operated at high speeds and they can withstand higher heat.

64
8.2.1 Twist drill parts and cutting angles

A twist drill may be divided into three main sections:

• Shank: The shank is the part of the drill that fits into a holding device. It may be either straight
or tapered.

• Body: The body contains the flutes, margin, and body clearance of the drill.

• Point: Shape and condition of the point are very important to the cutting action of the drill.

Angles for General Purpose

Angles for Soft Material

65
 Angles for Hard Material

Cutting angles of a twist drill

The parts of a twist drill point

8.2.2 Drill Sizes

Metric drills:

Metric drills are available in various set ranges.

Miniature set: Sizes from 0.04 to 0.99 mm in steps of 0.01 mm

Straight shank: Sizes from 0.5 to 20 mm in steps of 0.02 to 1 mm (depending on the size)

Taper shank: Sizes from 8 to approx. 100 mm

Inch drills:

The most common system for inch drills is the fractional system.

Drills are available in sizes from 1/64 to 3 ½ in. in diameter, varying in steps of 1/64 in. from one size to the
next. Drills larger than 3 ½ in. in diameter must be ordered specially from the manufacturer.

66
8.2.3 Setting the Spindle Speed

To find the right number of revolutions per minute at which a drill press spindle will be set, the following
information must be known:

• The recommended cutting speed (CS) of the material to be drilled

• The type of drill bit, most likely HSS
• The diameter of the drill

Other important factors might affect the setting of the spindle speed:

• The type and the condition of the machine

• The accuracy and finish of the hole required
• The rigidity of work setup
• The use of cutting fluid

Calculating the spindle speed for Metric drills:

CS = cutting speed of the material in meter per minute

D = diameter of the drill in mm

? = 3.1416

r/min = revolution per minute

Example:

Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill 12 mm hole in a piece of mild steel.

r/min = (CS × 1000) / (3,1416 × 12)

r/min = 30000 / 37.69

r/min = 796

Cutting speed for high−speed steel (HSS) drills

Material Stainless Steel Tool Steel Cast Steel Mild Steel Aluminum & Brass

Cutting Speed (CS) 10 M/Min 15 M/Min 20 M/Min 30 M/Min 60 M/Min

Drill bit Ø in mm Revolution per Minute (rpm/min)

2 1592 2387 3183 4775 9549

3 1061 1592 2122 3183 6366

4 796 1194 1592 2387 4775

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 5 637 955 1273 1910 3820

6 531 796 1061 1592 3183

7 455 682 909 1364 2728

8 398 597 796 1194 2387

9 354 531 707 1061 2122

10 318 477 637 955 1910

11 289 434 579 868 1736

12 265 398 531 796 1592

13 245 367 490 735 1469

14 227 341 455 682 1364

15 212 318 424 637 1273

20 159 239 318 477 955

25 127 191 255 382 764

Exercise Sheet − Calculating the spindle speed of Metric drills

CS = cutting speed of the material in meter per minute

D = diameter of the drill in mm

? = 3.1416

r/min = revolution per minute

Exercise 1:

Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 10 mm hole in a piece of aluminum.

Exercise 2:

Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 22.5 mm hole in a piece of mild steel.

Exercise 3:

Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 5.8 mm hole in a piece of mild steel.

8.3 Different Drill Press Operations

68
 Countersink Tool

Counterbore Tool

8.4 Facts and Problems

The most common drill problems encountered are illustrated below.

69
 Excessive speed will cause
wear at outer corners of drill.
This leads to more regrinding
of material.

Excessive feed sets up

abnormal end thrust that
causes breakdown of chisel
point and cutting lips. Failure
included by this cause will be
broken or split drill.

Cutting with unequal angles

will cause one cutting edge to
work harder than the other.
This causes to poor tool life.

Cutting lips unequal in length

cause chisel point to be off
center with axis and will drill
holes oversize by appr. Twice
the amount of eccentricity.

8.5 Drill Press Safety

Safety Rules

• Never wear loose clothing around machinery

• A hair net or a cap must protect long hair to prevent it from becoming caught in the
revolving parts of the drill press.

• Never wear rings, watches, bracelets or necklaces while working in a machine shop.

• Always wear safety glasses when operating any machine.

• Never set the speed, adjust or measure the work until the machine is completely stopped.

• Keep the work area and floor clean and free of oil and grease.

• Never clamp taper shank drills, end mills, or non−standard tools in a drill chuck.

• Never leave a chuck key in a drill chuck at any time.

• Always use the brush to remove chips.

• Always clamp workpieces when drilling holes larger than ½ in. (12.7 mm) in diameter.

70
 • When drilling sheet metal, it is necessary to clamp the sheet on a piece of wood.

• Reduce drilling pressure as the drill breaks through the workpiece.

• Always remove the burrs from a hole that has been drilled.

9. CUTTING THREADS WITH TAP & DIES

Whenever possible, threads should be cut with machines where they can be accurately controlled and the
thread cut will be of high quality. Sometimes it may be necessary, due to the size and shape of the workpiece,
or because only a few parts are required, to cut the thread with hand tools. Done with care, fairly accurate
internal threads can be cut with a tap; external threads can be cut with a die.

9.1 Main Parts of a Screw Thread

9.2 Hand Tapping

Hand Tap

A tap is a cutting tool used to cut internal threads. Normally its made of high−speed steel (HSS).

Hand taps are usually made in sets of three, because it is better to distribute all the cutting work during the
thread−process to three taps.

No. 1 (taper) tap: 1 ring on

shank

No. 2 (plug) tap: 2 rings on

shank

No. 3 (bottoming) tap: without ring

The most common taps have two or three flutes in order to form the cutting edges, transport the chips out of
the hole and give way for the lubricant. The end of the tap is square so that a tap wrench can be used to turn
it into a hole.

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 Tap − Cutting Angles

Tap Wrenches Adjustable

Tap Wrenches Fixed

Tapping a Hole

Before a tap is used, a hole must be drilled in the workpiece to the correct tap drill size. The tap drill size
(T.D.S.) is the size of the drill that should be used to leave the proper amount of material in the hole for a tap
to cut threads. Then countersink both sides of the hole.

If there is no tap drill size chart available, the tap drill size can be easily found by applying simple formulas:

Inch Threads Metric Threads

T.D.S. = D in inch − 1/N T.D.S. = D in mm − P

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T.D.S. = tap drill size T.D.S = tap drill size
D = major diameter of tap D = major diameter of tap
N = number of threads per inch P = pitch
Table of Drill sizes

Metric Pitch mm Drill Ø mm UNC TPI Drill Ø mm UNF TPI Drill Ø mm

M3 0.50 2.5 1/4“ 20 5.1 1/4“ 28 5.5

M4 0.70 3.3 5/16” 18 6.6 5/16” 24 6.9

M5 0.80 4.2 3/8” 16 8.0 3/8” 24 8.5

M6 1.00 5.0 7/16” 14 9.4 7/16” 20 9.9

M8 1.25 6.8 1/2” 13 10.8 1/2” 20 11.5

M 10 1.50 8.5 9/16” 12 12.2 9/16” 18 12.9

M 12 1.75 10.2 5/8” 11 13.5 5/8” 18 14.5

M 16 2.00 14.0 3/4” 10 16.5 3/4” 16 17.5

M 20 2.50 17.5 7/8” 9 19.5 7/8” 14 20.4

M 24 3.00 21.0 1” 8 22.25 1” 12 23.25

Working Steps for Hand Tapping

1. Select the correct size and type of tap for the job (blind hole or through hole).
Step:

2. Select the correct tap wrench for the size being used.
Step:

3. Use a suitable cutting fluid (No cutting fluid for brass or cast iron).
Step:

4. Place the tap in the hole as near to vertical as possible.

Step:

5. Apply equal down−pressure on both handles, and turn the tap clockwise (for right−hand thread) for
Step: about two turns.

6. Remove the tap wrench and check the tap for squareness. Check at two positions 90 degree to
Step: each other.

7. If the tap has not entered squarely, remove it from the hole and restart it by applying slight
Step: pressure in the direction from which the tap leans. Be careful not to exert too much pressure in
the straightening process, otherwise the tap may be broken.

8. Turn the tap clockwise one−half turn and then turn it backward about one−quarter of a turn to break
Step: the chip. This must be done with a steady motion to avoid breaking the tap.

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 Turn clockwise with light pressure

Check the 90−degree Angle

9.3 Threading Dies

A threading die is used to cut external threads on round workpieces. The most common threading dies are the
adjustable and solid types. The round adjustable die is split on one side and can be adjusted to cut slightly
over or under−sized threads. It is mounted in a die stock, which has two handles for turning the dies onto the
work.

The solid die, cannot be adjusted and generally used for re−cutting damaged or oversized threads. Solid dies
are turned onto the thread with a special die−stock, or adjustable wrench.

Adjustable Die

74
 Die Stock

Solid Die

Thread with a Hand Die − Working Steps

The threading process requires the machinist to work carefully to produce usable parts and avoid damage.
The following describes the procedure to be used.

1. Step: Chamfer the end of the workpiece with a file or on the grinder. Consider that a 3/4” thread
requires a bolt with an outside diameter of 3/4”.

2. Step: Fasten the workpiece securely in a vise. Hold small diameter work short to prevent it from
bending.

3. Step: Select the proper die and die stock.

4. Step: Lubricate the tapered end of the die with a suitable cutting lubricant.

5. Step: Place the tapered end of the die squarely on the workpiece.

6. Step: Apply down−pressure on both die−stock handles and turn clockwise several turns.

7. Step: Check the die to see if it has started squarely with the work.

8. Step: If it is not square, remove the die from the workpiece and restart it squarely, applying slight
pressure while the die is being turned.

9. Step:

75
 Turn the die forward one turn, and then reverse it approximately one−half of a turn to break the
chip.

10. Apply cutting fluid frequently during the threading process.

Step:

10. SHARPENING TOOLS

For some tools it is very important to keep them sharp at all times. Common tools, such as scribers, center
punchs, chisels, drill bits, tool bits for lathe machine needs to be sharpened every time you feel that they do
not cut well.

10.1 Bench Grinder or Pedestal Grinder

The bench grinder is used for the sharpening of cutting tools and the rough grinding of metal. Because the
work is usually held in the hand, this type of grinding is sometimes called “offhand grinding”.

The bench grinder is mounted on a bench while the pedestal grinder being a larger machine, is fastened to
the floor. Both types consist of an electric motor with a coarse abrasive grinding wheel for the fast removal
of metal, while the other is a fine abrasive wheel for finish grinding.

• The grinding wheels are normally made of Aluminum−Oxide or Silicon−Carbide.

Aluminum−Carbide is used to grind High−Tensile−Strength Materials. Silicon−Carbide is used
to grind Low−Tensile−Strength Materials.

• The wheel guards give the necessary protection while grinding

• The tool rest provide a rest for either the work or hands while grinding

• The eye shield is an additional protection for the eyes and should be used

Redressing the grinding wheels:

When a grinding wheel is used, several things can happen to it:

• Grooves become worn in the face of the wheel

• The abrasive grains will loose its cutting action
• Small metal particles imbed themselves in the wheel, causing it to become loaded or
clogged.

Use from time to time a disc type dresser or a dressing stone to remove the grooves and the metal particles.
This will also re−sharpen the abrasive grains.

76
10.2 Sharpening Tools

Sharpening Scriber and Center Punch

• Scriber and center punch should be ground in the position as shown beside.
• Use the tool rest to rest your hands while bringing the tool in the right position.
• Rotate the tool while grinding.
• Cool the tool down from time to time.
• Do not overheat the metal.

Sharpening Chisel

• Chisels should be ground in the position as shown below.

• Use the tool rest to rest your hands while bringing the tool in the right position.

• Use the whole grinding wheel while grinding. Move with the tool regularly from the left to the
right side and back.

• Cool the tool down from time to time.

• Do not overheat the metal.

• Grind the chisel−point parallel and straight. See also the pictures below.

77
10.3 Safety Precautions:

1. When switching on the machine, stand beside, because a damaged wheel might burst
during acceleration.

2. Always use safety goggles when grinding

3. The tool rest should never have more than 2−3 mm distance to the grinding wheel

4. Small workpieces should be held with clamps or other suitable devices

5. Keep the metal cool by dipping it frequently in water

6. Stand comfortable and don’t give to much force to the workpiece because in the case of
slip off with the workpiece you will grind your fingers or hand

7. While grinding, use only the face of the wheel

LIST OF NEEDED RESSOURCES FOR “GENERAL METAL” COURSE

Need to
Order/Replace/Organize

Resource Checked Unit Qty for 1 Qty for 4 Unit Qty Unit Amount
Trainee Trainees Price

Teaching Aids

Forms

78
Consumables and
Parts for Exercises

11. APPENDIX

APPENDIX NO. 1

Common Sizes for ordering Materials − Conversion Inch to Millimeter

1 millimeter = 0.0394 inch 1 inch = 25,4

millimeters

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1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 inch = 2.54
centimeters

1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 foot = 0.3048

meter

Inch Millimeter

1/16 1.6

1/8 3

3/16 5

1/4 6

5/16 8

3/8 10

7/16 11

1/2 12

9/16 14

5/8 16

11/16 18

3/4 20

7/8 22

1 25

1 1/8 28

1 1/4 30

1 5/16 32

1 3/8 35

1 1/2 40

1 3/4 45

2 50

APPENDIX NO. 2

Sheet Metal Work

Materials used for sheet metal work

Material Use Technical Aspects Appearance

Black Iron • steel cabinets, machine • easy to cut, bent, form and • black dull or rusty
guards weld
• corrodes easily

Galvanized • car production, water • resistant to corrosion • bright spangled because

Iron tank, gutters, air ducts of the zinc coating

Tin Plate • food containers • expensive • silvery mirror−like finish

• can be cut bent

80
Stainless • kitchen equipment • resistant to corrosion • silver chrome
Steel • sink • resistant to many chemical
• chemical industry products
• easy to clean
• available with polished
surface

Aluminum • cooking utensils • very light in comparison to • whitish shiny

• window & door frames other metals
• airplane • available as an alloy to make
it harder and stronger
• pure aluminum is very soft

Copper • gutter, • easy to cut bent and solder • reddish

• kettle • High degree of workability
• kitchen utensils
Conversions table Gauge No. to Millimeter for Steel Sheet

The standard measurements of sheet metal are: 2,400 mm × 1,220 mm (8 ft. × 4 ft.), but there are also other
measurements available. Please check out with your hardware dealer.

Gauge No. Equivalent in mm Gauge No. Equivalent in mm

32 0.25 20 0.91

31 0.27 19 1.06

30 0.30 18 1.21

29 0.34 17 1.37

28 0.38 16 1.52

27 0.42 15 1.71

26 0.45 14 1.90

25 0.53 13 2.28

24 0.61 12 2.66

23 0.68 11 3.04

22 0.76 10 3.42

21 0.84

GENERAL METAL WORK − FINAL TEST

Name: …………… Batch Nr. ….. Date: ……………

1. How can metals be classified in general? 1 point

a) Natural Products / Non Natural Products

b) Ferrous Steel / Nonferrous Steel

c) Cast Iron / Steel

d) Wrought Iron / Steel

2. How can different metals be roughly identified? 1 point

81
 a) By their appearance

b) By their temperature

c) By their elasticity

d) By their costs

3. What is a typical use of Cast Iron? 1 point

a) Drill bits

b) Exhaust of a car

c) Roof of a house

d) Body or base of machines

4. What is a typical use of Mild Steel? 1 point

a) Drill bits

b) Body of bench vise

c) Bolts, nuts or rivets

d) hacksaw blade

5. Name two (2) physical properties and two (2) mechanical−technological properties of 4
metals points

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

6. Name three (3) common shapes of metals? 3

points

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

7. How do you order Angle bars at a hardware store? By the measurement of: 1 point

a) Thickness × Width × Length

b) Width × Height × Length

c) Diameter × Length

d) Schedule × Length

8. How do you order Flat bar at a hardware store? By the measurement of: 1 point

82
 a) Thickness × Width × Length

b) Width × Height × Length

c) By their Elasticity

d) By their costs

9. When do you scale up a workpiece in technical drawing? For example S = 2:1 1 point

a) If it is made of wood

b) If the shape is round

c) If the workpiece is to small to show the details

d) If the workpiece is to big to fit on the paper

10. Write down the names of the given lines 4

points

a.
______

b.
______

c.
______

d.
______

11. What does Interchangeability means? 1 point

a) A worker can work all over the world

b) Parts produced within limits, can be used world wide

c) Aluminum in the Philippines has the same appearance than in Japan

d) Interchangeability is the relation between the Peso to the US$

12. What is the Maximum Limit for a bolt 20+0.05 mm? 1 point

a) 19.50 mm

b) 19.95 mm

c) 20.00 mm

d) 20.05 mm

13. What is the tolerance of a hole with this specification 20−0.25 mm? 1 point

a) 20.00 mm

b) 19.75 mm

c) 0.25 mm

83
 d) 0.50 mm

14. Name three (3) common parts of a drill press 3

points

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

15. Which of the following statements is true? 1 point

a) The harder the material, the smaller the wedge angle of a cutting tool

b) The softer the material, the bigger the wedge angle of a cutting tool

c) The softer the material, the smaller the wedge angle of a cutting tool

16. Name three (3) laying out tools 3

points

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

17. Name three (3) common benchwork tools 3

points

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

18. What can be adjusted on the arc−welding machine? 1 point

a) Watt

b) Voltage

c) Amperage

19. What is the common type of electrode used for arc welding? 1 point

a) Flux coated

b) Bare electrode

c) Square electrode

20. What is the common type of electrode used in welding mild steel using arc welding 1 point
technology?

84
 a) 4711

b) 6013

c) 4080

21. Name three (4) common personal safety equipment used during welding operations 4
points

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

22. Which of the following statements is true? 1 point

a) The A drill point angle with 118 degree is good for general purpose

b) A drill point angle with 118 degree is good for soft metals

c) A drill point angle with 118 degree is good for hard metals

23. Which of the following statements is true? 1 point

a) Drilling hard metals needs a higher cutting speed

b) Drilling hard metals needs a lower cutting speed

c) Drilling soft metals needs a lower cutting speed

24. What is the recommended distance between tool rest and grinding wheel at a 1 point
benchgrinder?

a) 10 to 15 mm

b) 2 to 3 mm

c) 0.5 to 0.75 mm

25. Give the right measurement 2

points

85
Total score: 46 points = 100%

Actual score: ………… = ……..%

86