CHAPTER 3: ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

One-dimensional Heat Conduction through Plane Wall

Let us consider one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction in aplane wall with no heat generation
and constant thermal conductivity. We first determine thetemperature distribution, from which we can
then obtain the conduction heat transferrate.

A plane wall shown in the Figure, separates two fluids of different temperatures. Heat transfer occurs
byconvection from the hot fluid at T1, to one surface of the wall at Ts,1, by conduction through the
wall, and by convection from the other surface of the wall at Ts,2 to the cold fluid at T,2.

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
General equation: 𝜕𝑥 (𝑘 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑘 𝜕𝑦) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑘 𝜕𝑧 ) + 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
Assumptions:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
1. One-dimensional → = =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
2. Steady state → =0
𝜕𝑡
3. No heat generation → 𝑞̇ = 0
4. Constant Properties → k is independent of x and T

The appropriate form of the heat conduction equation is:

𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑑
(𝑘 ) = 0 → (𝑞′′𝑥 ) = 0 → 𝑞′′𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

It follows that, for one-dimensional, steady-state conductionin a plane wall with no heat generation,
the heat flux is a constant, independent of x. If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is assumed
to be constant, the equation may be integrated twice to obtain the general solution
𝑑𝑇 𝐶
(𝑑𝑥 ) = 𝑘 = 𝐶1 → 𝑇(𝑥) = 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2

To obtain the constants of integration, C1 and C2, boundary conditions must be used.
Boundary conditions:

B. C. 1: At x = 0, T(0) = Ts,1
B. C. 2: At x = L T(L) = Ts,2.
Applying B. C. 1 to the general solution, it follows that Ts,1 = C2.
Similarly, using B. C. 2, it follows Ts,2 = C1L + C2 = C1L + Ts,1

𝑇𝑠,2 −𝑇𝑠,1
in which case, 𝐶1 = 𝐿
Substituting, into the general solution, the temperature distribution is:

𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1
𝑇(𝑥) = ( ) 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑠,1
𝐿

It implies that the temperature varies linearly with x.

Now we may use Fourier’s law to determine the conduction heat transfer rate. That is,
𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 = (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠,2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑠,1

Note that A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer and, forthe plane wall, it is a
constant independent of x. The heat flux is then
𝑞𝑥 𝑘
𝑞′′𝑥 = = (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠,2 )
𝐴 𝐿 𝑠,1
The above equations indicate that both the heat rate 𝑞𝑥 and heat flux 𝑞′′𝑥 are constants, independent of
x.

Thermal Resistance
There exists an analogy between the diffusion of heat and electrical charge. Just as an electrical
resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal resistance may be associated with
the conduction of heat. Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate,
For electrical conduction, Ohm’s law provides anelectrical resistance of the form:
𝐸𝑠,1 − 𝐸𝑠,2 𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝐼 𝜎𝐴

Thus, the thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is can be defined as:
𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝐿
𝑅𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ≡ =
𝑞𝑥 𝑘𝐴
A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by convection at a surface. From
Newton’s lawof cooling,
𝑞 = ℎ𝑎(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
The thermal resistance for convection is then
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 1
𝑅𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ≡ =
𝑞 ℎ𝐴
Circuit representations provide a useful tool for both conceptualizing andquantifying heat transfer
problems. The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection surface conditions can be
shown as:
 The heat transferrate may be determined from separate consideration of each element in the network.
Since 𝑞𝑥 is constant throughout the network, it follows that

𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇∞,2 𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2

𝑞𝑥 = = = =
1/ℎ1 𝐴 𝐿/𝑘𝐴 1/ℎ2 𝐴 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

Where, (𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2) is the overall temperature difference, and Rtot is the total thermal resistance.
Because the conduction and convection resistances are in series and may besummed, it follows that
1 𝐿 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴
Radiation exchange between the surface and surroundings may also be importantif the convection heat
transfer coefficient is small (as it often is for natural convectionin a gas). With reference to the Equation
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑟 𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )

𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 1
thermalresistance for radiationmay be defined by: 𝑅𝑡,𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≡ =ℎ
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝐴
where, ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )(𝑇𝑠2 2
+ 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )

Surface radiation and convection resistances act in parallel, and if T = Tsur, they may be combined to
obtain a single, effective surface resistance.

The Composite Wall

Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex systems, such as composite walls. Such
walls may involve any number of series and parallel thermal resistances due to layers of different
materials. Consider the series composite wall shown in the following Figure.

The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system may be expressedas
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑞𝑥 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
where (𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4 )is the overall temperature difference and the summation includesall thermal
resistances. Hence
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑞𝑥 = 1 𝐿𝐴 𝐿 𝐿 1
[(ℎ 𝐴) + (𝑘 𝐴) + (𝑘 𝐵𝐴) + (𝑘 𝐶𝐴) + (ℎ 𝐴)]
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 4

Alternatively, the heat transfer rate can be related to the temperature difference andresistance associated
with each element. For example,
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇2 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑠,4 𝑇𝑠,4 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑞𝑥 = 1
= 𝐿
= 𝐿 = 𝐿
= 1
(ℎ 𝐴 ) (𝑘 𝐴𝐴) (𝑘 𝐵𝐴) (𝑘 𝐶𝐴) (ℎ 𝐴)
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 4

With composite systems it is often convenient to work with an overallheat transfer coefficient, U, which
is defined by an expression analogous to Newton’slaw of cooling. Accordingly,
𝑞𝑥 ≡ 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
where T is the overall temperature difference. The overall heat transfer coefficientis related to the total
thermal resistance such that UA = 1/Rtot.

Hence, for the composite wall shown in the Figure:

1 1
𝑈= = 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝐴 [( ) + ( 𝐴 ) + ( 𝐵 ) + (𝐿𝐶 ) + ( 1 )]
𝐿 𝐿
ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 ℎ4

∆𝑇 1
In general, 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑅𝑡 = = 𝑈𝐴
𝑞
When the resistances are in parallel connection, we can find an equivalent resistance as follows:

𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 1 1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇1 + 𝑄̇2 = + = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) ( + ) =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

1 1 −1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 =( + ) =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Composite walls may also be characterized by series–parallel configurations, such as that shown in the
following Figure. Although the heat flow is now multi-dimensional, it is often reasonable to assume
one-dimensional conditions.
 𝑇1 − 𝑇∞
𝑄̇ =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

𝑅1 𝑅2
Where, 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅12 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = + 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 1
And, 𝑅1 = 𝑘 ; 𝑅2 = 𝑘 ; 𝑅3 = 𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴
1 𝐴1 2 𝐴2 3 𝐴3 3

One-dimensional Heat Conduction through the Cylinder

A common example is the hollow cylinder, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed to fluids at
different temperatures. For steady-state conditions, with no heat generation,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
General equation: (𝑘𝑟 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟 2 𝜕∅ (𝑘 𝜕∅) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑘 𝜕𝑧 ) + 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝑟 𝜕𝑟

Assumptions:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
1. One-dimensional → = =0
𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
2. Steady state → =0
𝜕𝑡
3. No heat generation → 𝑞̇ = 0
4. Constant Properties → k is independent of r and T

Thus, the appropriate form of the heat equation,

1𝑑 𝑑𝑇
(𝑘𝑟 ) = 0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

where, for the moment, k is treated as a variable. The physical significance of thisresult becomes evident
if we also consider the appropriate form of Fourier’s law. The rate at which energy is conducted across
any cylindrical surface in the solid may be expressed as
 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
where A = 2rL is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. Since the Equation dictates that the
quantity kr(dT/dr) is independent of r, it follows from the second Equation that the conduction heat
transfer rate qr (not the heat flux q’’r) is a constant in the radial direction.

We may determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder by solving first Equation and applying
appropriate boundary conditions. Assuming the valueof k to be constant, the Equation may be integrated
twice to obtain the general solution
𝑑𝑇 𝐶 𝐶1
( )= =
𝑑𝑟 𝑘𝑟 𝑟
Integrating, we get, 𝑇(𝑟) = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝐶2

To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we introduce the following boundary conditions:
B. C. 1: At r = r1, T(r1) = Ts,1
B. C. 2: At r = r2 T(r2) = Ts,2.

Applying these conditions to the general solution, we then obtain

𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟1 + 𝐶2 and 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟2 + 𝐶2

Subtracting, 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟1 − 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟2

𝑇 −𝑇𝑠,2 𝑇 −𝑇𝑠,2
Thus, 𝐶1 = ln𝑠,1 and 𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑠.2 − ln𝑠,1 𝑙𝑛𝑟2
1 ⁄𝑟2 )
(𝑟 (𝑟1 ⁄𝑟2 )

Substituting for C1 and C2 into the general solution, we then obtain

𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝑟
𝑇(𝑟) = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) + 𝑇𝑠,2
ln(𝑟1 ⁄𝑟2 ) 𝑟2
Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction through a cylindrical wall is
logarithmic, not linear, as it is for the plane wall under the sameconditions. The logarithmic distribution
is sketched in the inset of the Figure. If the temperature distribution is now used with Fourier’s law,we
obtain the following expression for the heat transfer rate:
 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝐶1 𝑇 −𝑇𝑠,2 1
𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = ln𝑠,1 .
𝑟 (𝑟1 ⁄𝑟2 ) 𝑟

2𝜋𝐿𝑘(𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 )
𝑞𝑟 =
ln(𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 )

Note that since the value of qr is independent of r, the foregoing result could have been obtained by
using the alternative method, that is, by integrating heat conduction Equation.

Alternative method: Since qr is independent of r, we can write:

𝑟2 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞𝑟 𝑑𝑟
∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑇𝑠,1

𝑞𝑟
Which gives, ln(𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 ) = −(𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 ) = (𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 )
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of
the form
(𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 ) ln(𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 )
𝑅𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = =
𝑞𝑟 2𝜋𝐿𝑘

This resistance is shown in the series circuit of Figure 3.6.

Composite Cylinders
Consider now the composite system of cylinders. Recalling how we treated the composite plane wall
and neglecting the interfacial contact resistances, the heat transfer rate may be expressed as

𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑞𝑟 = 1 ln(𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 ) ln(𝑟3 ⁄𝑟2 ) ln(𝑟4 ⁄𝑟3 ) 1
+ + + + 2𝜋𝑟
2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿ℎ1 2𝜋𝑘𝐴 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘𝐶 𝐿 4 𝐿ℎ4

The foregoing result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient. That is,
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑞𝑟 = = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4 )
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
The overall coefficient, U, may is defined in terms of the inside area, A1 = 2r1L, or outside area A4 =
2r4L or any of the intermediate areas.
−1
𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝑈2 𝐴2 = 𝑈3 𝐴3 = 𝑈4 𝐴4 = (∑ 𝑅𝑡 )

Critical Thickness
Although the conduction resistance increases with the addition of insulation, the convection resistance
decreases due to increasing outer surface area. Hence there may exist an insulation thickness that
minimizes heat loss by maximizing the total resistance to heat transfer. Let us consider the following
system.
A thin-walled copper tube of radius ri is used to transport a low-temperature refrigerant and is at a
temperature Ti that is less than that of the ambient air at T around the tube. Is there an optimum
thickness associated with application of insulation to the tube?

Known: Radius ri and temperature Ti of a thin-walled copper tube to be insulated from the ambient air.

Find:
1. Whether there exists an optimum insulation thickness that minimizes the heat transfer rate.
2. Thermal resistance associated with using cellular glass insulation of varying thickness.

Schematic:
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional heat transfer in the radial (cylindrical) direction.
3. Negligible tube wall thermal resistance.
4. Constant properties for insulation.
5. Negligible radiation exchange between insulation outer surface and surroundings.
The resistance to heat transfer between the refrigerant and the air is dominated by conduction in the
insulation and convection in the air. The thermal circuit is therefore

where the conduction and convection resistances are per unit length. The total thermal resistance per
unit length of tube is then
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟 1
𝑖
𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡 = +
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝑇∞ −𝑇𝑖
where the rate of heat transfer per unit length of tube is 𝑞 ′ = 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡

An optimum insulation thickness would be associated with the value of r that minimized or maximized.
Such a value could be obtained from the requirement that
𝑑𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1
= − =0
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑟𝑘 2𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝑘
Which gives: 𝑟 = ℎ

To determine whether the foregoing result maximizes or minimizes the total resistance, the second
derivative must be evaluated. Hence
𝑑2 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1
= − +
𝑑𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑘 𝜋𝑟 3 ℎ
Or, at r = k/h,
𝑑2 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1 ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2
= − + = − + = >0
𝑑𝑟 2 2𝜋(𝑘⁄ℎ)2 𝑘 𝜋(𝑘⁄ℎ)3 ℎ 2𝜋𝑘 3 𝜋𝑘 3 2𝜋𝑘 3

Since this result is always positive, it follows that r = k/h is the insulation radius for which the total
resistance is a minimum, not a maximum. Hence an optimum insulation thickness does not exist.
From the above result it makes more sense to think in terms of a critical insulation Radius
𝑘
𝑟𝑐𝑟 =
ℎ

which maximizes heat transfer, that is, below which q increases with increasing r and above which q
decreases with increasing r.

Now, let us verify the above result by computing the total thermal resistance per unit length of tube for
a 10-mm-diameter tube having the following insulation thicknesses: 0, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mm. The
insulation is composed of cellular glass, and the outer surface convection coefficient is 5 W/m2.K. For
cellular glass k = 0.055 W/m.K.

With h = 5 W/m2.K and k = 0.055 W/m.K, the critical radius is rcr = 0.055/5 = 0.01 m

Hence rcr > ri and eat transfer will increase with the addition of insulation up to a thickness of
rcr – ri = 0.011 – 0.005 = 0.006 m.

The thermal resistances corresponding to the prescribed insulation thicknesses may be calculated and
are plotted as follows:
Comments:
1. Even for 20 mm of insulation, the total resistance is not as large as the value for no insulation.
2. When ri < rcr, as it is in this case, the total resistance decreases and the heat rate therefore increases
with the addition of insulation. This trend continues until the outer radius of the insulation
corresponds to the critical radius. The trend is desirable for electrical current flow through a wire,
since the addition of electrical insulation would aid in transferring heat dissipated in the wire to the
surroundings.
3. Conversely, if ri > rcr, any addition of insulation would increase the total resistance and therefore
decrease the heat loss. This behavior would be desirable for steam flow through a pipe, where
insulation is added to reduce heat loss to the surroundings.
4. For radial systems, the problem of reducing the total resistance through the application of insulation
exists only for small diameter wires or tubes and for small convection coefficients, such that rcr >
ri. For a typical insulation (k = 0.03 W/m.K) and free convection in air (h = 10 W/m2.K), rcr = (k/h)
= 0.003 m. Such a small value tells us that, normally, ri > rcr and we need not be concerned with the
effects of a critical radius.
5. The existence of a critical radius requires that the heat transfer area change in the direction of
transfer, as for radial conduction in a cylinder (or a sphere). In a plane wall the area perpendicular
to the direction of heat flow is constant and there is no critical insulation thickness (the total
resistance always increases with increasing insulation thickness).

One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Through Spheres

We consider a hollow sphere, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed to fluids at different
temperatures. For steady-state conditions, with no heat generation,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
General equation: (𝑘𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 (𝑘 𝜕∅) + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) + 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃
Assumptions:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
1. One-dimensional → = 𝜕𝜃 = 0
𝜕∅
𝜕𝑇
2. Steady state → =0
𝜕𝑡
3. No heat generation → 𝑞̇ = 0
4. Constant Properties → k is independent of r and T
Thus, the appropriate form of the heat equation,
1 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑇
(𝑘𝑟 )=0
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

where, for the moment, k is treated as a variable. The physical significance of this result becomes evident
if we also consider the appropriate form of Fourier’s law. The rate at which energy is conducted across
any spherical surface in the solid may be expressed as

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2
where A = 4r is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. Since the Equation dictates that the
quantity kr2(dT/dr) is independent of r, it follows from the second Equation that the conduction heat
transfer rate qr (not the heat flux q’’r) is a constant in the radial direction.

We may determine the temperature distribution in the sphere by solving first Equation and applying
appropriate boundary conditions. Assuming the value of k to be constant, the Equation may be integrated
twice to obtain the general solution
𝑑𝑇 𝐶 𝐶1
( )= 2= 2
𝑑𝑟 𝑘𝑟 𝑟
Integrating, we get, 𝑇(𝑟) = −𝐶1 /𝑟 + 𝐶2

To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we introduce the following boundary conditions:

B. C. 1: At r = r1, T(r1) = Ts,1

B. C. 2: At x = L T(r2) = Ts,2.

Applying these conditions to the general solution, we then obtain

𝑇𝑠,1 = −𝐶1 /𝑟1 + 𝐶2 and 𝑇𝑠,2 = −𝐶1 /𝑟2 + 𝐶2

1 1
Subtracting, 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 = −𝐶1 𝑟 − 𝑟
1 2

𝑇𝑠,1 −𝑇𝑠,2 𝐶 1 𝑇𝑠,1 −𝑇𝑠,2

Thus, 𝐶1 = 1 1 and 𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑠.2 + 𝑟1 = 𝑇𝑠.2 + 𝑟 ( 1 1 )
− 2 2 −
𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1

Substituting for C1 and C2 into the general solution, we then obtain

1 1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑇(𝑟) = ( − ) ( 1 1 ) + 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑟2 𝑟 −
𝑟2 𝑟1

If the temperature distribution is now used with Fourier’s law, we obtain the following expression for
the heat transfer rate:
 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝐶1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = −𝑘(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) 2 = 4𝜋𝑘 1 1
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 − 𝑟1 𝑟2
T(r) can also be written as:
1 1 𝑞𝑟 1 1 𝑞𝑟
𝑇(𝑟) = − ( − ) ( ) + 𝑇𝑠,2 = ( − ) ( ) + 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑟2 𝑟 4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 𝑟2 4𝜋𝑘

Alternative method:
Since qr is independent of r, we can write:
𝑞𝑟 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 𝑇𝑠,2
∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑇
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟 2 𝑇𝑠,1

𝑞𝑟 1 1
Which gives, ( − 𝑟 ) = −(𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 ) = (𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 )
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 1 2

From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of
the form
1 1
(𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 ) (𝑟 − 𝑟 )
𝑅𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = = 1 2
𝑞𝑟 4𝜋𝑘

Spherical composites may be treated in much the same way as composite walls and cylinders, where
appropriate forms of the total resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient may be determined.

Summary of One-Dimensional Conduction Results under steady-state with no generation

Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation

The Plane Wall

Consider the plane wall of Figure 3.9a, in which there is uniform energy generation per unit volume
(𝑞̇ is constant) and the surfaces are maintained at Ts,1 and Ts,2.

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
General equation: 𝜕𝑥 (𝑘 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑘 𝜕𝑦) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑘 𝜕𝑧 ) + 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡

Assumptions:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
1. One-dimensional → = =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
2. Steady state → =0
𝜕𝑡
3. Constant Properties → k is independent of x and T

𝑑 2 𝑇 𝑞̇
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘
𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
Integrating, = − 𝑥 + 𝐶1 and 𝑇= − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
𝑑𝑥 𝑘 2𝑘

where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration. For the prescribed boundary conditions,

T(at x = - L) = Ts,1 and T(at x = + L) = Ts,2

Using the boundary conditions

𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
𝑇𝑠,1 = − 𝐿2 − 𝐶1 𝐿 + 𝐶2 and 𝑇𝑠,2 = − 𝐿2 + 𝐶1 𝐿 + 𝐶2
2𝑘 2𝑘

𝑇𝑠,2 −𝑇𝑠,1 𝑞̇ 𝑇𝑠,2 +𝑇𝑠,1

Subtracting, 𝐶1 = and 𝐶2 = 𝐿2 +
2𝐿 2𝑘 2

Thus the temperature distribution is

𝑞̇ 𝐿2 𝑥2 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑥 𝑇𝑠,2 + 𝑇𝑠,1

𝑇(𝑥) = (1 − 2 ) + ( )+
2𝑘 𝐿 2 𝐿 2

The heat flux at any point in the wall may be determined by using the with Fourier’s law.
Note, however, that with generation the heat flux is no longer independent of x. So. We cannot draw
a thermal circuit in this case
Heat Flux and rate of heat transfer
𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑘
𝑞′′𝑥 = −𝑘 = −𝑘 (− 𝑥 + 𝐶1 ) = 𝑞̇ 𝑥 − (𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑘 2𝐿
Therefore,
𝑘
𝑞′′𝑥=−𝐿 = −𝑞̇ 𝐿 − (𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 )
2𝐿
𝑘
𝑞′′𝑥=𝐿 = 𝑞̇ 𝐿 − (𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 ) = 2𝑞̇ 𝐿 + 𝑞′′𝑥=−𝐿
2𝐿

Net heat transfer through the wall x = L,

𝑞𝑥=𝐿 = 𝐴(2𝑞̇ 𝐿 + 𝑞′′𝑥=−𝐿 ) = 2𝑞̇ 𝐿𝐴 + 𝑞𝑥=−𝐿

Thus, Heat transfer through the wall (at x = L) = Heat transfer through the wall (at x = - L)
+ the heat generated in the volume of the plane wall (2AL)

The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at a common temperature, Ts,1 =
Ts,2 = Ts. The temperature distribution is then symmetrical about the midplane (Figure b) and is given
by
𝑞̇ 𝐿2 𝑥2
𝑇(𝑥) = (1 − 2 ) + 𝑇𝑠
2𝑘 𝐿
The maximum temperature exists at the midplane
𝑞̇ 𝐿2
𝑇(0) = + 𝑇𝑠
2𝑘

It is important to note that at the plane of symmetry in Figure b, the temperature gradient is zero,
(dT/dx)(at x = 0) = 0. Accordingly, there is no heat transfer across this plane, and it may be represented
by the adiabatic surface shown in Figure c. One implication of this result is that the above Equation
also applies to plane walls that are perfectly insulated on one side (x = 0) and maintained at a fixed
temperature Ts on the other side (x = L).

Radial System with Heat Generation

Consider the long, solid cylinder shown in the following Figure, which could represent a current-
carrying wire or a fuel element in a nuclear reactor. For steady-state conditions, the rate at which heat
is generated within the cylinder must equal the rate at which heat is convected from the surface of the
cylinder to a moving fluid.
 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
General equation: (𝑘𝑟 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟 2 𝜕∅ (𝑘 𝜕∅) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑘 𝜕𝑧 ) + 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝑟 𝜕𝑟

Assumptions:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
1. One-dimensional → = =0
𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
2. Steady state → =0
𝜕𝑡
3. Constant Properties → k is independent of r and T

Thus, the appropriate form of the heat equation,

1𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇
(𝑟 ) + = 0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘

Separating variables and assuming uniform generation, this expression may be integrated to obtain

𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑟 𝐶1
(𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ) = − + 𝐶1 or, ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = − 2𝑘 +
2𝑘 𝑟

Repeating the procedure, the general solution for the temperature distribution becomes

𝑞̇ 𝑟 2
𝑇(𝑟) = − + 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝐶2
4𝑘

To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we apply the boundary conditions
𝑑𝑇
(𝑑𝑟 ) =0 and (𝑇)𝑟=𝑟𝑜 = 𝑇𝑠
𝑟=0

The first condition results from the symmetry of the situation. That is, for the solid cylinder the
centerline is a line of symmetry for the temperature distribution and the temperature gradient must be
zero. Recall that similar conditions existed at the midplane of a wall having symmetrical boundary
conditions. Using this condition in the following equation, we get, C1 = 0

𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑟 2
(𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ) = − + 𝐶1
2𝑘

Using the second boundary condition, we get

𝑞̇ 𝑟𝑜2
𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑠 +
4𝑘
The temperature distribution is therefore
𝑞̇ 𝑟𝑜2 𝑟2
(𝑟) = (1 − 2 ) + 𝑇𝑠
4𝑘 𝑟𝑜

Heat transfer from the outer surface:

𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑟𝑜
(𝑞)𝑟=𝑟𝑜 = −𝑘𝐴𝑜 ( ) = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝐿) (− ) = (𝜋𝑟𝑜2 𝐿)𝑞̇
𝑑𝑟 𝑟=𝑟𝑜 2𝑘
Thus, heat transfer rate from the outer surface = volume of the cylinder rate of heat generation per
unit volume.