Marconi Academy DWDM

Introduction to Dense
Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
1 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy
1
What is DWDM?
Basic Components
Propagation into the Fibre
Network Planning Principles
2
What is DWDM?
TX1
λ1 DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS
ON THE SAME FIBRE
TX2
λ2
TX3
λ3
TX4
λ4
λ
DENSE WAVELENGHT DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Multiple wavelengths are sent simultaneously along the fibre. The different
wavelengths are said to be mutliplexed together and applied to the fibre, but the
process is not a Time Division Multiplexing process, each wavelength is
continuously present on the fibre. The process is in effect Frequency Division
Multiplexing, the frequencies here are those of light.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) are the principle influences when defining
standards for the Telecomms industry, both work closely with the other bodies
shown above.
With the rate of development of the Telecomms industry accepted standards

usually lag behind industry practice by 2 to 3 years.
Typically an agreement is reached, giving equipment vendors initial guidance,
such agreements are often declared ‘stable’ and followed later will final
acceptance.
3
WDM Basics
Features :
different laser sources at different
wavelengths electrically modulated
each wavelength propagates inside
the fiber with its own mode
all channels are amplified at once by
Optical Amplifiers (EDFA).
λ1 λ1
1
λ2 λ2 1
2
λ3 λ3
2
3 3
NxB Gbit/s
N λN λN N
B Gbit/s each B Gbit/s each
4
WDM Channels Generation
• Different “colors” need to be

generated by nearly-
monochromatic optical sources.
• The signals can then be combined
or split by passive elements.
λ1
λ1 + λ 2
λ2 1:2
λ1 + λ 2 + λ 3 + λ 4
1:2
λ3
λ3 + λ4
λ4 1:2
5
Channel Spacing
The relationship between frequency bandwidth
and wavelength bandwidth is:
c ∂ν c
ν= =− 2
λ ∂λ λ
ITU G.692 recommendation defines a standard
grid equally spaced in frequency
∂ν = 100 GHz
with central frequency = 193.1 THz (1552.5 nm)

this corresponds to a wavelength bandwidth :
∂λ ≅ 0.8 nm
6
channel spacing
Self Phase Modulation causes spectral broadening
1 dB BW adiacent channel
Filters bandwidth
0
Thermal
and stability are
Fibre transmission [dB]
-10
variations the real limits in
channel spacing !
-20
25 dB BW 25GHz @ 2.5Gb/s
Cross-talk
-30
energy 50GHz @ 10Gb/s
-40 100 GHz @ 40Gb/s ?
∆λ⁄λ0
1-∆λ⁄λ 1 ∆λ⁄λ0
1+∆λ⁄λ
7
Optical Fibre Transmission Spectrum
Loss
Window #
1 2 5 3 4
C band L band
AllWave
850 1300 1530 1550 1565 nm

Wavelength
196.0 THz 195.0 194.0 193.0 192.0 191.0

ITU grid
0.1THz
(100GHz) 1530 nm 1540 1550 1560
Wavelength
channel
# 25 # 26 # 50 channel
spacing
#1 Blue band Red band
1THz = 1,000,000 MHz allocations
The effective limits of operation within the wavelength band shown are a
minimum of around 1250 nm, which is the limit for single mode, and a maximum
of around 1650 nm, after which loss from microbending becomes too severe.
Around 1400 nm the loss peak is caused by OH complexes; Lucent’s AllWave
fibre, released in June 98, removes this peak.
Within the 1550 nm band, channel spacing has decreased from 1.6 nm / 200 GHz
to 0.4 nm / 50 GHz in the most aggressive designs, but the bandwidth
requirements for 10 Gbit/s modulation mean that 0.8 nm / 100 GHz is emerging
as a more typical spacing for the latest systems.
Given this constraint, in order to squeeze in even more channels a wider band is
needed. Optical amplifiers appearing from 98 are able to exploit longer
wavelengths, to around 1600 nm, roughly doubling the fibre amplifier bandwidth.
8
Optical Amplifiers: Gain
EDFA Gain
Loss
Window #
1 2 5 3 4 L-band amp.
C band L band
850 1300 1530 1550 1565 nm

Wavelength
196.0 THz 195.0 194.0 193.0 192.0 191.0
1530 nm 1540 1550 1560
Wavelength channel allocations

1THz = 1,000,000 MHz
Problem:
There is a different gain on the different channels
Solution:
Pre-equalization on the Transmission side

Gain flattening filters embedded into the systam
9
Amplifier Noise and OSNR
The main source of noise is Amplified
Spontaneous Emission (ASE) produced
during amplification.
OSNR is the main parameter that identifies

the “quality” of the optical signal respect to
the noise generated in the transmission.
OSNRASE = Pchannel / ASE
Amplifiers noise definitely limits the link

distance before electrical regeneration.
10
11
OSNR Equalization
-18 dBm
TX POINT RX POINT
OSNR = 20 dB line
-38 dBm … to have equal

We tune each channel’ s
Tx Power here... OSNRs here.
Received Signal Spectrum
The Optical Signal to Noise Ratio (OSNR) is the ratio between the Signal and
Noise power in a small range around the signal nominal wavelength. It is
calculated automatically by test equipment called DWDM Testers or the Signal
Quality Monitor card (where available).
If a channel, at the receive point, has an OSNR lower than a threshold, it can
experience a too high Bit Error Rate. This is because, at that point, the Noise is
too strong compared to the Signal.
Power setting in a DWDM link with many channels is a very important issue.
Because of non ideal flatness of the amplifiers’ gain profile and of the uniformity
parameters of MUX/DEMUX filters, the optical channels, once they have been
demultiplexed, can appear greatly not equalised, both regarding power and
OSNR. This implies that some of them can be detected with a good BER while
other channels have an OSNR so low to be worse detected or not revealed at all.
To overcome all these difficulties an equalisation of the received OSNRs has
necessary to be made adjusting the cannel launch powers (equalisation
procedure).
Furthermore, the number of channels equipped on the link can increase or
decrease in time, both for upgrading reasons or for periodic changing of traffic
matrix. In this case, the output optical power of amplifiers have to be adjusted
according to the actual number of fitted channels, in order to guarantee that the
‘per channel’ power into fibre doesn’t overcome a reference threshold. Finally,
another difficulty is the span ageing, which can change the power levels and the
equilibrium within the system.
12
Amplifier Gain Tilt and Gain Variation
Gain variation (GV) = max gain diff. between chs.
Gain tilt = ∂(GV) / ∂Pin
G
GV
Pin
C - band λ [nm]
C - band GV
~ 6 dB no filter
~ 0.7 dB Gain Flatting Filter GVmin
(the GFF is optimised for a Pin)
Pin [dB]
13
Amplifier Gain Tilt and Gain Variation
Gain variation (gain tilt) is the second

limiting factor in DWDM multi-span links
n. of spans >≈ 5
n. of chs. (100 GHz) > 32 (C-band)
Solutions to avoid channels unequalisation

may limit channels OSNR and thus the link
achievable distance.
Gain Flattening Filters (GFF)
(Variable) Optical Attenuators
14
Basics of DWDM networks
TX1
TX4 OLA
OXC
OTM
OADM
Receivers
RX1
TX4
The basic Network Elements are:

Optical Terminal Multiplexer (OTM) which interfaces the Client side (SDH,
PDH, Ethernet, IP…) to the DWDM side;
Optical Line Amplifier (OLA) which amplifies the transmitted signals without
electrical regeneration;
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers (OADM) that add more connectivity along a
route. They can be fixed or remotely configurable;
Optical Cross-Connect (OXC) which provides a true fully configurable optical
add drop multiplexer.
The first generation of WDM products provided point-point connectivity. The
addition of ring operation will provide flexible protection and reduced costs for
the connection of multiple nodes.
The addition of truly flexible switching in OADM will give operators the ability
to set up virtual networks in which connectivity is not defined just by the
physical topology of the network, e.g. a physical ring can be configured as a
logical mesh.
Mesh networks are expected to grow from the interconnection of ring networks.
They will build on the network design and management skills from the creation
of SDH networks.
15
OTM Basic Components
OTM
Grey TR C C BA
DWDM
line
F
Coloured IC F S PA
CLIENT Side F
This is a generic OTM block diagram.

The client units can be:
• Grey: its laser do not emit at a fixed frequency but in a certain range (II, III
windows);
• Coloured: if they guarantee that their laser emits at a fixed frequency (193.5
THz…).
Multiplexing (from Client side to DWDM line):
Before accessing to the DWDM line, all the channels must be coloured (with
different colours). Therefore the grey clients are coloured by the transponders
(TR) while the coloured clients are simply interfaced by Interconnect Cards (IC)
or connected by optical patch cords.
Then the couplers (C) join together the different waves into a single fibre. Before
accessing the line the Boosters (BA) perform the optical amplification.
De- Multiplexing (from DWDM line to Client side):
Preamplifiers (PA) receive the attenuated channels and amplify them. Splitters
(S) split the channels to different directions and the Pass-Band Filters (F) extract
each channel that it is sent to the IC or the TR. The TRs adapt the signal to the
grey client reception.
16
OLA Basic Components
OLA 2S
PA BA
DWDM DWDM
West Line East Line
BA PA OLA 1S
PA
DWDM DWDM
West Line East Line
2S 1S PA
OTM 2S 1/2S 1S OTM
Long Spans Short Spans

This is a generic OLA block Diagram.

There are three different type of OLA:
Double Stage (2S) to provide a high amplification (long spans);

Single Stage (1S) to provide a medium amplification with low noise figure (short
spans);
Mixed (1/2S) in case there is a short span on one side and a long span on the
other side. This OLA is 1S in one direction (to the short span) and 2S to the
opposite one.
OLA 2S:
From one of the two line sides the Preamplifier (PA) receives the channels. They
are so pre-amplified and transmitted to the Booster (BA) which amplifies them
before transmits them to the line on the opposite side.
OLA 1S :
From one of the two line sides the Preamplifier (PA) receives the channels. They
are so pre-amplified and transmitted to the line on the opposite side.
17
F-OADM Basic Components
F-OADM
PA F C BA
BA C F PA
DWDM DWDM
West Line East Line
Grey TR
This is a generic F-OADM (Fixed Optical Add Drop Multiplexer) block diagram.
From one of the two line sides the Preamplifier (PA) receives the channels that
are pre-amplified.
The passing through channels are sent to the Booster (BA) which amplifies them
before transmits them to the line on the opposite side.
The Add/Drop channels are extracted by the Filters (F) and inserted by the
Coupler (C).
Tranpondes (TR) interface the Add/Drop channels towards the Grey Client Units.
For the Clients already coloured it is possible to use the Interconnect Cards (IC).
18
Optical Cross-Connect
IP
SDH
ATM
PDH
SDH
SDH
PDH
IP
ATM
IP
Introduction to micro-optical devices made of mirrors and wave-length selectors

with the last technical improvements make possible fully configurable Optical
cross-Connects design.
19
Optical Supervisory Channel
OOB @ 1510nm
INB @ 1532nm
The Data Communication Channels (DCC) allow the exchange of messages

between the Network Management Center (NMC) and each remote piece of
equipment (Network Element or NE).
Different media carry these DCC: Data Communication Networks (DCN)
(TCP/IP protocol) from NMC to remote Routers, Local Area Networks (Ethernet
protocol) from Routers to the Q I/F of “Gateway” DWDM NEs and the Optical
Supervisory Channel on the Line (LAP-D protocol) between DWDM NEs.
There are OSC with different bit rates and wavelengths. The new system have
OSC at 1510nm (Out Of Band) with a 2Mbit/s bit rate.
20
Optical Safety
It is necessary that any personnel working on the system hardware follow the
warning and cautions dictated by the organization in charge of the installation,
commissioning and/or operation of the equipment.
In particular when the equipment is provided with Optical Safety labels or when
optical interfaces are used (as described in the documentation supplied with the
equipment).
21
What is DWDM?
Basic Components
22
Basics components: Lasers
L=λ=x (x is an integer not great)

λ
2n
Output
n Power
L
λ
Fabry-Perot
Distributed Feedback
Periodic variations of RI
n1
Bragg Formula
λ==2neff Λ
n2
First order Bragg grating with Λ=period.
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

These are the devices used to create the optical channels.
The Fabry-Perot are the old used lasers for the “Grey” optical units. These units
emit at an unspecified wavelength in a wide range (2nd or 3rd window).
The new Distributed Feedback lasers (DFB) guarantee the emission of waves at a
specified wavelength with a small drift. Those are the lasers used for “Colored”
optical units.
23
Basics components: Modulators
Electrical contact
Metal Strips
0 : Destructive Interference
1 : Constructive Interference
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Active Region Absorption Region
Mirror
Isolation Barrier
Electro-Absorption
These devices are used for performing the Amplitude Modulation in the optical
transmission. They are installed between lasers and fibre connectors and are used
for the wave modulation (generation of logical 1s and 0s).
If Lasers emit a continuos wave, it will have better performances.
24
Basics components: Couplers
Gap
Coupling length
Coupling length Planar Technology

Waveguides at higher RI Y-Coupler (Splitter)
Easy and effective. Cost is added in connecting them to fibres.

Fusion Technology
Single mode fibres in contact
Waist
Fused Taper
Very common commercial devices.
Couplers can combine or split light on power basis.

Power from the electromagnetic field in one core causes a resonance in the other
and thus
the power builds up and transfers.
Parameters: Return & Insertion Loss, Directivity.
They are used for multiplexing different wavelengths: they actually perform the
Wavelength Division Multiplexing!
25
Basics components: EDFA
Leakage Tap +Isolator Leakage

Light to input to output
input Erbium doped section Light
output
ASE noise
Pump
Laser Feedback Filter & Detector
power control
Problem:
Gain •different DWDM channels receive different gains.
Solutions:
•channels equalization at the transmitter side;
1540 1550 1560 Wavelength (nm) •special gain-flattening filters in the system.
Output
20
Power (dBm) Boosters
10 region
Boosters and 0
-10
Preamplifiers
region
Preamplifiers -20 Input Power (dBm)

-20 -10 0 10
They are the basic components of the Amplifier units.

When they are fitted into Booster Units, the Laser Pumps are at 1480nm and
980nm: this causes amplification with high saturation power.
When they are fitted into Preamplifier Units, the Laser Pumps are at 980nm: this
causes amplification with low noise figures.
26
Example of OA architecture (EDFA)
Single stage EDFA
Isolator Isolator
Erbium Doped
Silica Fibre
Pump
Laser
Double stage EDFA

Isolator Isolator Isolator Isolator
Erbium Doped Erbium Doped

Silica Fibre Silica Fibre
InterStage Pump
Pump
Laser Access Laser
Marconi Academy
27
Basics components: Filters
Gain 0.5dB
25dB
Wavelength Interferometer
Lens Lens
Material with 2 different RI
λ1, λ2, ... λ16
λn λ1, λ2, ... λ16 - λn
Mach-
Mach-Zehnder Planar Device
λ1, λ2, ... λ16 Grating λ1, λ2, ... λ16 - λn
λn Grating
Used to extract one wavelength in a group of 16, 40,160...

They perform the Wavelength Division de-Multiplexing!
The most important characteristics of filters are:
•Insertion and Return Loss
•Maximum Bandwidth @ 0.5dB
•Maximum Bandwidth @ 25dB
28
Basics components: Receivers
Anti reflection coating
SiO2 SiO2
p-Si
3V
- The wide intrinsic layer increase chances of an
i-Si (lightly n doped)
+ entering photon being absorbed.
n-Si
Positive Intrinsic Negative diodes

Anti reflection
coating Electric Field
Strength
SiO2 n-Si SiO2
+
p-Si Avalanche region
Avalanche
50-200 V
- π-Si
(lightly p doped)
Depletion Region
Photodiodes
p-Si
APDs provide high sensitivity.
They perform the Optical-Electrical conversion.
29
What is DWDM?
Basic Components
30
Optical fibre
Protective coating
~2.5mm
Secondary coating
~1mm
Possible air
Primary coating
Cladding SiO2
~125µm
Core SiO2 + Doping (GeO2)

S.M.~7 to10µm
M.M.~50µm
How the fiber is composed. The role of the CORE where light is confined when
propagating.
The confinement is due to the refractive index difference between Core and
Cladding, which is actually very small (Core ~1.457, cladding ~1.454).
Both regions are made of Silica, but the presence of some rare-earth doping (Ge,
P) in the Core, increases its refractive index.
When light is coupled into the fiber, the energy distributes mainly in the Core
region but some light spreads over the border into the Cladding, giving rise to
the, so called, Evanescent Field. The highest is the refractive index difference,
the slightest is the Evanescent Field.
31
Attenuation of Fibre (1 of 2)
Light needs to spend energy to propagate
The attenuation of a section of fibre can be

easily expressed by an exponential decay
relation:
Pout = Pine − α L
Pout
α
z
Pin
L
α attenuation constant
L length of the fibre
Pin / Pout optical input/output power
32
Attenuation of Fibre (2 of 2)
The attenuation constant α is usually given in
dB/Km
æP ö
α dB = −10 log10 ç out
è Pin
The relation between α and αdB
α dB = α ⋅ 10 log10 e ≈ 4.343 ⋅ α
Material dispersion is one

of the causes of power
attenuation of a fiber
33
Attenuation Loss
Window Band [nm] α [dB/km]

I ÷950
800÷ 2
Attenuation II 1280 ÷ 1350 0.5
[dB/km] III 1510 ÷ 1600 0.2
10
I
Ra
io n
yle
1 ig
t
hS
rp
c at II
so
t er
III
Ab
Ultr ing
av
d
i ol e
re
t Ab
f ra
0.1 sorp
t i on
In
Fibre impurities
850 1300 1550 λ=[nm]
The main mechanisms of loss in a fibre are

Material absorption
Rayleigh scattering
Material absorption due to the silica (intrinsic) is negligible in the 800÷1600 µm
band used for optical transmission.
Material absorption due to the impurities (extrinsic) and Rayleigh scattering
(microscopic fluctuations of silica density and therefore of refractive index) are
the most relevant phenomena.
The former generates three peaks (at 950, 1240, 1350 nm) of attenuation, while
the latter decreases with wavelength as λ4
34
Linear effects on propagation
Chromatic dispersion (or group velocity

dispersion GVD)
Polarisation Mode dispersion (PMD)

(Polarisation dependent Loss and Gain PDL & PDG)
35
Chromatic Dispersion (1 of 2)
Chromatic dispersion is the phenomenon by
which different spectral components of a
pulse travel at different velocities into the
fibre.
This causes a temporal broadening of the

transmitted pulse.
If this broadening was comparable with bit period T, it would cause the inter-
symbolic interference (ISI).
Chromatic dispersion is due to:

the dependence of the refractive index of the fibre on wavelength
(material dispersion)
λ)
n = n(λ
the distribution of signal power between core and cladding changes
with wavelength (waveguide dispersion) and therefore the effective
refractive index changes.
36
Chromatic dispersion (2 of 2)
Laser line width
Frequency THz
196.0 195.5 195.0 194.5 194.0 193.5 193.0 192.5 192.0 191.5 191.0
1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 1560 1565

Wavelength nm
Single-
Single-
wavelength Received pulses
transmitted spreads in time
pulses
The energy of a narrow pulse is spread out over a larger time

interval → Inter Symbolic Interference (ISI)
37
Chromatic dispersion (4 of 4)
Chromatic dispersion is due to:

the dependence of the refractive index on
wavelength (material dispersion)
n = n(λ)
the distribution of the energy between core and
cladding depends on the “mode” (waveguide
dispersion).
The differential delay of spectral components

can be evaluated by means the dispersion
coefficient of the fibre.
D [ps/(nm km)]
38
Single-Mode Fibres
Three kinds of single-mode fibre have been

developed with different dispersion profiles.
In chronological order:
Standard Single-mode Fibre (SMF): designed to
provide zero dispersion at 1310 nm to support
early long-haul transmission (ITU G.652-G.654)
Dispersion-shifted Fibre (DSF): designed to
provide zero dispersion at 1550 nm (ITU G.653)
Non-zero Dispersion-shifted Fibre (NZDSF):
designed to provide small dispersion at 1550 nm
in order to reduce non-linear effects on WDM
systems (ITU G.655)
39
ITU-T Standards for Fibres
G. 652 (standard type)

•~17 ps/nm/km chromatic dispersion in the 3rd window;
• of common use.
G. 653 (dispersion shifted)
•~0 ps/nm/km chromatic dispersion in the 3rd window;
• emphasizing of the 4-Wave Mixing non-linear effect.
G. 655 (non-
(non-zero dispersion shifted or WDM optimized)
•~4 ps/nm/km dispersion;

•avoiding the 4-Wave Mixing effect;
•very expensive.
40
Optical Fibre Dispersion
D
[ps/(nm km)]
20 SMF
18 G.652
16
6
4
SF
NZ D
5 DSF
2 G.65
3
G.65
0
1530 1540 1550 1560 λ [nm]
-2 EDFA
PASSBAND
41
Limits of Chromatic Dispersion
1000
1000
900 2.5
2.5 Gb/s
Gb/s
900
800
800 10 Gb/s
10 Gb/s
[km]
Distances [km]
700
700 40
40 Gb/s
Gb/s
600
600
G.652
G.652
Distances
500
500
400
400
300
300 G.655
G.655
200
200
100
100
00
22 44 66 88 10
10 15
15 17
17 20
20
Dispersion coefficient [ps/(nm
Dispersion coefficient [ps/(nm km)]
km)]
42
Dispersion Compensation
DCF = Dispersion Compensating Fibre

(with negative dispersion coefficient)
D ≅ -85 [ps/(nm km)]
100 km G.652 DCF-
DCF-100 (20 km)
TX
D = 17 D = -85
Double stage Amplifier
DCF modules are usually expressed in equivalent

length of SMF - G.652.
In PLX DCF-120 module compensates 120 km of SMF
43
Dispersion Compensation Fibre
D
[ps/(nm km)]
20 SMF - G.652
18
16 2nd order CD
often cannot be
2 compensated
SMF + DCF
0
1530 1540 1550 1560 λ [nm]
-2
-75
-85 DCF
-95
C - BAND
44
Dispersion Compensation Fibre
Cladding
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 5
Layer 6
Core
DCF core
index profile
Results:
Mean total dispersion can be compensated
Span per span compensation for minimising non-
linear effects
Drawbacks:
high attenuation than additional amplifier required
DCF is expensive
Many channels → 2nd order residual dispersion
45
Light Polarisation
Wave Electrical
Vertical x field
Polarisation (Vector sum of
Mode Polarisation Modes)
x z
z
Propagation axis
Horizontal
y Polarisation Mode
z
y
In a homogenous medium, the two polarisation
modes have the same propagation constant β .
Ideally they don’t give rise to any spreading of
the pulse.
A time varying electromagnetic field is said linearly polarised if its direction is

constant independent of time.
If there is no component along the direction of propagation, it is said to be
transverse.
This is verified in a single-mode fibre, where the fundamental mode has only
small electromagnetic component along the propagation direction (z axis).
The two solutions of wave equations are orthogonally polarised along x and y
direction and are called Polarisation Modes
In practice, geometrical imperfections in the fibre circular symmetry,

anisotropicity of the media and external perturbations, bring the two polarisation
modes to have different propagation constants.
βx ≠ βy
Two signals with different speed are propagated along the fibre.
This is the cause of polarisation mode dispersion (PMD) which will be
discussed further.
46
Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD)
x Polarised Optical
Signal
Ideal situation
z
Propagation
axis
y
x
“Faster”
PSP ”Dispersed”
Optical Signal
Real situation
z
Differential group
delay (DGD)
y “Slower” PSP
The chromatic dispersion is caused by fiber Refractive Index variations with the
wavelength.
Light can exist in two orthogonal polarization vectors: fibre exhibits a
different RI to the different polarization. This causes the Polarization Mode
Dispersion.
47
PMD coefficient
DGD is a time-variant
Probability
density
random variable. Its
distribution can be assumed
to be maxwellian.
DGD
<DGD> 3<DGD>
A PMD coefficient in a fibre can be defined as the

mean value of DGD per square root of fibre length.
PMD coefficient = <DGD> / L1/2
NOMINAL TYPICAL Main source
G.652 0.5 0.02-0.5 external stresses
internal stresses;
G.653 0.5 0.3-1.0 elliptical core
G.655 0.5 < 0.2 internal stresses
elliptical core;
DCF 0.5 0.2-0.5 internal stresses
48
Limits of Polarisation Mode Dispersion
1000
1000
900 2.5
2.5 Gb/s
Gb/s
900
800
800 10
10 Gb/s
Gb/s
[km]
Distances [km]
Standard
700 40
40 Gb/s
ITU Standard
700 Gb/s
600
600
Distances
500
500
400
400
ITU
300
300
200
200
100
100
00
0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.5
0.5 11 1.5
1.5 22 2.5
2.5 33
1/2
1/2
PMD
PMD coefficient [ps/km ]]
coefficient [ps/km
49
Non Linear effects on propagation
In amplified optical systems with high power density in
the fibre non-linear effects become relevant.
Kerr effect
Dependence of refractive index from field intensity.
Signals experience distortion and cross-talk.
Self Phase Modulation (SPM)SPM)
Cross Phase Modulation (XPM) XPM)
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
FWM)
Stimulated Scattering:
Photons interact with the medium and new photons with
lower energy (and thus lower frequencies) are emitted.
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
SBS)
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
SRS)
50
Self-Phase Modulation
For a given λ, a different power distribution of the
mode results in a different speed of the pulse.
(Different parts of the lightwave experience a different neff)
D < 0 pulse broadening (SPM and CD add)
D > 0 pulse compression (SPM can compensate chromatic
dispersion)
Usual case D>0 → Pulse compression
P peak
red shift blue shift
leading edge trailing edge

dP/dt<0 dP/dt >0
51
Self-Phase Modulation
1540
λ
wavelength time time wavelength
Spectral bandwidth increases during propagation

SPM with Chromatic Dispersion may cause a
broadening/narrowing of the pulse
52
Multiwavelength systems
Multi-
Multi-
wavelength Received pulses
transmitted are shifted in time
pulses
Single Mode Fiber
Multi-
Multi-
wavelength
Received pulse
transmitted
match in phase
pulses
Dispersion Shifted Fiber
In phase matching condition, energy is exchanged between modes

and some non-linear effects (XPM, FWM) are strongly enhanced
53
Cross-Phase Modulation
Physically equivalent to the SPM. The effective index
of one wavelength depends on the total power of the
aggregate stream.
Power fluctuations in one channel give rise to cross-

talk into other channels
DCF modules help minimising XPM effects
54
Four-Wave Mixing (1 of 2)
FWM is analogous to intermodulation distortion
in electrical systems
New frequencies (i j k) are generated by any
combination of 3 frequencies
fijk = fi + f j − fk k ≠ i,j
f123,213 f132,312 f231,321

f113 f112 f223 f221 f332 f331
f1 f2 f3 Frequency
Cause: This is a nonlinearity which is analogous to intermodulation distortion in

electrical systems.
Effect: When 3 waves fi , fj and fk (k,i,j different) interact in a fiber, they generate
an unexpected wave :
fijk = fi + fj - fk .
Thus, for N channels, the number of mixing products generated is :
M= 1 . (N3-N2)
2
Solution: Unequal spacing in the frequency domain and chromatic dispersion.
55
Four-Wave Mixing (2 of 2)
It is impossible to avoid all FWM products when
N > 10 channels are present
G.652 and G.655 are practically slightly

affected by FWM
FWM is the major issue for DSF fibre G.653

with zero dispersion in the band of use
G.653 D≅0 λ=≅ 1550 nm
56
Unequal Channel Spacing (ITU-T G692)
“triplets” channel allocation (100 GHz grid)
avoids the FWM products due to the nearest
channels. This means that can be allocated :
8 channels need 34 slots
10 channels 56 slots
12 channels much more than 72 slots

192.6
192.7
192.8
192.9
193.0
193.1
193.2
193.3
193.4
193.5
193.6
193.7
193.8
193.9
194.0
192.5
EDFA Red band

57
Stimulated scattering
Photons interact with molecular oscillations of the

medium and new photons with lower energy (and
thus lower frequencies) are emitted. The emission
can propagate in the same direction (Stoke’s wave)
or in the opposite one (anti-Stoke’s wave)
The energy difference is dissipated in the form of a
phonon
incident light phonon

E1 f1f2>>f2f1
E2
Anti-Stoke’s wave scattered light

(Stoke’s wave)
58
Scattering Phenomena
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering

Cause: interaction between optical and acoustical signal. Sound
waves in glass cause a variation in the index of refraction
corresponding to the density variations of the wave.
Effect: Light can be diffracted in a backward direction by these index
gratings if the Bragg condition is met.
Solution: signal spectrum widening by frequency modulator.
Stimulated Raman Scattering
Cause: interaction between optical signal and silica molecules.

Effect: transferring power from shorter to longer wavelength signals (and
vice-versa).
Solution: less power and more densely packed in frequency signals.
59
SBS Suppression
Since the interaction bandwidth is very small,
BSBS = 20 MHz @1500nm ~ 0.16 nm
there is no WDM channel coupling. The only relevant effect can

be depletion of the single channel.
Suppressed by broadening the source linewidth:

Dithering of the laser source frequency (200 MHz).
Approach commonly used in high bit rate systems
transmitting at high power.
60
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
SRS effect is not relevant in systems with few
channels
Serious penalties can occur in Dense WDM systems,
where powers at shorter wavelengths are
transferred at longer wavelengths.
λ1 λ 2 λ3 λn λ1 λ 2 λ3 λn
61
Raman amplification
Raman Scattering affects signal propagation

but it may be used for light AMPLIFICATION!
a Raman Pump emitting a high intensity

counter-propagating lightwave is placed at
the end of a span
the fibre itself is used as gain medium
an effective gain of more than 10 dB can be
achieved increasing span length (~ 40 km)
62
Raman Amplification
TX RX
1550 nm 1450 nm
RAMAN
PUMP
SIGNAL
POWER
RAMAN
POWER
RAMAN
TRANFER
AMPLIFIED
SIGNAL
63
What is DWDM?
Basic Components
64
Network Design system parameters
Amplification Attenuation
FEC TX
(optional)
ASE Propagation
impairments
Optical Receiver Electrical Receiver

p-i-n
FEC
(optional)
E(t) I(t) sampling threshold
OSNR Q BER
factor
“Improved” BER
65
OOB & IB FEC performances
Bit rate 10 Gb/s

IB FEC ≡ proprietary MARCONI FEC
OOB FEC ≡ ITU- T G.975 (10.67 Gb/s)
Error distribution is not modified by
concatenating OOB + IB FEC
Longer distances can be achieved before
regeneration
Target BER = 10-15 can be achieved with lower
Input BER
In p u t B E R
IB F E C 1 0 -9 Target BER
OOB FEC 1 0 -4 10-15
IB + O O B F E C 1 0 -3 .4
66
OOB & IB FEC BER improvement
40
38
36 No FEC
34 IB FEC
32
OOB FEC G.975
30
Output BER (-Log BER)
28 OOB FEC + IB FEC

26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Input BER (-Log BER)
67
ITU-T G709 & G957 FEC
Based on the Reed-Solomon algorithm
This FEC is a consolidated standard for

submarine systems. Its implementation in
terrestrial OTN is fully defined by ITU-T G709.
Small amount of Bit rate increase (10.67 Gb/s)
Ready-solutions for hardware implementation

and available components suitable for such a
rate. Single chip feasibility.
Intrinsic capability to correct burst errors
Other kind of FECs ? (Turbo FEC)
68
Frames: SDH and Digital Wrapper
270 × N columns (bytes)
9×N 261 × N
1
Section overhead
SOH
3
4 Administrative unit pointer(s)
STM-N payload
9 rows ITU-T G707
5
Section overhead
SOH
9
T1518000-95
Column
Row 1 14 1516 17 3824
1
O
PM and TCMi (i=1..6

Overhead
DU
OPUk
2
k
OPUk Payload 1 2
O
ve
(4 x 3808 bytes)
3 TTI BIP-8
rh
ea
d
4
0 1 2 3
1
BIP8 Parity Block 2 BEI
For Further Study

Column #
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
ITU-T G709
1 FAS MFAS FRA OTUk overhead
TCM OPUk OP
RES TCM
Row#
2 MS PM TCM1 TCM2 FTFL overhead

TOS ACT 15
3 TCM3 TCM4 TCM5 TCM6 MaS 1
62
63
4 GCC1 GCC2 APS/PCC RES 2 M
s
3
FAS: Frame Alignment Signal RES: Reserved for future international standardisation TTI: Trail Trace Identifier
MFAS: MultiFrame Alignment Signal ACT: Activation/deactivation control channel BIP8: Bit Interleaved Parity - level 8
FRA: Fast ReAlign
4 PT
FTFL: Fault Type & Fault Location reporting channel BEI: Backward Error Indication
MS: Maintenance Signal MaS: Manufacturer Specific BDI: Backward Defect Indication
PM: Path Monitoring GCC: General Communication Channel PT: Payload Type
TCM: Tandem Connection Monitoring APS: Automatic Protection Swiching coordination channel
TOS: Top Of Stack PCC: Protection Communication Control channel
69
Main issues for WDM systems
The feasibility of a single channel link is evaluated
taking into account few parameters:
Attenuation
OSNR requirements (amplified system)
Chromatic dispersion
In WDM systems, respect to a single channel link,

other effects must be taken into account.
Non linear effects (not negligible when increasing
number of spans) and among them Cross-talk effects
2nd order Chromatic Dispersion
Amplifier gain tilt and gain variation
70
Example of Optical Budget
This slide shows an example of Standard Application for DWDM links.

It can give qualitative ideas of the DWDM links capability in terms of
bandwidth, length, number of amplifiers stages…
Examples:
Q: If we want to transmit 40 STM-16s on a 150 km link of G.652 fiber. How

many amplifier stages will be necessary?
A: The colored channels are in the third window. In that range, the average
attenuation of the G.652 fiber is roughly 0,25 dB/km (considering cable loss,
splice loss, cable margin…). Then, the total attenuation is:
0,25 [dB/km] x 150 [km] = 37,5 dB < 39 dB ==> No OLAs are needed!
Q:In the previous example, how long is the longest link and how many OLAs
does it need?
A: 1 span x 39 dB = 39 dB; 2 spans x 36 dB = 72 dB; 3 spans x 34 dB = 102 dB;
4 spans x 32,5 dB = 130 dB; 5 spans x 31 dB = 155 dB; 6 spans x 29,5 dB = 177
dB; 7 spans x 27,5 dB = 192,5 dB; 8 spans x 25 dB = 200 dB. Then, the max.
length is 200 [dB] / 0,25 [dB/km] = 800 km and 7 OLAs are needed!
71
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Introduction to Dense

1 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

Propagation into the Fibre

Network Planning Principles

2 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

DENSE WAVELENGHT DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

With the rate of development of the Telecomms industry accepted standards

B Gbit/s each B Gbit/s each

4 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

• Different “colors” need to be

5 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

with central frequency = 193.1 THz (1552.5 nm)

6 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

Self Phase Modulation causes spectral broadening

7 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

850 1300 1530 1550 1565 nm

196.0 THz 195.0 194.0 193.0 192.0 191.0

8 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

850 1300 1530 1550 1565 nm

196.0 THz 195.0 194.0 193.0 192.0 191.0

1530 nm 1540 1550 1560

Wavelength channel allocations

9 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

Pre-equalization on the Transmission side

OSNR is the main parameter that identifies

OSNRASE = Pchannel / ASE

Amplifiers noise definitely limits the link

10 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

-38 dBm … to have equal

Received Signal Spectrum

12 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

13 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

Gain variation (gain tilt) is the second

Solutions to avoid channels unequalisation

14 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

15 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

The basic Network Elements are:

16 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

This is a generic OTM block diagram.

Long Spans Short Spans

This is a generic OLA block Diagram.

Double Stage (2S) to provide a high amplification (long spans);

18 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

19 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

Introduction to micro-optical devices made of mirrors and wave-length selectors

20 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

The Data Communication Channels (DCC) allow the exchange of messages

21 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

Propagation into the Fibre

Network Planning Principles

22 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

L=λ=x (x is an integer not great)

23 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Active Region Absorption Region

Coupling length Planar Technology

Easy and effective. Cost is added in connecting them to fibres.

Couplers can combine or split light on power basis.

Leakage Tap +Isolator Leakage

Preamplifiers -20 Input Power (dBm)

26 Coi-wl000026-e-A Marconi Academy

They are the basic components of the Amplifier units.

Double stage EDFA